CH-1-3 Understanding Sociology – Sociology in Modules : Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 1 to 3 Chapter 1 Understanding Sociology ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Why would poverty be of interest to sociologists and perhaps not to psychologists? Answer: Interest in Poverty: Poverty is of great interest to sociologists because it is a social condition that reflects and affects the structure of society. Sociologists investigate how social institutions, such as education and the economy, contribute to poverty and how it impacts communities and social stratification. They analyze patterns, structures, and systemic inequalities that perpetuate poverty. Psychologists, however, may not focus on poverty as much because their primary interest lies in individual mental processes and behaviors, rather than broader social structures. 2. How might a sociologist approach the issue of domestic violence, drug addiction, or depression differently from a psychologist? Answer: Approach Differences: A sociologist would examine domestic violence, drug addiction, or depression by looking at the social contexts, institutional roles, and societal norms that influence these issues. For instance, they might study how socio-economic status, gender roles, and social policies contribute to domestic violence or addiction rates. In contrast, psychologists would approach these issues by focusing on individual mental health, coping mechanisms, and therapeutic interventions. They might analyze personal histories, psychological traits, and treatment strategies rather than broader social factors. 3. What did C. Wright Mills mean by the “sociological imagination?” How could it be applied to, for example, watching people running in a marathon? Answer: Sociological Imagination: C. Wright Mills' concept of the "sociological imagination" involves understanding personal experiences as part of a larger social context. It means seeing how individual lives are shaped by and contribute to societal structures. Applying this to a marathon, one would consider not just the personal achievements of the runners but also how the event reflects societal values on health, competition, and community. The sociological imagination would explore how social pressures, cultural expectations, and economic factors influence participants' motivations and the event's organization. 4. Distinguish between sociology and other social sciences identified in the text. Discuss why anthropology is the “sister” discipline to sociology and why psychology is not. Answer: Distinguishing Sociology from Other Social Sciences: Sociology focuses on the study of society, its structures, and the relationships among individuals within it. It examines social institutions, group dynamics, and societal changes. Anthropology, often considered a "sister" discipline, also studies human societies but does so with a focus on cultural practices and evolutionary aspects. Anthropology typically uses ethnographic methods and examines cultural diversity and historical development. Psychology, while concerned with individual behavior and mental processes, does not primarily focus on social structures or group dynamics, which differentiates it from sociology. Psychology tends to analyze internal processes and personal experiences, rather than broader social patterns. 5. How are sociology and “common sense” similar? How are they different? Answer: Sociology vs. Common Sense: Sociology and common sense both address human behavior and social interactions, but they differ significantly. Common sense is based on everyday, intuitive understandings and personal observations, often lacking rigorous analysis. It can be subjective and influenced by biases. Sociology, however, relies on systematic research methods and theoretical frameworks to understand and analyze social phenomena. While common sense may provide preliminary insights, sociology aims to validate findings through empirical evidence and scholarly analysis, offering a more objective and comprehensive understanding of social issues. 6. Why is theory an important part of sociology as a social science discipline? What is the relationship between theory and research? Answer: Importance of Theory in Sociology: Theory is crucial in sociology as it provides a framework for understanding and interpreting social phenomena. It offers explanations for patterns observed in society and guides research by suggesting hypotheses and variables to study. The relationship between theory and research is cyclical: theories inform the design of research and the interpretation of data, while research findings can support, refute, or refine existing theories. This interaction helps build a deeper and more accurate understanding of social processes, leading to more effective explanations and interventions for societal issues. 7. Summarize Émile Durkheim’s findings on suicide. Answer: Émile Durkheim’s Findings on Suicide: Émile Durkheim, in his seminal work Le Suicide (1897), explored the social factors influencing suicide rates. He identified four types of suicide based on the level of social integration and regulation: egoistic suicide (due to low social integration, where individuals feel isolated), altruistic suicide (due to excessive social integration, where individuals sacrifice themselves for a group), anomic suicide (due to low social regulation, occurring in times of societal upheaval), and fatalistic suicide (due to excessive social regulation, where individuals face oppressive conditions). Durkheim's study emphasized how social environments and structures influence individual behavior, illustrating that suicide is not solely a personal act but deeply connected to societal forces. 8. How did Auguste Comte view the discipline of sociology? Answer: Auguste Comte’s View on Sociology: Auguste Comte is often credited with founding sociology as a distinct discipline. He viewed sociology as the "queen of the sciences," aiming to apply scientific methods to the study of society to improve human conditions. Comte proposed that sociology could uncover laws of social behavior and guide social reform. His concept of "positivism" emphasized that knowledge should be based on empirical evidence and systematic observation, advocating for a scientific approach to understanding and solving social problems. 9. What contributions did Harriet Martineau and Herbert Spencer make to sociology? Answer: Contributions of Harriet Martineau and Herbert Spencer: Harriet Martineau was a pioneering sociologist who translated Auguste Comte’s work into English and is recognized for her contributions to the study of social institutions and gender roles. Her work Society in America provided critical analysis of American social practices, including issues of class, gender, and race. Herbert Spencer, influenced by Charles Darwin, introduced the concept of "social Darwinism," applying evolutionary theory to societies. He argued that societies evolve through a process of natural selection, with the "survival of the fittest" determining societal progress. Both Martineau and Spencer helped shape early sociological thought, contributing to the understanding of social structures and dynamics. 10. Explain why the ideas of Herbert Spencer are considered antithetical to the fundamental assumptions of sociology. Answer: Herbert Spencer's Antithetical Ideas: Herbert Spencer’s ideas are often considered antithetical to the fundamental assumptions of sociology because he applied Darwinian principles of "survival of the fittest" to human societies, a view known as social Darwinism. Spencer believed that social progress results from the natural competition between individuals and groups, suggesting that social inequalities are a natural and beneficial outcome. This perspective contrasts with the fundamental sociological view that social structures and inequalities are constructed and can be changed through collective action and reform. Sociology generally focuses on understanding and addressing social inequalities, rather than accepting them as inevitable, which places Spencer's ideas at odds with these goals. 11. Explain why Max Weber felt that it was important for researchers to employ verstehen. Answer: Max Weber and Verstehen: Max Weber emphasized the importance of verstehen, or "understanding," as a methodological approach in sociological research. Weber believed that to comprehend social actions and the meanings individuals attach to them, researchers must adopt the perspective of those being studied. Verstehen involves empathetic engagement with subjects to understand their motivations, values, and interpretations of their actions. By grasping the subjective meanings behind behavior, researchers can achieve a deeper, more nuanced understanding of social phenomena, which contrasts with purely objective or quantitative methods. 12. Describe Karl Marx’s contribution to sociology and other social sciences. Answer: Karl Marx’s Contribution to Sociology and Social Sciences: Karl Marx made significant contributions to sociology and other social sciences with his analysis of capitalism and class struggle. His theory of historical materialism posits that economic structures fundamentally shape societal relations and historical development. Marx argued that class conflict, driven by the exploitation of the working class (proletariat) by the owning class (bourgeoisie), is the engine of social change. His ideas about capitalism’s inherent inequalities and the need for revolutionary change to achieve a classless society influenced both sociology and political science, laying the groundwork for Marxist theory and critiquing existing economic and social structures. 13. Describe the contributions Charles Horton Cooley, Jane Addams, and Robert Merton made to sociology. Answer: Contributions of Charles Horton Cooley, Jane Addams, and Robert Merton: Charles Horton Cooley is renowned for his concept of the "looking-glass self," which emphasizes the role of social interaction in the formation of self-identity. He argued that individuals develop self-concepts based on how they perceive others see them. Jane Addams, a pioneering social worker and founder of Hull House, made significant contributions through her work in social reform and applied sociology, addressing issues like poverty and women's rights. Her focus on practical social work and advocacy for marginalized communities exemplifies sociology’s role in social change. Robert Merton contributed the concepts of manifest and latent functions to understand the various functions of social institutions. He also developed the theory of structural functionalism, which examines how social structures contribute to social stability and the idea of "role strain," where conflicting demands within a role can lead to stress. 14. Distinguish between the two levels of analysis used in sociology (macro-level and micro-level). Answer: Macro-Level and Micro-Level Analysis in Sociology: Sociology employs two levels of analysis: macro-level and micro-level. Macro-level analysis focuses on large-scale social processes and structures, such as institutions, societal norms, and global trends. It examines how these broad elements impact societies as a whole. Micro-level analysis, on the other hand, focuses on individual interactions and small-group dynamics. It investigates how people create and interpret social meanings in everyday life. While macro-level analysis looks at overarching patterns and structures, micro-level analysis provides insight into the personal experiences and interactions that influence and are influenced by these larger structures. 15. Distinguish between manifest and latent functions, and dysfunctions. Answer: Manifest and Latent Functions, and Dysfunctions: In sociology, manifest functions are the intended and explicit consequences of social practices or institutions, such as the role of schools in providing education. Latent functions are unintended and often hidden consequences, such as the way schools also function as socializing agents, fostering peer relationships. Dysfunctions refer to the negative consequences or disruptions that social practices or institutions may cause, such as how schools can perpetuate inequality through educational disparities. Understanding these concepts helps sociologists analyze how various elements of society contribute to its overall functioning and stability, while also identifying areas where social reforms might be needed. 16. Distinguish between the functionalist and conflict approaches to the study of society. Answer: Distinguishing Between Functionalist and Conflict Approaches: The functionalist approach views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability and social order. It emphasizes the roles and functions of various social institutions, such as family, education, and religion, in maintaining societal equilibrium. Functionalists argue that social structures and institutions function to fulfill necessary needs, contributing to the overall stability and harmony of society. In contrast, the conflict approach focuses on the inherent conflicts and power struggles between different social groups, such as those between the rich and the poor or employers and employees. It highlights how inequalities in wealth, power, and resources create tensions and conflicts that drive social change. While functionalism emphasizes consensus and integration, conflict theory underscores the role of competition and struggle in shaping social dynamics. 17. Explain which sociological perspective best reflects the approach taken by Karl Marx, and why. Answer: Sociological Perspective of Karl Marx: Karl Marx’s approach aligns with the conflict perspective. Marx focused on the conflicts between different classes, particularly between the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class). He argued that capitalism inherently produces inequality and exploitation, leading to class struggles that drive historical and social change. Marx believed that the economic base of society fundamentally shapes social relations and ideologies, and that conflicts between classes would eventually lead to revolutionary change. His emphasis on economic disparities and the struggles between social classes clearly reflects the core tenets of conflict theory. 18. How did W.E.B. Du Bois contribute to conflict theory? Answer: W.E.B. Du Bois and Conflict Theory: W.E.B. Du Bois made significant contributions to conflict theory by addressing the racial dimensions of social conflict. He introduced the concept of "double consciousness," which describes the internal conflict experienced by African Americans as they navigate their identities between their own cultural heritage and the dominant white society's expectations. Du Bois also examined how racial inequality and discrimination perpetuate social stratification and conflict. His work in advocating for civil rights and examining the systemic nature of racial oppression highlights how social conflicts are deeply intertwined with issues of race and class, thereby expanding the conflict theory to include racial dimensions. 19. How does the feminist view differ from other views inspired by the conflict perspective? Answer: Feminist View vs. Other Conflict Perspectives: The feminist view within conflict theory specifically focuses on gender inequalities and the power dynamics between men and women. Unlike traditional conflict theories that center primarily on class and economic disparities, feminist theory emphasizes how patriarchy and gender-based oppression contribute to social stratification and conflict. It explores how societal norms and structures perpetuate gender inequalities, affecting women’s roles and opportunities. Feminist theory thus broadens the scope of conflict theory by highlighting how gender, as a central axis of power, intersects with and exacerbates other forms of social inequality and conflict, such as those based on class, race, and sexuality. 20. What contributions did George Herbert Mead make to sociology? Answer: George Herbert Mead's Contributions: George Herbert Mead is renowned for his foundational work in symbolic interactionism, a micro-level sociological perspective. His key contributions include the development of the concept of the "self" as emerging from social interactions. Mead introduced the idea of the "generalized other," which refers to the internalization of societal expectations and norms. He also elaborated on the concept of role-taking, where individuals learn to view themselves from the perspective of others, shaping their self-concept and behavior accordingly. Mead’s work laid the groundwork for understanding how social interactions and communication processes influence individual identity and social behavior. 21. Why is nonverbal communication important to interactionist theory? Answer: Importance of Nonverbal Communication to Interactionist Theory: Nonverbal communication is crucial to interactionist theory because it conveys significant meaning in social interactions beyond spoken words. Interactionists, such as those following George Herbert Mead's symbolic interactionism, emphasize how individuals interpret and respond to nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions, gestures, and body language, to construct social reality and identity. Nonverbal communication helps individuals navigate social contexts, express emotions, and reinforce social norms and roles, all of which are central to understanding how social interactions shape and are shaped by individuals’ perceptions and behaviors. 22. Explain what is meant by the dramaturgical approach and identify the sociological approach with which it is associated. Answer: Dramaturgical Approach and Sociological Approach: The dramaturgical approach, associated with Erving Goffman, likens social interactions to a theatrical performance. Goffman proposed that individuals present themselves to others in ways that align with social expectations, much like actors performing on stage. This approach involves concepts such as “front stage” (the public self) and “back stage” (the private self), illustrating how individuals manage impressions and navigate social roles. By analyzing interactions as performances, the dramaturgical approach highlights how individuals actively construct and negotiate their social identities through strategic self-presentation and role management in various social contexts. 23. Select one of the three approaches to sociology (conflict, functionalist, or interactionist), describe it, and identify a social thinker associated with it. Answer: Interactionist Approach and Social Thinker: The interactionist approach focuses on the micro-level of social interactions and the meanings individuals attach to these interactions. This perspective emphasizes the importance of symbols, language, and social roles in shaping human behavior and social reality. Interactionists study how individuals create and interpret symbols in everyday life, influencing their actions and relationships. George Herbert Mead is a key thinker associated with this approach, particularly for his contributions to understanding the development of the self through social interactions and the concept of the "generalized other," which illustrates how societal norms are internalized by individuals. 24. Summarize the major differences across the functionalist, conflict, and interactionist perspectives. Answer: Differences Across Perspectives: The functionalist perspective views society as a complex system with interrelated parts working together to promote stability and social order. It emphasizes the positive functions of social institutions and norms in maintaining equilibrium. The conflict perspective, in contrast, highlights the power struggles and inequalities inherent in social structures, focusing on how different groups compete for resources and how this conflict drives social change. The interactionist perspective centers on everyday interactions and the meanings individuals assign to them, examining how social reality is constructed through language and symbols. While functionalism focuses on social cohesion and stability, conflict theory emphasizes power and inequality, and interactionism looks at personal and social meaning in interactions. 25. How can the functionalist, conflict, and interactionist views be used to interpret sports? Answer: Interpreting Sports through Sociological Perspectives: From a functionalist perspective, sports are seen as contributing to social cohesion by promoting teamwork, discipline, and shared values. They serve to integrate individuals into the larger society by reinforcing social norms and providing a sense of community. The conflict perspective highlights how sports can reflect and perpetuate social inequalities, such as those based on class, race, or gender. It also examines how sports can be a battleground for competing interests and power dynamics. The interactionist perspective focuses on the personal and symbolic meanings individuals attach to sports. It explores how sports rituals, team identities, and fan behaviors shape and reflect personal and group identities. Each perspective offers unique insights into how sports function within society, from contributing to social stability to reflecting and reinforcing social conflicts and meanings. 26. Discuss the place of social inequality within the discipline of sociology. Answer: Social Inequality in Sociology: Social inequality is a central focus in sociology because it profoundly influences individual life chances and societal structure. Sociologists study how inequalities based on race, class, gender, and other factors shape access to resources, opportunities, and power. The discipline examines how systemic factors perpetuate unequal distributions of wealth, education, and status, leading to stratification and social hierarchies. By analyzing social inequalities, sociologists aim to understand the underlying mechanisms that sustain these disparities and work towards creating more equitable social systems. Social inequality is key to exploring issues such as poverty, discrimination, and social justice. 27. Explain why the concept of globalization is important for sociologists to address. Answer: Importance of Globalization for Sociologists: Globalization is crucial for sociologists to address because it impacts social dynamics, cultural exchanges, and economic structures on a global scale. It involves the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of societies through advancements in technology, trade, and communication. Sociologists study globalization to understand how it affects social norms, cultural identities, and economic inequalities across nations. They examine the ways in which globalization influences local practices, contributes to cultural homogenization or diversification, and alters power relations between different countries. Understanding globalization helps sociologists analyze contemporary social changes and their implications for both local and global communities. 28. Use the sociological imagination to discuss the impact of globalization on social life and/or cultures around the world. Answer: Sociological Imagination and Globalization: Using the sociological imagination to discuss globalization involves examining how global processes impact individual lives and local cultures. For instance, globalization can lead to the spread of consumer culture, influencing local traditions and values. It may also affect employment patterns, as multinational corporations can create job opportunities but also contribute to economic inequalities. The sociological imagination allows us to see how global economic policies or technological advancements shape personal experiences, such as how migration patterns affect family structures or how global media influences personal identities. By connecting personal experiences to broader global trends, sociologists can better understand the complex interplay between individual lives and global forces. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Using the functionalist perspective, discuss the various reactions of the American people in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of 9/11 and/or the Gulf Coast oil spill. Answer: Functionalism and 9/11/Gulf Coast Oil Spill: From a functionalist perspective, reactions to 9/11 and the Gulf Coast oil spill can be seen as efforts to restore social stability. Americans displayed solidarity and national unity, reinforcing social cohesion and shared values. Emergency responses and community support systems were activated to address disruptions, while rituals like flag displays and memorials helped reaffirm societal norms and collective identity. 2. Using the interactionist perspective, discuss the reasons for the increase in the number of people buying flags in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of 9/11 the Gulf Coast oil spill. Answer: Interactionism and Flag Buying Post-9/11/Oil Spill: The increase in flag purchases post-9/11 or the oil spill can be understood through the interactionist lens as a symbolic act of patriotism and solidarity. Flags serve as symbols of national unity and personal commitment to collective values. Interactionists view this behavior as a response to social cues and the desire to publicly express allegiance during times of crisis. 3. Using the conflict perspective, discuss the various methods that businesses and corporations have used to profit from the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of 9/11 the Gulf Coast oil spill. Answer: Conflict Perspective on Profit from Crises: The conflict perspective highlights how businesses and corporations may exploit crises like 9/11 or the oil spill for profit. This can include increasing prices for essential goods or services, or profiting from government contracts for disaster response. Such practices reflect underlying power dynamics and inequalities, where corporations benefit from the vulnerabilities and needs of affected populations. 4. Using Goffman’s dramaturgical approach, discuss the reaction students would likely have when observing one of their college professors swimming nude in a lake. Answer: Goffman’s Dramaturgical Approach and Nude Swimming: Goffman’s dramaturgical approach suggests that students would react strongly to seeing a professor swimming nude, as it breaches social norms and expectations. Such behavior disrupts the "front stage" performance of professionalism and decorum that professors typically maintain, leading to discomfort and social awkwardness among students. 5. Using the interactionist perspective (Goffman’s dramaturgical approach, specifically), discuss the reactions students might have to seeing one of their professors at a college fraternity or sorority party. Have students incorporate the following concepts into their discussion: front stage/back stage, impression management, or face-work. Answer: Interactionism and Professors at Parties: Seeing a professor at a fraternity or sorority party could lead to surprise or confusion among students. Using Goffman’s dramaturgical approach, this situation reveals a shift from the "front stage" (formal academic role) to the "back stage" (informal social behavior). Students would observe how the professor manages impressions and engages in "face-work" to reconcile these differing roles. 6. Discuss how the predictive power of sociology could be used to influence social policy and improve the quality of social life. Answer: Predictive Power of Sociology and Social Policy: Sociology’s predictive power can inform social policy by identifying trends and potential outcomes. For example, understanding patterns in social behavior can help design effective interventions for issues like crime, health, or education. By using empirical data and sociological theories, policymakers can develop strategies that enhance social well-being and address societal challenges proactively. STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Annual Views of Sociology: While it sometimes provides very sophisticated analysis, the Annual Review of Sociology, produced by Annual Reviews, Inc., of Palo Alto, California, also provides “state-of-the-field” articles on specialties within sociology. Companion volumes cover other disciplines, such as anthropology and psychology. Topic and author listings, abstracts, price lists, and a searchable 12-year bibliographic database for the entire series can be accessed at http://www.annurev.org. 2. Identifying Theories: Have students find an example of published social research in the literature specific to sociology. For example, suggest American Journal of Sociology, American Sociological Review, Social Problems, and Social Forces. The student should use these more “difficult” journals both to gain familiarity with the field’s literature and to obtain good results with this project. Have the students locate an article containing a theory. They should describe the theory briefly and then classify it according to whether it is functionalist, interactionist, or conflict. 3. Goffman and the Feminist Perspective: While Erving Goffman did not frequently make explicit reference to gender issues in his scholarship, his perspective contributed to our understanding of women’s experiences. See Candace West, “Goffman in Feminist Perspective,” Sociological Perspectives 39 (June 1996): 353–369. 4. Interaction in Public Space: See Nicholas H. Wolfinger, “Passing Moments: Some Social Dynamics of Pedestrian Interaction,” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 24 (October 1995):323–340. 5. Gender and Nonverbal Communication: Gender differences in nonverbal communication are considered in Nancy J. Briton and Judith A. Hall, “Beliefs About Female and Male Nonverbal Communication,” Sex Roles 32 (July 1995): 79–90. 6. Contemporary Sociological Theory: Students can use this book to research ways that contemporary theory in sociology compares and contrasts to classical theory presented in the textbook. Jonathan Turner, ed. Handbook of Sociological Theory. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2001. 7. Careers in Sociology: What is the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ view of the job market for sociologists (and social workers)? Refer to Occupational Outlook Handbook, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, published annually. This document is available online at http://www.bls.gov/oco/. 8. Feminist Theory in Sociology: Students interested in feminist perspectives and their place within sociology may wish to consult “The Missing Feminist Revolution in Sociology,” by Judith Stacey and Barrie Thorne, Social Problems, Vol. 32, No. 4, April 1985. This well-known piece discusses the inability of feminist research to substantially change fundamental assumptions and frameworks in sociology. 9. The Sociological Imagination: Family sociologist Murray A. Straus, of the University of New Hampshire, is known for his investigations into family violence. Controversially, he includes “corporal punishment” in his understanding of domestic violence and likens the abuse of wives (historically and beyond) to the physical punishment of children. Students are fascinated and troubled by the similarities he draws between these two forms of abuse. This information can be found in Beating the Devil Out of Them: Corporal Punishment in American Families and its Effects on Children, Transaction Publishers, 2001. VIDEO RESOURCES Fashion and Clothing (Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 2000–2001, 52m). In this program, experts, including historian Valerie Steele of the Fashion Institute of Technology, interpret the history of humankind through the intriguing context of costume. Topics include symbolism associated with clothing, and body piercing and tattoos as a form of contemporary personal expression. I, Doll: The Unauthorized Biography of America’s 11-1/2” Sweetheart (Women Make Movies, Inc., 1996, 57m). An unusual and thought-provoking way to start a semester by employing the sociological imagination to examine a cultural icon: the Barbie doll. An instructor can return to the topics introduced in the film throughout the semester when socialization, popular culture, gender, and social institutions are discussed. Justice in the Coal Fields (Appalshop Films; 1995; 57 minutes). In this moving film, director Anne Lewis demonstrates how current labor law has crippled the collective bargaining power of unions and weighed the scales of justice against working people. The documentary follows the United Mine Workers strike against the Pittston Coal Company and explores the strike's social, cultural, and economic impact on coalfield communities. Karl Marx—The Massive Dissent (Films, Inc., 1977, 60m). John Kenneth Galbraith explores the life, work, and thought of Karl Marx. He contends that Marx was a brilliant, learned man who excelled in sociology, economics, history, political philosophy, and journalism, and that censorship, police persecution, and political upheavals in nineteenth-century Europe (especially France) gradually changed him from a reformer to a revolutionary. Marxism: The Theory That Split a World (Coronet/MTU Films and Videos, 1970, 26m). Through animation and dramatization of people who knew him, Marx’s contributions come to life. The Promise of Sociology (Dallas Community College, 1981, 30m). Using as a point of departure C.W. Mills’s concept of sociological imagination, this lesson introduces the discipline of sociology as one that examines the many groups and relationships in which individuals participate. Several well-known sociologists define sociology and discuss the areas in which the science applies. Sociological Perspectives (Insight Media, 2002, 30m). This video gives an overview of major theoretical perspectives in sociology and of the research methods sociologists use in their work. W.E.B. Du Bois: A Biography in Four Voices (Insight Media, 1995, 116m). A review of the life of William Edward Burghardt Du Bois through the voices of writer-scholar-activists Wesley Brown, Thulani Davis, Toni Cade Bambara, and Amiri Baraka. Why Sociology? (Insight Media, 2002, 30m). This film provides a basic overview of the field of sociology, including its history. The Day I Will Never Forget (Women Make Movies, 2002). This documentary examines the practice of female genital mutilation in Kenya and the efforts of a few women’s groups who are challenging this tradition. The film features testimonials from women, young and old, as to why they “consented” to the practice of FGM and how it is affecting their lives, including their health and their relationships with men. The film may prompt an important discussion about the pitfalls of cultural relativism; the dangers of rampant misogyny and patriarchy; and the need for better education about issues affecting women and girls globally. People Like Us (PBS). This film takes a rather sarcastic look at social class in the United States. People Like Us shows how social class plays a role in the lives of all Americans, whether they live in Park Avenue penthouses, Appalachian trailer parks, bayou houseboats or gated communities. The documentary travels across the country presenting stories that will resonate with viewers regardless of where they see themselves on the social spectrum. It is useful as a tool to discuss social inequality as well as the sociological imagination. Viewers will undoubtedly begin to recognize how the social class of their families, and perhaps other ascribed factors, have shaped their outcomes or life chances—socially, economically, ideologically, and physically. ADDITIONAL READINGS Du Bois, W.E.B. 1996. The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. With a new introduction by Elijah Anderson. The reissuing of this classic work, which first appeared in 1899, documents the timelessness of Du Bois’s observations. Fine, Gary Alan. 1996. Kitchens: The Culture of Restraint. Berkeley: University of California Press. A sociological view of the backstage world of contemporary restaurants, including the social patterns of dishwashers, servers, cooks, managers, and even restaurant critics. Glassner, Barry. 1999. The Culture of Fear. New York: Basic Books. Glassner looks at how people’s fears of crime, drug use, and other social problems are growing, even though the social reality often does not match the public’s perceptions. Ingraham, Chrys. 1999. White Weddings: Romancing Heterosexuality in Popular Culture. New York: Routledge. A sociologist considers how weddings today have as much to do with marketing and economics as lasting social relationships. Lengermann, Patricia Madoo, and Jill Niebrugge-Brantley. 1998. The Women Founders: Sociology and Social Theory 1830–1930. New York: McGraw-Hill. A comprehensive examination of the many contributions that women made to early sociological thinking in the United States and Europe. Levin, Jack. 1999. Sociological Snapshots 3: Seeing Social Structure and Change in Everyday Life. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. The sociological imagination is employed to look at everything from elevator culture and television soap operas to religious cults and the death penalty. McCarthy, George. E. Classical Horizons: The Origins of Sociology in Ancient Greece. Albany: State University of New York Press. Links classical, nineteenth-century sociologists to Greek philosophy. McDonald, Lynn. 1994. Women Founders of the Social Sciences. Ottawa, Canada: Carlton University Press. The author examines the important but often overlooked contribution of such pioneers as Mary Wollstonecraft, Harriet Martineau, Beatrice Webb, Jane Addams, and many more. Ritzer, George. 2008. The McDonaldization of Society. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. Combining elements of social theory, social structure, and popular culture, sociologist George Ritzer once again reveals how more and more aspects of post-modern society are taking on the principles of his now well-known concept, “McDonaldization.” Readers will become familiarized with the pervasiveness of efficiency, quantifiability, control, and calculability in most, if not all, major social institutions. Steur, Max. 2003. The Scientific Study of Society. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers. This book gives a useful overview of the approach to various social issues across five social science disciplines: sociology, economics, political science, social psychology, and anthropology. Tilly, Charles. 1999. Durable Inequality. Berkeley: University of California Press. A theoretical look at the persistence of social inequality between Black/White, male/female, and citizen/non-citizen. Chapter 2 Sociological Research ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Identify and briefly explain the five basic steps in the scientific method. Answer: The Scientific Method Steps: • Observation: Identify and observe a phenomenon or problem. This involves gathering preliminary data and noting patterns or anomalies. • Question: Formulate a specific research question based on the observations. This question should be clear, focused, and researchable. • Hypothesis: Develop a hypothesis or a tentative explanation that can be tested. This is a predictive statement about the relationship between variables. • Experiment: Design and conduct experiments or studies to test the hypothesis. Collect and analyze data systematically to determine if the hypothesis is supported. • Conclusion: Draw conclusions based on the data analysis. Assess whether the hypothesis is supported or refuted, and discuss the implications or need for further research. 2. Discuss how the research process/method is somewhat different for qualitative researchers than for quantitative researchers. Answer: Research Methods Differences: • Quantitative Research: Emphasizes numerical data and statistical analysis. Researchers use structured methods like surveys or experiments to test hypotheses and measure variables. The focus is on quantifying relationships and generalizing findings across larger populations. • Qualitative Research: Focuses on understanding meanings and experiences through non-numerical data. Researchers use methods like interviews, focus groups, or content analysis to explore complex social phenomena and generate in-depth insights. The approach is more flexible and interpretive, aiming to capture the richness of human experiences. 3. Provide the students with a research question and ask them to identify which research method would be best suited to studying it and to discuss why. Answer: Choosing a Research Method: • Research Question: "How do college students perceive the impact of online learning on their academic performance?" • Best Suited Method: Qualitative research would be ideal for this question. This method allows for in-depth exploration of students’ perceptions and experiences through interviews or focus groups. It can capture nuanced opinions and provide rich, detailed data about the subjective impacts of online learning, which quantitative methods might not fully reveal. 4. How is a sociological analysis of whether it pays to go to college different from a study conducted by a television station or magazine? Answer: Sociological vs. Media Analysis of College Value: • Sociological Analysis: Sociologists approach the question of whether it pays to go to college through comprehensive, methodologically rigorous research. They use longitudinal studies, statistical analyses, and theoretical frameworks to examine various factors such as income differences, social mobility, and educational attainment. This approach aims for an in-depth understanding of long-term societal trends and personal outcomes. • Media Analysis: Television stations or magazines often present more immediate, sensational, or simplified perspectives. Their studies might focus on anecdotal evidence, case studies, or brief surveys, and are typically driven by the need to attract viewers or readers. Media analyses may emphasize dramatic or compelling stories to engage audiences, rather than providing a nuanced, evidence-based exploration. 5. Use functionalism, conflict theory, and interactionism to define the issues related to whether or not it pays to go to college. Answer: Functionalism, Conflict Theory, and Interactionism on College Value: • Functionalism: From a functionalist perspective, going to college is seen as contributing to social stability and cohesion. It provides individuals with skills and knowledge necessary for fulfilling roles in society, enhancing productivity and economic growth. College education is viewed as a means of social integration and role preparation. • Conflict Theory: Conflict theorists argue that college education perpetuates social inequality. They believe that higher education serves the interests of the elite, who use it to maintain their power and privilege. Access to college is often limited by socioeconomic status, which reinforces existing class divisions and economic disparities. • Interactionism: Interactionists focus on the daily experiences and social interactions within college environments. They study how students' identities, self-concepts, and social networks are shaped by their college experiences. This perspective examines how personal interactions and meanings attributed to education influence individual choices and perceptions of its value. 6. Distinguish among independent variables, dependent variables, causal logic, and correlations. Answer: Key Research Concepts: • Independent Variables: These are factors that are manipulated or categorized to see their effect on other variables. For example, the level of education (college vs. no college) is an independent variable in studies on income. • Dependent Variables: These are the outcomes or effects that researchers measure. In the context of college education, income level or job satisfaction could be dependent variables. • Causal Logic: This refers to the reasoning used to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between variables. Researchers use causal logic to determine if changes in the independent variable (e.g., education level) directly influence the dependent variable (e.g., income). • Correlations: Correlations measure the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables. A positive correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the other tends to increase as well. Correlation does not imply causation but shows how variables are related. 7. Explain why the surveys conducted by radio and television stations, in which viewers and listeners are encouraged to place “800” and “900” calls to give their views, do not use a representative sample. Answer: Surveys by Radio and Television Stations: Surveys conducted by radio and television stations through "800" and "900" calls typically do not use a representative sample because they rely on self-selected respondents. People who choose to call in are not randomly selected, which leads to a biased sample that may not accurately reflect the broader population's views. This self-selection bias occurs because those motivated to participate may have stronger opinions or different demographics compared to the general population, making the results unreliable for generalizations. 8. Explain the difference between validity and reliability. Answer: Validity vs. Reliability: • Validity: Validity refers to the extent to which a research instrument measures what it is intended to measure. For example, a survey designed to measure job satisfaction is valid if it accurately captures aspects of job satisfaction and not unrelated factors. It ensures the research findings are relevant and accurate regarding the concept being studied. • Reliability: Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of a measurement instrument. If the same survey is administered repeatedly under similar conditions, it should yield consistent results if it is reliable. Reliability indicates the degree to which the results can be replicated, ensuring that the measurement tool is dependable. 9. Why are control variables useful in testing hypotheses? Answer: Control Variables in Testing Hypotheses: Control variables are crucial in hypothesis testing as they account for factors that might influence the dependent variable, aside from the independent variable being studied. By holding these variables constant, researchers can isolate the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable, reducing the risk of confounding factors that could skew the results. This helps ensure that any observed effects are due to the independent variable and not influenced by external factors, thereby enhancing the accuracy and validity of the research findings. 10. Explain how sociological research methods would be useful in conducting a poll in Baghdad. Answer: Sociological Research Methods in Conducting a Poll in Baghdad: Sociological research methods are essential for conducting a poll in Baghdad because they provide structured approaches to collecting and analyzing data. Methods such as surveys, interviews, and focus groups can gather information on public opinions and behaviors. Surveys with carefully designed questions can capture broad trends, while interviews can offer deeper insights into individual perspectives. Focus groups can explore group dynamics and collective attitudes. Additionally, using systematic sampling techniques ensures that the poll reflects diverse segments of the population, accounting for various socio-political contexts and reducing biases in the results. 11. Identify and briefly describe the four different types of research designs for collecting data presented in the text. Answer: Four Types of Research Designs: • Surveys: Utilize questionnaires or interviews to gather data from a large group. They are useful for collecting standardized information from many respondents and analyzing trends and patterns. • Experiments: Involve manipulating one or more independent variables to observe their effects on dependent variables, often in a controlled setting. This design helps establish causal relationships. • Observational Studies: Include naturalistic or participant observation to gather data on behavior and interactions in real-world settings without interference. This design provides insights into everyday activities and social phenomena. • Case Studies: Focus on an in-depth analysis of a single case or a small number of cases. They offer detailed understanding of complex issues and individual experiences, often using multiple data sources. 12. Why is the framing of survey questions an important issue? Answer: Importance of Framing Survey Questions: The framing of survey questions is crucial because it influences how respondents interpret and answer them. Well-framed questions ensure clarity, avoid bias, and accurately capture respondents' true opinions. Poorly framed questions can lead to misinterpretation, skewed results, and unreliable data. For example, leading questions can suggest a particular answer, while ambiguous questions may result in varied interpretations. Properly designed questions help in obtaining valid, reliable data and ensure that survey findings accurately reflect the views and experiences of the respondents. 13. What are the advantages of interviews and questionnaires as forms of survey research? Answer: Advantages of Interviews and Questionnaires in Survey Research: Interviews offer deep, detailed insights into participants' experiences, allowing for probing follow-up questions and clarification. They provide rich qualitative data and can explore complex issues in depth. Questionnaires, on the other hand, can reach a larger audience, making them cost-effective and efficient for collecting standardized data. They enable easy comparison of responses across many participants and facilitate quantitative analysis. Both methods allow researchers to gather specific, targeted information and can be tailored to fit diverse research needs. Combining both methods can enhance the robustness of the findings. 14. What are the strengths and difficulties of the observation method of research? Answer: Strengths and Difficulties of the Observation Method: The observation method provides direct insights into natural behaviors and interactions, capturing data in real-world settings. It allows researchers to study phenomena as they occur, offering rich, contextual information. However, it can be time-consuming and subject to observer bias. Observers may influence the behavior of participants (the Hawthorne effect), and ethical concerns may arise, particularly with covert observation. Additionally, the method may lack generalizability if the sample size is small or not representative of broader populations. 15. Which type of sociological research is considered to be better, qualitative or quantitative? Answer: Qualitative vs. Quantitative Sociological Research: Neither qualitative nor quantitative research is universally "better"; each serves different purposes and provides unique insights. Qualitative research excels in exploring complex, nuanced phenomena and understanding meanings and experiences from participants' perspectives. It is valuable for generating in-depth, contextualized data. Quantitative research, however, is strong in identifying patterns, testing hypotheses, and generalizing findings to larger populations. It provides measurable, statistical evidence. The choice between qualitative and quantitative methods depends on the research question, objectives, and the nature of the data needed. Combining both approaches can often provide a more comprehensive understanding of sociological issues. 16. Discuss the reasons why sociologists and anthropologists often use different research methods than do psychologists. Answer: Reasons Sociologists and Anthropologists Use Different Research Methods Than Psychologists: Sociologists and anthropologists often focus on broader social structures and cultural contexts, leading them to use methods like ethnography and longitudinal studies to understand social phenomena in natural settings. They aim to uncover patterns and relationships within groups or societies. In contrast, psychologists frequently use controlled experiments and surveys to study individual behavior and cognitive processes. Psychologists often prioritize isolating variables to understand cause-and-effect relationships at an individual level. While sociologists and anthropologists emphasize social context and cultural influences, psychologists concentrate on internal processes and behavior patterns, which requires different methodological approaches. 17. What conclusions can be drawn from William F. Whyte’s participant observation research in a low-income neighborhood? Answer: Conclusions from William F. Whyte’s Participant Observation Research: William F. Whyte's participant observation in the "Street Corner Society" highlighted the complex social structures and informal networks within a low-income Italian-American neighborhood. His research revealed how local social networks, informal relationships, and community organizations influenced individuals' behaviors and social outcomes. Whyte's work demonstrated the importance of understanding the social context and interpersonal dynamics of marginalized communities, challenging simplistic views of poverty and emphasizing the role of community support and social organization in shaping individuals' lives. 18. Explain the origin of the Hawthorne effect and its significance for researchers. Answer: Origin and Significance of the Hawthorne Effect: The Hawthorne effect originated from studies conducted at the Western Electric Hawthorne Works in the 1920s and 1930s, where researchers found that workers’ productivity improved simply because they were being observed. This phenomenon occurs when individuals alter their behavior due to awareness of being watched, rather than changes in the experimental conditions. The significance of the Hawthorne effect for researchers is that it underscores the impact of observation on behavior and highlights the need for careful consideration of how research methods may influence participant responses. Understanding this effect helps researchers design studies that minimize bias and accurately interpret findings. 19. In what types of situations do researchers find secondary analysis useful? Answer: Situations Where Secondary Analysis is Useful: Researchers find secondary analysis useful when they need to study existing data rather than collect new information, often due to resource constraints or time limitations. It is particularly valuable for examining trends over time using historical data, assessing large-scale survey data without the need for primary data collection, or evaluating previously collected data to explore new research questions. Secondary analysis also helps in verifying and expanding upon earlier research findings, offering cost-effective ways to access rich datasets from governmental or organizational sources. This method allows researchers to conduct studies with a broader scope and historical perspective that might be impractical with primary data collection. 20. What are the principles put forth by the American Sociological Association in its Code of Ethics? Answer: Principles in the American Sociological Association Code of Ethics: The American Sociological Association's Code of Ethics outlines several key principles: 1. Respect for Persons: Researchers must obtain informed consent and respect participants' autonomy. 2. Integrity: Researchers should strive for honesty and accuracy in their work and avoid conflicts of interest. 3. Social Responsibility: Research should contribute positively to society and consider potential consequences. 4. Confidentiality: Protecting the privacy and confidentiality of participants' data is paramount. 5. Transparency: Researchers should openly share their methods, findings, and potential conflicts of interest. 21. How does the research by Rik Scarce show the importance of maintaining the confidentiality of sources in observation research? Answer: Importance of Confidentiality in Rik Scarce's Research: Rik Scarce's research on environmental activism highlighted the critical importance of maintaining confidentiality of sources in observation research. Scarce faced legal pressure to reveal his sources, emphasizing the risks involved for both researchers and participants when confidentiality is compromised. His experience underscored how the protection of participants' identities is crucial for ensuring honest and open communication, especially in sensitive or controversial research areas. Maintaining confidentiality helps protect participants from potential repercussions and preserves the integrity of the research process. 22. Describe the ideal of value neutrality as developed by Max Weber. Answer: Describe the Ideal of Value Neutrality as Developed by Max Weber: Max Weber's ideal of value neutrality refers to the principle that sociologists should approach their research with an objective stance, free from personal biases or values. According to Weber, researchers must strive to present their findings and interpretations based on empirical evidence rather than personal beliefs or societal pressures. This involves maintaining a neutral position when analyzing and reporting data to ensure that conclusions are drawn from the evidence itself rather than from subjective influences. Value neutrality aims to enhance the credibility and reliability of sociological research by focusing on facts and data rather than individual or cultural prejudices. 23. Summarize the views of Joyce Ladner and Shulamit Reinharz with respect to value neutrality. Answer: Summarize the Views of Joyce Ladner and Shulamit Reinharz with Respect to Value Neutrality: Joyce Ladner and Shulamit Reinharz challenge the concept of value neutrality in sociology. Ladner argues that researchers’ values inevitably influence their work, as personal experiences and perspectives shape their understanding of social phenomena. She believes that acknowledging and reflecting on these biases can lead to more insightful and meaningful research. Reinharz similarly contends that complete value neutrality is unrealistic, emphasizing that researchers should be transparent about their values and how they impact their work. Both scholars advocate for an approach where researchers critically engage with their biases rather than pretending to be completely objective, which can lead to more authentic and socially relevant findings. 24. What are the ethical concerns of receiving funding from corporate sources? Answer: Ethical Concerns of Receiving Funding from Corporate Sources: Receiving funding from corporate sources raises several ethical concerns. Firstly, there is a risk of compromising research integrity, as financial support from corporations may create conflicts of interest, leading researchers to produce results that favor their sponsors' interests. Secondly, the influence of corporate funding can bias research agendas, potentially prioritizing studies that benefit the sponsor over those that address broader societal issues. Additionally, there is concern about the transparency and objectivity of the research process, as well as the potential for public mistrust if the funding sources are not disclosed. Ensuring that funding sources do not unduly influence research outcomes is crucial for maintaining the credibility and ethical standards of scientific inquiry. 25. What has been the impact of technology on sociological research? Answer: Technology has profoundly impacted sociological research by enhancing data collection, analysis, and dissemination methods. Advanced tools such as online surveys, social media analytics, and big data analysis have enabled researchers to gather vast amounts of information more efficiently and from diverse populations. Technology also facilitates longitudinal studies through digital tracking and databases, providing deeper insights into social trends over time. Moreover, the internet has broadened access to research findings and academic discourse, fostering global collaboration and discussion. However, technology also introduces challenges, such as issues of privacy, data security, and the digital divide, which can affect the representativeness and ethical dimensions of research. Overall, while technology has significantly advanced sociological research, it also necessitates careful consideration of its implications. 26. Why is it important for sociologists to do studies of human sexuality? Answer: Studying human sexuality is crucial for sociologists as it provides insights into how sexual behaviors, identities, and norms are socially constructed and regulated. Research in this area helps to understand the impact of social, cultural, and economic factors on sexual practices and attitudes. It also sheds light on issues such as sexual orientation, gender identity, and the dynamics of power and inequality within relationships. By examining human sexuality, sociologists can address important social issues, such as sexual health, rights, and discrimination, and contribute to policy development and social change. Additionally, understanding sexuality is vital for exploring how personal and collective identities are formed and how societal norms influence individual behavior and social interactions. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Discuss how social research may affect the quality of human life. Include an explanation of how dispelling social myths could be considered by some critics as a threat to social order. Answer: Social research can improve human life by informing policy, highlighting social issues, and guiding interventions. However, dispelling social myths might challenge existing norms and values, leading some critics to argue it could destabilize social order by undermining widely held beliefs and disrupting established social structures. 2. Consider various ways in which you might try to disguise your identity in performing a participant observation study of street gangs, and whether or not it would be ethical to do so. Discuss the value of obtaining qualitative data compared to obtaining quantitative data. Answer: Disguising your identity might involve using a pseudonym or blending in with the gang's appearance. While this might be necessary for safety and accuracy, ethical concerns about deception and informed consent arise. Qualitative data provides deep, contextual insights into behavior, whereas quantitative data offers statistical and generalizable findings.. 3. Provide examples of any societal dangers that might occur when the results of poor research are publicized. Can you recall any recent instances of this? Answer: Poor research can misinform policy, fuel prejudice, or cause harm. For example, misleading studies on vaccine safety can lead to public health risks, as seen with the debunked research linking vaccines to autism, which led to vaccine hesitancy and outbreaks of preventable diseases. 4. Discuss how social research could provide assistance in fighting the war on terrorism. What type of research design would one employ to research terrorism? Answer: Social research can identify radicalization patterns, effective counter-radicalization strategies, and social dynamics of terrorist groups. Employing mixed methods research designs, such as case studies and surveys, can provide comprehensive insights into the causes and impacts of terrorism. 5. Describe how social research could aid in the passage of laws and potentially prevent the enactment of poor laws. Answer: Social research provides evidence-based insights into the effectiveness and consequences of proposed laws, helping lawmakers make informed decisions. It can reveal unintended effects or inefficiencies, thereby preventing the enactment of laws that could harm public welfare or fail to address issues effectively. STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Social Theory: See Robert K. Merton, “The Bearing of Empirical Research upon the Development of Social Theory,” American Sociological Review 12 (October 1969): 505–515. 2. Content Analysis—Comic Superheroes: See Thomas Young, “Are Comic Book Superheroes Sexist?” Sociology and Social Research 75 (July 1991): 218. 3. Content Analysis—Newspapers: See Ben M. Crouch and Kelly R. Damphouse, “Newspapers and the Antisatanism Movement: A Content Analysis,” Sociological Spectrum 12 (January–March 1992): 1–20. 4. Feminist Methodology: See Marjorie L. DeVault, “Talking Back to Sociology: Distinctive Contributions of Feminist Methodology.” In John Hagan (ed.). Annual Review of Sociology 1996. Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, 1996, pp. 29–50. 5. Institute for Social Research: Focus Newsletter and Insight are two publications issued at regular intervals that are available from the Institute for Social Research. To be placed on the mailing list, write to the Institute at 1180 Observation Drive, 3412 Social Science Building, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706. 6. Research Methods, Studying Sexuality, and the Nature of Knowledge: See Julia O’Connell Davidson and Derek Layder, Methods, Sex, and Madness. New York: Routledge, 1998. 7. Fieldwork/Observation and Feminist Scholarship: See Frida Kerner Furman, Facing the Mirror: Older Women and Beauty Shop Culture. New York, Routledge, 1997. VIDEO RESOURCES Margaret Mead: An Observer Observed (Filmakers Library, 2002, 85m). This film offers a broad examination of the life and work of Margaret Mead. It deals with the entire span of her long research career, including her initial ethnographic work in Samoa and New Guinea. Research Methods for the Social Sciences (Horizon Film and Video, 1995, 30m). An introduction to research methods that covers gathering data, types of experimental designs, and use of control groups. Scientific Method and Values (1993, 34m). This film examines the development of scientific methods, looking at the contributions of Newton, Darwin, and Curie. Sociological Inquiry (Insight Media, 2002, 30m). This video gives a basic overview of various types of sociological research methods, applying them to the study of groups. Sociological Thinking and Research (Dallas Community College, 1991, 31m). The program describes how to structure a research study by defining the problem to be studied, reviewing the relevant literature, formulating a hypothesis, and selecting a research design. Sociologist William Kornblum explains his methods for studying the effects of planned renewal on the neighborhood around Times Square. The importance of going beyond common sense in developing sociological theory is emphasized. Statistics (1988, 20m). This film discusses average, mean, median, and mode. It also questions the statement that statistics can be misleading. Statistics: For All Practical Purposes (Insight Media, 1988, 5 x 30m). This series of five short videos introduces students to the statistical techniques used by sociologists. It deals with the entire research process, from data collection to analysis. Writing for the Social Sciences (Insight Media, 1991, 30m). This video prepares students for the process of writing social science papers. It includes interviews with authors in the social sciences. ADDITIONAL READINGS American Sociological Association. 1997. Style Guide, 2nd ed. Washington, DC: ASA. This concise handbook (39 pages) provides guidance in writing clearly, as well as citation format, including referencing electronic sources such as the Internet. Best, Joel. 2001. Damned Lies and Statistics: Untangling Numbers from the Media, Politicians, and Activists. Berkeley: University of California Press. A sociologist demonstrates the value of careful interpretation of data, but also shows how statistics can be used to mislead people about social issues. Denzin, Norman K., and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds. 2000. Handbook of Qualitative Research, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. The 40 articles in this anthology cover newer techniques used in conducting observation and biographical research, as well as ethical issues facing researchers. Erickson, Julia A. 1999. Kiss and Tell: Surveying Sex in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. This text evaluates the methodology of the hundreds of surveys of human sexuality conducted by sociologists and other social scientists. Gladwell, Malcolm. 2000. The Tipping Point. Boston: Little, Brown. A journalist examines how certain benchmarks or milestones are portrayed in news-breaking stories, such as drops in crime, the impact of smoking, and the influence of children’s television programming. Gubrium, Jaber F., and James A. Holstein, eds. 2001. Handbook of Interview Research: Context and Method. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Drawing on a variety of disciplines, the editors examine all facets of appropriate interview techniques. Huff, Darrell. 1954. How to Lie with Statistics. New York: Norton. “Figures don’t lie, but liars do figure” is an adage that points to the way that statistics can be abused. In this classic book, Huff offers guidance to the reader in how to better understand numbers, graphs, and tables. Paulos, John Allen. 1988. Innumeracy. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin. This brief book considers how important basic mathematics is in everyday life. van den Hoonaard, Will C., ed. 2002. Walking the Tightrope: Ethical Issues for Qualitative Researchers. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. This is multi-disciplinary assessment of the special ethical considerations in qualitative research. Contributors to the volume draw on their own research encounters with ethical issues. JOURNALS Among the journals that focus on methods of sociological and other social scientific research are the following: IRB: A Review of Human Subjects Research (founded in 1979), Journal of Contemporary Ethnography (1971), Qualitative Sociology (1977), Social Science Research (1972), and Sociological Methods and Research (1972). Many sociological journals are now available on the Internet, but one specific journal on research is available only online. You can locate Sociological Research Online at www.socresonline.org.uk. Chapter 3 Culture ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. How does the meaning of culture differ in sociology from its common everyday meaning? Answer: In everyday language, "culture" often refers to the arts, traditions, and practices of a specific group. In sociology, culture encompasses a broader range of human activities and symbolic systems, including norms, values, beliefs, language, and material objects that define and guide social behavior across an entire society. It represents the collective way of life and shared understanding within a social group. 2. What is the difference between the concepts of “culture” and “society”? Answer: Culture refers to the set of shared values, norms, symbols, and practices that define a group of people’s way of life. Society, on the other hand, is the organized group of individuals who interact and form relationships within a defined geographic area. While culture is about the shared practices and meanings, society is about the people and their interactions within a structured system. 3. Identify four different cultural universals and offer examples of how they are met in the United States and other cultures. Discuss, also, the ways in which these cultural universals are adaptive mechanisms; that is, how do they help the respective culture/society function? Answer: Cultural universals include language, family structures, religious practices, and economic systems. In the U.S., language facilitates communication; family structures provide support and socialization; religious practices offer moral guidance; and economic systems organize resources. Globally, these universals adapt by fulfilling essential needs: language aids in cohesion, families offer emotional and practical support, religions guide behavior, and economies manage resources, ensuring societal stability and continuity. 4. Explain the process by which culture changes and expands. Answer: Culture changes and expands through several processes: innovation (creation of new ideas or tools), diffusion (spread of cultural elements from one society to another), and social interaction (ongoing exchange of ideas within and across societies). Cultural change can occur gradually or rapidly, influenced by technological advancements, global interactions, and shifts in social values, leading to the adaptation and evolution of cultural practices and norms over time. 5. What are the differences among innovation, diffusion, discovery, and invention? Provides examples of each from the American context. Answer: Innovation refers to the creation of new ideas or technologies that address specific needs or problems. For example, the development of the smartphone was an innovation that revolutionized communication and information access. Diffusion is the process through which cultural elements spread from one society to another, such as the global popularity of American fast food like McDonald's spreading to other countries. Discovery involves finding something that already exists but was previously unknown, such as the discovery of new medical treatments or natural resources. Invention is the creation of something entirely new, such as the invention of the airplane by the Wright brothers, which transformed transportation. Each process contributes uniquely to cultural evolution by introducing, spreading, or expanding human knowledge and capabilities. 6. Discuss technology within the context of material and nonmaterial culture. Answer: Technology affects both material and nonmaterial culture. Material culture includes tangible items and artifacts created by a society, such as computers, vehicles, and tools. Technology enhances material culture by introducing new products and methods that shape daily life and work. Nonmaterial culture consists of intangible elements like beliefs, values, and norms. Technological advances impact nonmaterial culture by altering how people interact, communicate, and perceive the world. For instance, social media platforms have transformed social norms and communication practices, reflecting changes in nonmaterial culture while influencing material aspects like the way people consume information and maintain relationships. 7. How does the concept of culture lag apply to William F. Ogburn’s two types of culture? Answer: William F. Ogburn distinguished between material culture (physical objects and technology) and nonmaterial culture (values, beliefs, and norms). Culture lag occurs when changes in material culture outpace adjustments in nonmaterial culture. For example, technological advancements like genetic engineering progress rapidly, while ethical and legal frameworks to address these advancements lag behind. This lag creates tension and challenges as societies struggle to reconcile new technological capabilities with existing moral and cultural norms, leading to debates and adjustments over time. 8. How is language affected by culture? Answer: Language is deeply intertwined with culture, reflecting and shaping a society’s values, norms, and worldview. Language influences how people perceive and categorize their experiences. For example, the presence of multiple terms for family relationships in some cultures can indicate complex family structures and social roles. Cultural values also shape language use, such as politeness strategies or forms of address. Additionally, language can embody cultural identity and heritage, preserving traditions and facilitating social cohesion. Changes in language, such as the introduction of new terminology or slang, can reflect evolving cultural attitudes and social dynamics. 9. How and why does language serve as a foundation of culture? Answer: Language serves as a foundation of culture by acting as the primary means through which cultural values, norms, and knowledge are transmitted and preserved. It is through language that individuals learn the symbols and meanings that define their cultural experiences. For instance, language allows for the communication of cultural practices, such as rituals, traditions, and social expectations. It also enables the expression of collective identity and shared beliefs. By using language, societies can maintain cultural continuity, as it encapsulates historical narratives and social norms. Additionally, language helps to shape individuals' perceptions of the world and their place within it, influencing how they interact with others and interpret their experiences. This foundational role makes language crucial for cultural cohesion and socialization. 10. What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis? Provide examples in support of this hypothesis. Discuss the social implications of certain words. Answer: The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, or linguistic relativity, proposes that the structure of a language influences its speakers' worldview and cognition. This hypothesis suggests that people perceive and think about the world differently based on the language they use. For example, the Inuit languages have multiple words for different types of snow, which influences how speakers of these languages recognize and categorize snow. Similarly, the use of gendered language in some languages, like French and Spanish, can affect how speakers perceive gender roles and identities. Socially, certain words and their meanings can reinforce cultural norms and biases, shaping attitudes and behaviors. For instance, terms used to describe different sexual orientations or racial identities can influence social attitudes and contribute to the perpetuation of stereotypes or prejudices. 11. What is nonverbal communication and how does it differ from one culture to another? Answer: Nonverbal communication encompasses all forms of communication that do not involve spoken or written words, including gestures, facial expressions, body language, posture, and eye contact. It plays a crucial role in conveying emotions, intentions, and social cues. Nonverbal communication can vary widely across cultures. For example, while direct eye contact is often seen as a sign of attentiveness and respect in Western cultures, it can be perceived as confrontational or disrespectful in some Asian cultures. Similarly, personal space and physical touch norms vary; in some cultures, close physical proximity and frequent touching are common, while in others, maintaining greater personal space is preferred. These cultural differences in nonverbal communication can lead to misunderstandings and affect interpersonal interactions in a multicultural context. 12. How do norms and sanctions help us to understand a culture? Answer: Norms and sanctions are fundamental to understanding a culture as they guide and enforce behavior within a society. Norms are the shared rules or expectations that dictate how individuals should behave in various situations. They provide a framework for social order and help maintain consistency in social interactions. For instance, norms dictate everyday behaviors such as greeting others politely or waiting in line. Sanctions are the reactions to behavior that either uphold or discourage adherence to norms. Positive sanctions, like rewards or praise, reinforce acceptable behavior, while negative sanctions, such as criticism or penalties, deter deviance. By examining norms and sanctions, we gain insight into the values and priorities of a culture, as they reflect what is considered important and acceptable. They also highlight how societies manage conformity and handle deviations, providing a deeper understanding of cultural mechanisms and social control. 13. Distinguish among each of the following pairs of concepts: informal versus formal norms, mores versus folkways, and norms versus sanctions. Answer: Informal vs. Formal Norms: Informal norms are unwritten rules and expectations that govern everyday behavior in casual, often unspoken ways, such as personal space or manners. Formal norms are established and codified rules written into laws or official policies, like traffic regulations or workplace rules. Mores vs. Folkways: Mores are strongly held norms with moral significance that are often codified into laws; violating mores is considered a serious offense, such as theft or murder. Folkways are less rigid norms that dictate everyday behaviors and social customs, such as dress codes or table manners. Violations of folkways are less severe and usually result in minor social disapproval. Norms vs. Sanctions: Norms are the guidelines for acceptable behavior in a society, while sanctions are the responses to behavior that either enforce or discourage adherence to these norms. Sanctions can be positive (rewards) or negative (punishments), and they help to regulate conformity and social order. 14. How do values differ from norms? Answer: Values and norms are related but distinct concepts in understanding culture. Values are deep-seated beliefs or ideals about what is considered good, desirable, or worthwhile in a society. They provide the underlying principles that guide behavior and decision-making. For example, the value of individual freedom or equality can shape societal expectations and attitudes. Norms, on the other hand, are specific rules or expectations for behavior that arise from these values. They translate values into actionable guidelines for how individuals should act in various situations. While values are more abstract and broad, norms are concrete and situational, reflecting how values are applied in daily life. Thus, values provide the foundation for norms, while norms operationalize the values into specific, observable behaviors. 15. What are some of the subcultures to which you belong? Answer: Subcultures are groups within a larger society that have their own distinct values, norms, and practices that differentiate them from the mainstream culture. Examples of subcultures to which one might belong include: 1. Academic Subculture: Students and faculty within a university setting often share unique norms, values, and behaviors, such as a focus on intellectual pursuit and academic achievement. 2. Sports Enthusiasts: Fans and participants in specific sports may develop a subculture with its own jargon, rituals, and community activities, such as attending games and participating in fan forums. 3. Music or Art Enthusiasts: Those who are deeply involved in specific music genres or art forms create subcultures characterized by their distinct styles, language, and social events. 4. Hobby Groups: Individuals engaged in hobbies like gaming, crafting, or collecting may have subcultures with specialized knowledge, conventions, and social gatherings. Belonging to multiple subcultures can shape one's identity and social interactions, reflecting the diversity within a larger societal framework. 16. What does research show us about the acceptance of a common set of values by freshman college students? Answer: Research indicates that freshman college students often experience a period of transition where they encounter and negotiate various values. Many studies show that while there is a general acceptance of core values such as education and personal development, students may also face a diversity of values from different cultural, social, and personal backgrounds. Freshmen may embrace certain values such as independence, social engagement, and academic achievement, but they also negotiate these against their pre-existing beliefs and the values of their peers. The process of adjusting to college life often involves a period of value reevaluation, where students might align more with the campus culture or maintain their own set of values. This transitional phase highlights the dynamic nature of value acceptance and the influence of new social environments on personal value systems. 17. What does the term dominant ideology refer to, and how is it used by conflict theorists? Answer: The term dominant ideology refers to the set of widely accepted beliefs, values, and norms that shape the worldview of the majority in a society and often serve the interests of the powerful. It reflects the beliefs that are promoted by dominant groups to maintain their social and economic power. Conflict theorists, such as Karl Marx, use the concept of dominant ideology to explain how the ruling class perpetuates its control by shaping and disseminating beliefs that justify and normalize social inequalities. According to conflict theory, dominant ideologies help maintain the status quo by making existing power structures appear natural and unchangeable, thus preventing challenges to the status quo and suppressing dissent. By critiquing the dominant ideology, conflict theorists aim to reveal how ideologies function to uphold the interests of the elite while marginalizing subordinate groups. 18. How do the functionalist and conflict views of the dominant ideology differ? Answer: The functionalist view of the dominant ideology sees it as an essential component for maintaining social order and stability. From this perspective, the dominant ideology provides a common set of values and norms that help integrate individuals into society, promote social cohesion, and ensure that social institutions function smoothly. It acts as a mechanism for societal consensus, helping individuals understand their roles and responsibilities within the larger social system. In contrast, the conflict view sees the dominant ideology as a tool used by the ruling class to perpetuate their power and control. Conflict theorists argue that the dominant ideology serves the interests of the elite by justifying and legitimizing social inequalities and maintaining the status quo. According to this view, the dominant ideology often masks the exploitation and oppression of subordinate groups, making systemic inequalities appear natural or deserved, thus preventing challenges to the established power structures. 19. Discuss the possible relationship between the dominant ideology and poverty in the United States. Answer: The dominant ideology in the United States often emphasizes values such as individualism, self-reliance, and personal responsibility. This ideology can shape public perceptions of poverty, influencing how society views and addresses social inequality. For instance, the belief that success is solely a result of personal effort may lead to the notion that poverty is a result of individual failings rather than systemic issues. This relationship can impact social policy and public attitudes towards poverty. Policies may focus on "helping people help themselves" rather than addressing structural causes of poverty, such as economic inequality or lack of access to education. Additionally, the dominant ideology may lead to stigmatization of the poor, reinforcing stereotypes and reducing support for social welfare programs. By framing poverty as a personal failure, the dominant ideology can hinder efforts to address the broader systemic factors contributing to economic disparity. 20. Distinguish between subcultures and countercultures. Answer: Subcultures are groups within a larger society that maintain distinct values, norms, and practices that differ from those of the mainstream culture but do not fundamentally oppose it. Subcultures coexist with the dominant culture and can include groups like fans of specific music genres, hobbyists, or professional communities. While they have unique characteristics, they generally accept the broader societal norms and values. Countercultures, on the other hand, actively reject and oppose the dominant cultural norms and values. They challenge the status quo and seek to create an alternative way of life. Examples of countercultures include the hippie movement of the 1960s, which rejected conventional values and norms regarding consumerism and social norms, or modern-day activist groups that advocate for radical social change. Unlike subcultures, countercultures explicitly confront and seek to change the dominant societal structure. 21. How do functionalist and conflict views of cultural variation differ? Answer: From the functionalist perspective, cultural variation is seen as a natural and beneficial aspect of social life that contributes to social stability and integration. Functionalists argue that cultural diversity allows for the adaptation of society to different needs and environments. Various cultural practices and norms fulfill specific functions within the society, such as reinforcing social bonds, creating social cohesion, and maintaining equilibrium. In this view, cultural variation is often seen as a positive factor that helps societies address diverse needs and maintain order. In contrast, the conflict perspective views cultural variation as a reflection of underlying power struggles and inequalities. Conflict theorists argue that cultural differences often arise from the struggles between different social classes or groups with conflicting interests. Cultural variation can highlight and perpetuate social divisions, with dominant groups using cultural norms to maintain their power and suppress subordinate groups. For conflict theorists, cultural differences are not just variations but are often used to justify and reinforce social hierarchies and inequalities. 22. Why are militia groups an example of a counterculture rather than a subculture? Answer: Militia groups are considered a counterculture rather than a subculture because they actively reject and oppose the dominant cultural norms and values of mainstream society. Unlike subcultures, which maintain their distinctiveness while generally accepting the broader societal framework, militia groups challenge the established social order. They often advocate for radical changes and reject the legitimacy of existing government structures, legal systems, and societal norms. Militia groups may engage in activities that directly confront and oppose the mainstream culture’s values and institutions, such as advocating for armed resistance against government authority. Their goals and practices are often in direct conflict with those of the dominant society, making them a counterculture as they seek to create an alternative social order rather than simply existing within the existing one. 23. Distinguish between ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. Answer: Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view one's own culture or ethnic group as superior to others. It involves evaluating other cultures based on the standards and values of one's own culture, often leading to misinterpretation or devaluation of other cultural practices. Ethnocentric perspectives can foster prejudice, discrimination, and a lack of understanding between different cultural groups. Cultural relativism, on the other hand, is the practice of assessing and understanding a culture based on its own values and standards rather than imposing one's own cultural norms. It involves recognizing and appreciating the diversity of cultural practices and beliefs without making judgments about their validity. Cultural relativism promotes an understanding that cultural norms and values are relative to each society and should be evaluated within their own context, fostering tolerance and reducing ethnocentric biases. 24. Use the concepts of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism to examine the debate about bilingualism. Answer: The debate about bilingualism often illustrates both ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. Ethnocentrism in this context can be seen in the criticism of bilingual education and policies by those who view English as the superior or more "authentic" language of the nation. Critics who hold ethnocentric views may argue that bilingualism undermines national unity or cultural integrity, valuing their own linguistic norms over those of non-English speakers. In contrast, cultural relativism promotes understanding and acceptance of bilingualism as a legitimate and valuable aspect of cultural diversity. Advocates of cultural relativism would argue that bilingual education helps preserve cultural heritage and enables non-English speakers to maintain their cultural identity while also integrating into broader society. This perspective supports the idea that language diversity should be embraced and respected as part of a multicultural society rather than judged by the standards of a single dominant culture. 25. How do the functionalist and conflict views of bilingualism differ? Answer: From a functionalist perspective, bilingualism is seen as a beneficial adaptation that contributes to social cohesion and integration. Functionalists argue that bilingual education and policies help individuals function effectively in a multicultural society by providing them with the tools to participate fully in both their cultural community and the broader society. Bilingualism is viewed as enhancing communication, social inclusion, and cooperation among different linguistic groups, thereby promoting overall social stability. In contrast, the conflict perspective views bilingualism through the lens of power dynamics and social inequality. Conflict theorists argue that bilingualism can highlight and perpetuate existing social and economic inequalities. They may suggest that bilingual policies are often implemented in ways that serve the interests of dominant groups or that bilingual individuals face systemic disadvantages in accessing resources and opportunities. Conflict theorists might also critique the ways in which bilingualism can be used to reinforce social hierarchies, with language being a marker of privilege or marginalization. 26. Discuss the ambivalent history of public policy concern over bilingualism in the United States. Answer: The history of public policy on bilingualism in the United States reflects a complex and ambivalent stance. Initially, American policies often favored monolingualism as a means of promoting assimilation and national unity. For much of the 19th and early 20th centuries, there was significant resistance to bilingual education and language diversity, with policies designed to suppress non-English languages in favor of promoting English as a unifying force. However, this stance began to shift in the mid-20th century, particularly with the Civil Rights Movement and growing recognition of the rights of linguistic minorities. The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 marked a significant policy change by supporting bilingual education programs to better serve students who spoke languages other than English. Despite this, the debate continued, with ongoing political and social contention over the extent to which bilingualism should be supported. Some argue that bilingualism fosters multiculturalism and inclusion, while others view it as a challenge to national unity or a means of exacerbating social divisions. This ambivalence reflects broader societal tensions about identity, assimilation, and the role of language in American life. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Discuss how a functionalist would view the role of language in a culture. Be sure to address the issue of bilingualism in America. Answer: A functionalist would view language as essential for maintaining social cohesion and facilitating communication within a culture. Bilingualism in America is seen as a means to integrate diverse groups while preserving cultural heritage, thereby contributing to social stability and inclusion. 2. Discuss how a conflict theorist would view the American domination of websites and other informational sources on the Internet, compared to other world nations. Answer: A conflict theorist would argue that American dominance of websites and informational sources reflects and reinforces global power imbalances, where U.S. corporations and governments exert influence and control over information, marginalizing other nations and their perspectives. 3. Discuss how the interactionist perspective would likely view the importance of human interaction with certain cultural symbols. Give some examples to support your answer. Answer: An interactionist would emphasize how human interaction with cultural symbols, such as flags or religious icons, shapes and reinforces shared meanings and social norms. For example, wearing a national flag can signify patriotism and belonging within a specific cultural context. 4. Describe how language and gestures could be used to institutionalize stereotypes within a culture. Give some examples to support your answer. Answer: Language and gestures can institutionalize stereotypes by embedding them in everyday communication and cultural practices. For instance, derogatory terms and biased gestures can perpetuate racial or gender stereotypes, influencing societal attitudes and behaviors. 5. Discuss the United States’ response to the fear of weapons of mass destruction and the recent war with Iraq using both a cultural relativistic and an ethnocentric view. Which view do you think most American policymakers are adopting? Answer: From a cultural relativistic view, the U.S. response to weapons of mass destruction and the Iraq war would be seen as contextually justified based on its own values and security concerns. An ethnocentric view would judge this response based on American standards of justice and security, potentially criticizing other nations' reactions or perspectives. American policymakers are likely adopting a more ethnocentric view to align with national interests and security priorities. 6. Problematize the concept of cultural relativism; that is, have students discuss the problems inherent in assuming a relativist position. While this is often the expressed view of many college students (and intellectuals), why and how is it also a difficult position to defend in certain instances? Good examples for discussion include FGM or female genital mutilation and/or the so-called “pro-incest lobby.” See NAMBLA, for example. Related topics for discussion might include the right of organizations to express hate speech (and to post such language and ideologies online). Answer: The concept of cultural relativism can be problematic as it may lead to justifying harmful practices like FGM or hate speech by deferring to cultural norms. While it promotes tolerance, it can also make it challenging to critique or intervene in practices that violate universal human rights. STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Sociology and Biology: See J. Richard Udry, “Sociology and Biology: What Biology Do Sociologists Need to Know?” Social Forces 73 (June 1995): 1267–1278; Frans B. M. de Waal, “The Biological Basis of Behavior,” Chronicle of Higher Education 42 (June 14, 1996): B1–B2; David L. Wheeler, “Evolutionary Economics,” Chronicle of Higher Education 42 (June 14, 1996): A8, A12. 2. DNA and Culture: Can we reconstruct human history by tracing back DNA samples? Is this some new form of sociobiology or merely good biological research? See Boyce Rensberger, “The Melting Pot under a Microscope,” Washington Post National Weekly Edition (March 15, 1993): 38. 3. American Subcultures: Sunaina Marr Maira. Desis in the House: Indian American Youth Culture in New York City. Philadephia, PA: Temple University Press, 2002. 4. Political Correctness under Fire: To learn about those who speak critically of “political correctness,” contact the National Association of Scholars, 575 Ewing Street, Princeton, NJ, 08540 (online: http://www.nas.org/ ). 5. Bilingualism: Investigate your college’s policies concerning bilingualism. Are students graded in your sociology class based on their knowledge of sociology, the English language, or both? 6. Discuss and defend the idea of Wal-Mart as a subculture. Have students visit at least three different Wal-Mart stores, identifying values and norms found within each store. Students will, most likely, find a good deal of similarity across the stores. How are values “displayed” in the stores? What evidence of norms can be found in the stores, for example, among Wal-Mart employees? Have students observe the behaviors, dress, and speech used by cashiers, greeters, and other employees. Have students reflect on whether or not Wal-Mart values reinforce mainstream American values. VIDEO RESOURCES The Amish: Not to Be Modern (MPI Home Video, 1996, 57m). This video provides a glimpse into a religious community that separates itself from the world. Culture (Insight Media, 2002, 30m). This film explains that various cultural practices and beliefs occur within historical and environmental contexts. It also portrays cultural diversity within the United States, showing that different subcultures and cultural expressions address human needs. Culture, Time, and Place (Canadian Learning Company, 1992, 30m). This film uses a Japanese festival as the context for exploring issues related to culture. Culture: English Takes Center Stage (Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 2002, 50m). This video discusses the propelling of English into the language for cross-cultural expression. Included is the success of media in disseminating English into movies and music. The Day I Will Never Forget (Women Make Movies, 2002, 35 mm). This documentary discusses the practice of female genital mutilation. Young girls and women are interviewed about their views toward the practice. The film features both advocates and opponents of FGM. The Devil’s Playground (Stick Figure Productions, 2002). This documentary discusses the Amish rite of passage known as Rumspringa, in which Amish adolescents are permitted to engage in activities associated with mainstream American teenagers. Do You Speak American? (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2005, 3 x 57m each). This three-part series looks at the ongoing evolution of American English—a language rich in regional variation, strong in global impact, and steeped in cultural controversy. Everybody’s Ethnic: Your Invisible Culture (Insight Media, 2001, 21m). This film explores the traditions of non-American cultures, for the purpose of shedding light on the “invisible culture” in the U.S. The Heart of the Nation: Comparing Social Values in the U.S., Japan, and Germany (McGraw-Hill, 1994, 58m). This program explores the central values of Japan, Germany, and the United States, and focuses on what drives each of these societies. America’s hallmark is individualism; Japan’s the preeminence of the group. In America, freedom and diversity are primary values; in Japan, conformity and a powerful sense of nationalism prevail. Germany stands between the two, asserting individualism but striving, more than the United States, for social harmony and consensus. The program shows how education is a metaphor for the contrasts in the three societies. The Human Zoo (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2002, 3 x 52m). This three-part video describes a reality-based experiment that tracks the behavior of 12 subjects isolated in a country house exposed to various situations to test the limits of human behavior. The series includes: Brief Encounters (52 m), Following the Herd (52m), and Crimes of Obedience (52m). Interpersonal Relationships in a Multicultural World (1994, 22m). This video explores how to get along with people from different cultures and ethnic backgrounds. Is Wal-Mart Good for America (PBS Video, 1995). This compelling documentary gives the viewer a glimpse into the culture of Wal-Mart. The film discusses the manner in which Wal-Mart socializes its employees as well as controversial business practices used by the company. Knocking (PBS, 2006). This documentary explores the beliefs and practices of a very controversial religious sect, the Jehovah’s Witnesses. Savagery and the American Indian: “Civilization” (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2002, 50 m). This program documents the systematic cultural persecution of Native Americans. It focuses on the struggle of indigenous nations to reclaim and retain their language, history, and identity in the face of historical revisionism, coercive evangelism, and forcible assimilation. Social Groups (Insight Media, 2002, 30m). Two very well-known sociologists, William Kornblum and Michèle Lamont, explore the relationships between social groups and society. The Virtual Wasteland (McGraw-Hill, 1996, 21m). This program examines whether or not this new world offered by technology is in fact a virtual wasteland. “In many ways,” observes virtual reality inventor Jaron Lanier, “the new technology is a panacea.” He foresees a virtual world in which inequality, cruelty, and violence are likely to continue. The program visits Singapore, which is the most advanced technical society in the world. But technology has not set its people free; on the contrary, it is one of the most oppressed and oppressive societies in the world. War of the Words (1992, 27m). The issues of political correctness and multiculturalism have polarized academic departments and institutions in recent years. Traveling to colleges in different regions of the United States, this program explores issues of whether or not to integrate multiculturalism into a college curriculum and the extent to which it should be emphasized. Windows on Asia-Pacific: Asian Television Commercials (1997, McGraw-Hill, 49m). Media visionary Marshall McLuhan once observed that advertising provides the richest and most faithful reflection of a society’s culture. What, then, do television commercials reveal about the non-Western world? This documentary examines how sensibilities differ between East and West, as seen through the lens of advertising imagery. You Must Have Been a Bilingual Baby (Filmakers Library, 1992, 46m). Viewers visit a program where adults learn a second language and a bilingual classroom for children. Specialists in bilingualism investigate the ease with which babies become bilingual and the difficulties adults face in learning a new language. ADDITIONAL READINGS Best, Joel (ed.). 2001. How Claims Spread: Cross-National Diffusion of Social Problems. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter. Diffusion of culture can also refer to images of social reality, as reflected in this volume. Clark, Cindy Dell. 1995. Flights of Fancy, Leaps of Faith: Children’s Myths in Contemporary America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Discussion of explicit and implicit themes in children’s literature, fairy tales, and popular holidays. Cowen, Tyler. 2002. Creative Destruction: How Globalization Is Changing the World’s Cultures. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. This book takes a different tack on the question of cultural influence, asking not how American culture has been globally influential, but how outside cultures have influenced the U.S. Cunningham, Michael, and Craig Marberry. 2000. Crowns: Portraits of Black Women in Church Hats. New York: Random House. This richly illustrated book makes clear that what we wear conveys the impression we wish to give to others. DeVita, Philip B., and Hames D. Armstrong, eds. 2001. Distant Mirrors: America as a Foreign Culture, 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Essays by scholars from Europe, Africa, Asia, and Latin America who conduct observation research about U.S. society and culture from the outsider’s perspective. Edin, Kathryn, and Maria Kefalas. 2007. Promises I Can Keep: Why Poor Women Put Motherhood Before Marriage. Berkeley: University of California Press. In this book, the authors explore the reasons why women from lower-income backgrounds continue to value children and the role of motherhood despite significant economic and political obstacles. The book provides a platform for discussion of subcultural variations in American society. Entwistle, Joanne. 2000. The Fashioned Body: Fashion, Dress and Modern Social Theory. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell Publishers. This book considers the connections between cultural trends in fashion and understandings of the body, gender, and sexuality. Geertz, Clifford. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books. This classic work is required reading for students of anthropology and sociology who wish to better understand and theorize about the role of culture in our lives. Hill, Jane H. The Everyday Language of White Racism. 2008. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing. In this recent publication, Hill explores the role of language in perpetuating racism. Kraybill, Donald B., and Steven M. Nott. 1995. Amish Enterprises: From Plows to Profits. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. An examination of how the Amish have adapted to capitalism in the United States while maintaining their distinctive values and subcultures. Lakoff, Robin Talmach. 2000. The Language War. Berkeley: University of California Press. A linguist considers how language shapes a culture and the discussions within a society. It uses case studies of contemporary issues, such as the O.J. Simpson murder trial, the Ebonics controversy, and the Clinton sex scandal. Lemish, Dafna. 2006. Children and Television: A Global Perspective. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell Publishers. Relying on both European and American perspectives and methodologies, this interesting book considers the role of television in children’s lives. Lutz, Catherine A., and Jane L. Collins. 1993. Reading National Geographic. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. National Geographic has been the window to the world, but how has it chosen to present that world? A sociologist and an anthropologist collaborate to answer that question. Maynard, Douglas W. 2003. Bad News, Good News: Conversational Order in Everyday Talk and Clinical Settings. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. This text analyzes, in an interesting context, some of the cultural dimensions of language use. Nelson, Alondra, and Thuy Linh N. Tu, with Alicia Headlam Hines (ed.). 2001. Technicolor: Race, Technology, and Everyday Life. New York: New York University Press. This is an analytical look at the intersection of today’s technology with race, considering such topics as how ethnic groups are stereotyped concerning their use of the latest advances. Zellner, William M. 1995. Countercultures: A Sociological Analysis. New York: St. Martin’s. An overview of six countercultures found in the United States: the Unification Church, the Church of Scientology, Satanists, skinheads, survivalists, and the Ku Klux Klan. Zukin, Sharon. 2003. Point of Purchase: How Shopping Changed American Culture. New York: Routledge. The author gives a very interesting analysis of the social meaning of shopping among Americans. JOURNALS Among the journals that focus on issues of culture and language are Academic Questions (the journal of the National Association of Scholars, founded in 1988), American Anthropologist (1988), Cross-Cultural Research (1967), Cultural Studies: Critical Methodologies (2001), Cultural Survival Quarterly (1977), Ethnology (1962), International Journal of the Sociology of Language (1974), MultiCultural Social Change (1979), and Theory, Culture, and Society (1982). Solution Manual for Sociology in Modules Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026812, 9780071318419