This Document Contains Chapters 1 to 2 Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment Chapter Overview Chapter 1 is a foundation chapter, introducing students to basic, core systems analysis and design concepts. These basic concepts include a definition of information systems analysis and design, an overview of systems analysis and design core concepts, a discussion of a system and its parts, an introduction to the modern approach to systems analysis and design, an overview of the systems analyst’s role in systems development, and a review of the types of information systems and systems development. The chapter concludes with an introduction to the systems development life cycle, its four phases, and alternative approaches to development. Instructional Objectives Specific student learning objectives are included at the beginning of the chapter. From an instructor’s point of view, the objectives of this chapter are to: 1. Define information systems analysis and design. 2. Define and discuss the modern approach to systems analysis and design. 3. Illustrate how systems development extends to different types of information systems and not just transaction processing systems. 4. Introduce the traditional information systems development life cycle, which serves as the basis for the organization of the material in this book. 5. Show students that the life cycle is a flexible basis for systems analysis and design and that it can support many different tools and techniques, such as prototyping and JAD. 6. Discuss the importance and role of CASE in systems development. 7. Discuss information systems development options, including IT services firms, packaged software producers, enterprise-wide solutions, open-source software, and in-house developers. 8. Discuss the different approaches to systems development, including prototyping, CASE tools, joint application development, rapid application development, participatory design, and Agile Methodologies. Classroom Ideas 1. Emphasize the differences between methodologies, techniques, and tools. Such differences are not obvious to students; often they think of methodologies as just a set of techniques and that techniques and tools are synonymous. 2. Give concrete examples during class discussion of the following types of IS: transaction processing systems, management information systems, and decision support systems. Ask students to talk about the information systems with which they are familiar. 3. When discussing different types of information systems, discuss the differences between systems that support back room operations, such as basic accounting functions, and systems that directly affect the bottom line. If students are aware of such systems, they usually are not aware of how these systems provide a competitive advantage. Discussing different types of systems provides a chance to talk about the differences between these two categories of systems. 4. When introducing the life cycle model in the text, you may want to introduce other life cycle models from other textbook authors or in other forms. This shows students that there is no one standard life cycle model and that the model they will rely on when they begin work as a systems analyst will likely differ from the life cycle model in the text. The point is to show them they can use the life cycle as an archetype to understand other models, and they should understand there is no one “correct” life cycle model. The life cycle represents activities that must be done, and the phases are a way to introduce, in an organized way, the methods, techniques, tools, and skills necessary for successful systems analysis and design. 5. Give a brief overview of the activities and outputs from each of the four life cycle phases, based on your own experience or from your reading of the rest of the book. Table 1–1 identifies the products of the four SDLC phases. 6. Although prototyping and joint application design are covered in more depth later in the book, you can provide a more in-depth introduction to these techniques than discussed in Chapter 1. Figure 1–13 is a good point of departure for a discussion of prototyping and what it adds to structured development techniques. 7. Participatory Design is briefly introduced in this chapter but can be discussed in more depth. A brief overview of the Participatory Design concept is available at http://www.cpsr.org/issues/pd/index_html. Several books are available on this topic, as well as numerous Web sites. You can also ask your students to find recent articles about this topic. 8. Spend a few minutes discussing the importance of analytical, technical, managerial, and interpersonal skills for a systems analyst. Ask students to identify which of the skills categories they think is the most important and why. 9. Figure 1–2 is an excellent tool for illustrating the basic system components. 10. Use Table 1–1 to summarize the products, outputs and deliverables of the phases of the SDLC. 11. Compare and contrast Agile Methodologies with the traditional SDLC. Lecture Notes What Is Information Systems Analysis and Design? All organizations have information systems, and use them for operational, tactical, and strategic advantage. For information systems to remain effective, these systems must efficiently capture, store, process, and distribute information according to business objectives. To properly maintain these systems, systems analysts will perform information systems analysis and design. Information systems analysis and design is based on an understanding of the organization’s objectives, structure, and processes, as well as the analyst’s knowledge of how to exploit information technology for competitive advantage. Systems Analysis and Design: Core Concepts Improving organizational information systems is the major goal of systems analysis and design. Figure 1–1 illustrates the four systems development life cycle phases. Although a systems analyst’s primary role is application software development, an analysis of the other computer-based information systems components is warranted. As Figure 1–2 shows, these components include hardware, controls, specific job roles, users of the system, system software, and documentation and training manuals. As shown in Figure 1–3, methodologies, techniques, and tools are central to the software engineering process. Systems This section introduces students to the definition of a system, its parts, and other important system concepts. The textbook defines a system as a group of interrelated procedures used for a business function, with an identifiable boundary, working together for some purpose. A system has nine characteristics. Figure 1–4 shows seven of the nine characteristics. The nine characteristics are: components, interrelated components, boundary, purpose, environment, interfaces, input, output, and constraints. Figure 1–5 describes a university as a system. A systems analyst should also be familiar with decomposition, modularity, coupling, and cohesion system concepts. Figure 1–6 illustrates decomposition. A Modern Approach to Systems Analysis and Design Systems integration and enterprise-wide systems are two alternatives for company systems. The client/server model, illustrated in Figure 1–7, stresses the importance of systems integration, which is the focus of today’s systems development efforts. Organizations may also purchase an enterprise-wide system from companies like SAP or Oracle. The systems analyst is the person primarily responsible for performing systems analysis and design within an organization. A job advertisement for a systems analyst position is provided in Figure 1–8. As this job advertisement indicates, a systems analyst’s skills set should include analytical, technical, managerial, and interpersonal skills. Developing Information Systems and the Systems Development Life Cycle Organizations use a systems development methodology to develop and support their information systems. A systems development life cycle (SDLC) is a common methodology for systems development, and each organization will use a slightly different version. The life cycle presented in the textbook has four phases: (1) systems planning and selection; (2) systems analysis; (3) systems design; and (4) systems implementation and operation. Figure 1–9 illustrates these phases. Figure 1–10 illustrates the circular nature of the systems development life cycle. Systems planning and selection has two primary activities: (1) identifying a potential project and (2) investigating the system and determining the proposed system’s scope. Systems analysis consists of three subphases: requirements determination, requirements structuring, and alternative generation and selection. Systems design, the third life cycle phase, has two primary activities: logical design and physical design. Figure 1–11 illustrates the differences between logical and physical design. The final phase, systems implementation and operation, involves implementing and operating the system. Table 1–1 summarizes the products of each SDLC phase. Approaches to Development This chapter discusses six approaches to systems development. These approaches are: prototyping, computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools, joint application design (JAD), rapid application development (RAD), participatory design (PD), and the use of Agile Methodologies. Prototyping is the process of building a scaled-down version of the desired information system. Figure 1–12 illustrates the prototyping method. Computer-aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools provide automated support for some portion of the systems development process. Computer-aided Software Engineering tools use a repository. Joint Application Design (JAD) brings users, managers, and analysts together for several days in a series of intensive meetings to specify or review system requirements. Rapid Application Development (RAD) radically decreases the time necessary to design and implement information systems. Figure 1–13 compares the RAD systems development life cycle with the standard systems development life cycle. Participatory Design (PD), developed in northern Europe, has as its central focus users and the improvement of their work lives. Agile Methodologies focus on adaptive methodologies, people instead of roles, and a self-adaptive process. Key Terms Checkpoint Solutions Answers for the Key Terms Checkpoint section are provided below. The number following each key term indicates its location in the key term list. Review Questions Solutions 1-1. What is information systems analysis and design? Answer: Information systems analysis and design is the process of developing and maintaining an information system. 1-2. What is systems thinking? How is it useful for thinking about computer-based information systems? Answer: Systems thinking involves identifying something as a system, visualizing the system and translating it into abstract terms, and thinking about the characteristics of the specific situation. Systems thinking is useful for thinking about computer-based information systems because information systems can be seen as subsystems in larger organizational systems, taking input from, and returning output to, their organizational environments. 1- 3. What is decomposition? Coupling? Cohesion? Answer: Decomposition is the process of breaking down a system into its component parts. Coupling is the extent to which subsystems are dependent on each other. Cohesion is the extent to which a system or a subsystem performs a single function. 1-4. In what way are organizations systems? Answer: Organizations are systems because they are made up of interrelated components working together for a purpose. They take input from and return output to their environments. Organizations can be redesigned through a systems analysis and design process by which system components are replaced while preserving interconnections between components. 1-5. List and explain the different phases in the systems development life cycle. Answer: A systems development life cycle is a set of phases that mark the development of an information system. The systems development life cycle in the textbook consists of four phases: (1) systems planning and selection; During planning and selection, an organization’s total information systems needs are analyzed and prioritized, a potential information systems project is identified, and an argument for continuing or not continuing with the project is made. (2) systems analysis; During the analysis phase, the current system is studied, and new requirements are determined and structured according to their interrelationships. After requirements determination, alternative design strategies are generated. (3) systems design; and During design, the chosen alternative design strategy is converted into logical and physical design specifications. (4) systems implementation and operation. During implementation and operation, the information system is coded, tested, and installed in the organization. Once the system is put into production, the system is systematically repaired and improved. 1- 6. What is prototyping? Answer: Prototyping is an iterative process of systems development by which requirements are converted to a working system, which is continually revised through close work between an analyst and users. 1- 7. What are CASE tools? What is a CASE repository and how is it used? Answer: CASE tools provide automated support for some portion of the systems development life cycle. CASE tools include diagramming tools, computer display and report generators, analysis tools, a central repository, documentation generators, and code generators. CASE tools are built around a repository that contains all of the metadata (such as data names, format, uses, and location) for data elements as well as the system specifications. CASE tools automate the repository for easier updating. CASE tools automate routine tasks to help programmers and analysts do their jobs better. 1-8. What is JAD? What is Participatory Design? Answer: Joint Application Design (JAD) is a group process involving users and systems development staff in which all parties discuss the needs for an information system and reach a shared understanding. Participatory Design (PD) is a systems development approach that originated in northern Europe in which users and the improvement in their work lives is the central focus. 1-9. What is RAD? How does it compare to the typical SDLC? Answer: Rapid application development (RAD) is a systems development methodology created to decrease the time needed to design and implement an information system. One of the hallmarks of RAD is extensive user involvement through traditional JAD sessions as well as evaluation of prototypes. RAD also includes integrated CASE tools and code generators. 1-10. What are Agile Methodologies? Answer: Agile Methodologies promote a self-adaptive software development process. While other methodologies focus on roles that individuals play in a project team, Agile Methodologies focus more on the individual. As software is developed, the process used to develop it is refined and improved through a review process done by the development team. Agile Methodologies differ from traditional system development methodologies in that there is less focus on process and more focus on the people involved in the project. Problems and Exercises Solutions 1-11. Why is it important to use systems analysis and design methodologies when building a system? Why not just build the system in whatever way seems to be “quick and easy”? What value is provided by using an “engineering” approach? Answer: Methodologies, techniques, and tools help ensure the quality and appropriateness of the system being built. Following a systems methodology, applying techniques, and using appropriate tools provides structure to the systems development process, since they have been tested and perfected by others. The quick and easy approach to building systems may be easier, cheaper, and quicker in the short run, but it almost always results in a poorly developed system, meaning that the system will be less than optimal and require extra work to maintain. In the long run, a poorly developed system requires more time and money to make right. Following an engineering-type approach ensures that systems analysis and design is rigorous, structured, and systematic. 1-12. Describe your university or college as a system. What is the input? The output? The boundary? The components? Their interrelationships? The constraints? The purpose? The interfaces? The environment? Draw a diagram of this system. Answer: Students will identify a variety of inputs and outputs for the selected university or college. Possible inputs include high school transcripts, applications, tuition payments, and state and federal regulations. Outputs include diplomas, transcripts, billing statements, and inventions. A university’s boundary is more difficult to define. Does the physical boundary of the campus serve as the logical boundary for the organization? What if the school delivers outreach education in the community, state, or region? What if the school delivers technology-based distance education across the globe? How would you classify a university-sponsored high-tech start-up business that is not located on campus? It should be easy for students to list the components of a university. They typically have “business” functions, such as procurement, facilities management, and accounting. In addition, they have academic colleges and departments, and they have academic functions such as registration and advising. Universities are usually organized along a functional hierarchy much like traditional business organizations, with vertical reporting relationships and interdisciplinary committees and task forces for horizontal coordination. Nearly all universities are faced with constraints on funding. Many universities are also constrained by their state granted mission. For example, they may be defined by state law as being an exclusively teaching or research institution. Alternatively, state law may mandate from where and what types of students may be admitted. The mission of most universities includes providing education, conducting research, and/or serving their communities. Universities interact with other universities, community colleges, high schools, business organizations, professional organizations, alumni, and many other external entities. The interfaces with these external entities are sometimes formal and sometimes informal. Some examples of formal interfaces include research collaborations between professors and researchers in business or “shadowing” programs where business faculty or students go into the field and learn from a business executive. University System Overview: • Input: Students, faculty, funding, resources, curriculum • Output: Graduates, research, alumni, community services • Boundary: Distinguishes university from external environment • Components: Administration, academic departments, support services, infrastructure • Interrelationships: Students learn from faculty, faculty supported by administration, administration manages resources • Constraints: Budget, accreditation, regulations, enrollment limits • Purpose: Educate, research, serve community • Interfaces: Admissions, registrar, career services • Environment: Community, industry, government, technology Diagram: 1-13. A car is a system with several subsystems, including the braking subsystem, the electrical subsystem, the engine, the fuel subsystem, the climate-control subsystem, and the passenger subsystem. Draw a diagram of a car as a system and label all of its system characteristics. Answer: The purpose of this question is to encourage your students to begin viewing various entities as systems, and decompose these systems into their components. A simple diagram, showing examples of the car system’s characteristics, is provided below. The car’s purpose is to provide safe transportation to wherever the driver needs to go. A constraint is the number of passengers that can ride in the vehicle. 1-14. Your personal computer is a system. Draw and label a personal computer as a system as you did for a car in Problem and Exercise 3. Answer: Student answers for this question will vary. However, a suggested answer, showing examples of a personal computer system’s characteristics, is provided below. The purpose of the computer is to perform operations for the user. A constraint for the system is its processing speed. Labels: • CPU: Central Processing Unit • Memory (RAM): Random Access Memory • Storage: Hard Drive or SSD • Input Devices: Keyboard, Mouse • Output Devices: Monitor, Printer 1-15. Choose a business transaction you undertake regularly, such as using an ATM machine, buying groceries at the supermarket, or buying a ticket for a university’s basketball game. For this transaction, define the data, draw the data-flow diagram, and describe processing logic. Answer: For an ATM transaction, the data include customer name, customer account number, customer personal identification number, customer account balance, transaction type, and transaction amount. At this point, the student should not be expected to know the structure or nomenclature of a data-flow diagram or of processing logic. For the ATM example, they should be able to explain that a customer’s name is read from the account identification number on his/her ATM card. Customers input their personal identification number by hand and, if this number is matched with their account identification number, they are granted access to begin an ATM transaction. They will either request to inquire into the status of their account, withdraw money, or deposit money. If, for example, they request to withdraw money, their request will be matched with their available funds and the allowable daily limit for that ATM machine. If acceptable, the cash will be dispensed, their account will be debited, and a receipt will be provided. Do not worry whether or not the student knows the technique or nomenclature at this point. It is more important that the student can analyze the transaction, break it down into its component parts and pieces of data, and understand the process. 1-16. How is the Joint Application Design (JAD) approach different from the Participatory Design (PD) approach developed in northern Europe? (You may have to do some digging at the library to answer this question adequately.) What are the benefits in using approaches like this in building information systems? What are the barriers? Answer: Both Joint Application Design and Participatory Design are development processes designed to help build better systems by engaging the direct participation of users. The primary difference between them lies in the locus of control for systems development. With the JAD approach, control of systems development typically still rests with the systems staff. Indeed, the outputs from JAD sessions are commonly summarized and handled by the systems staff after users have a chance to review the transcripts. With the PD approach, control of systems development is either shared by systems personnel and users or rests solely with the users and their managers. With the movement toward end-user development in the United States, we are moving more toward shared control of systems and systems development. The benefits to the JAD and PD approaches are that they are likely to result in better systems and higher user commitment to the systems than would be the case if these techniques were not used. Some of the barriers to these approaches are that they require extra systems analyst skills and knowledge; in the short run they add more time and expense to the systems development process, and they require more time and effort from already busy users and user managers. 1-17. How would you organize a project team of students to work with a small business client? How would you organize a project team if you were working for a professional consulting organization? How might these two methods of organization differ? Why? Answer: The student project team should be of a size that is adequate for the task at hand. The team members should also possess the necessary set of skills and experience for the task at hand. It is important that there be diversity of skills and abilities across team members, but it is also helpful if the team members have some common interests and values on which to build collegiality and trust. It is not necessary that there be a clearly defined “leader” for the team (leadership can rotate by time or phase), but there should be clearly defined roles and responsibilities for each of the team members. There should also be a reward structure (for example, a grade) that promotes shared responsibility and accountability. Finally, because their project is for a small business client, the team members must act professionally and deliver a quality product on time. Surprisingly, these steps do not necessarily change much for organizing a project team within a professional consulting organization. One difference might be that, because you would be concerned more with the long-term professional growth of the team members, you might make team member selections and project assignments that take into account the long-term career development of each of the team members. 1-18. How might prototyping be used as part of the SDLC? Answer: Prototyping is useful for requirements determination, helping to clarify and communicate user requirements. Also, a prototype can serve as the basis for the final system. Imagine that an analyst is helping to develop a system that will enable a sales representative to access information about inventory levels in real time rather than having to phone someone in production who then physically checks inventory levels and calls the sales representative back. The analyst might begin by asking the sales representative what kinds of information about inventory he/she needs, including when and where he/she needs to access this information. The analyst might then use a graphical, object-oriented development tool, such as Microsoft’s VB.Net, to quickly build some sample interface displays that meet the sales representative’s needs. The analyst would then have the sales representative review these displays and give the analyst feedback. The analyst could then modify the displays and, again, solicit feedback from the sales representative. Given the ease-of-use of VB.Net, the analyst could even build the sample interface “on-the-fly” with the sales representative present and helping to build the displays. The sample interface could then be used to build the actual system, either in VB.Net or in some other development environment. 1-19. Describe the difference in the role of a systems analyst in the SDLC versus prototyping? Answer: The role of the systems analyst in the SDLC is essentially the same as that in prototyping. The primary difference is that in prototyping, the analyst is simultaneously performing tasks from the analysis, logical design, and physical design phases of the SDLC. In cases where all or part of the prototype will be used for the actual system, the analyst is also performing tasks from the implementation phase of the SDLC. In cases where the analyst builds the prototype with the direct, real-time assistance of the users, the analyst and users are collaboratively completing several steps of the SDLC in one step. 1-20. Compare Figures 1–9 and 1–10. What similarities and differences do you see? Answer: Figure 1–10 illustrates an evolutionary model of the SDLC, and Figure 1–9 illustrates the circular nature of the systems development life cycle. While both figures convey the iterative nature of systems analysis and design, Figure 1–11 implies that we cycle through the systems development life cycle at varying levels of detail. Similarities: • Both diagrams show a system with interacting components. • They outline the boundaries of the system. Differences: • The components differ (e.g., car vs. computer parts). • Focus and detail vary based on the system (mechanical vs. electronic). Discussion Question Solutions 1-21. If someone at a party asked you what a systems analyst was and why anyone would want to be one, what would you say? Support your answer with evidence from this chapter. Answer: A good starting point for answering this question is to discuss the importance of an organization’s information systems and the systems analyst’s role in the systems development process. A systems analyst is a problem solver. The challenge of tackling a problem or opportunity, designing a solution, and implementing a viable, valuable, and improved information system has much appeal. Additionally, the results of the analyst’s work directly impact how the organization operates and whether or not the organization can achieve and maintain a competitive advantage. In addition, the analyst is paid quite well. 1-22. Explain how a computer-based information system designed to process payroll is a specific example of a system. Be sure to account for all nine components of any system in your explanation. Answer: A payroll system can be thought of as a system because it is composed of interrelated subsystems that work together to accomplish a purpose. A payroll system has many components, including components that generate paychecks, make direct deposits, generate various internal reports, process time cards, and process various forms and tax returns. Many of these subsystems or components are related. For instance, the reporting component interacts with the tax, paycheck, and direct deposit components. A direct deposit made to an employee’s bank account is an example of an interface. The payroll system’s boundary encompasses all of the payroll system’s activities. Employees, banks, and the local, state, and federal governments are part of the payroll system’s environment. Hours worked, number of dependents, and number of sick days are examples of input to the payroll system. The various reports, paychecks, and tax forms are types of output. Federal and state tax regulations are examples of system constraints. 1-23. How does the Internet, and more specifically the World Wide Web, fit into the picture of systems analysis and systems development drawn in this chapter? Answer: The Internet has opened up a new frontier for organizations, enabling them to compete on a global basis. This new frontier of electronic commerce is having a tremendous impact on the way that organizations are conducting business. Companies are using the World Wide Web to conduct business with their customers and suppliers, as well as facilitate internal operations. Companies need to reengineer their information systems to take advantage of the World Wide Web and all that it offers. Systems analysis and design is at the heart of this required change. 1-24. What do you think systems analysis and design will look like in the next decade? As you saw earlier in the chapter, changes in systems development have been pretty dramatic in the past. A computer programmer suddenly transported from the 1950s to the 2000s would have trouble recognizing the computing environment that had evolved just 50 years later. What dramatic changes might occur in the next ten years? Answer: As the textbook suggests, much of today’s systems development work focuses on systems integration, which is likely to continue in the coming years. Companies are recognizing the tremendous benefits of electronic commerce and the World Wide Web, so we can expect a continued movement in that area. Over the past 50 years, we have seen much improvement in the methodologies, techniques, and tools that are used for systems development work. This trend should continue. You should encourage students to find articles about the future of systems analysis and design. Many articles are available on the Web. These articles will serve as a launching pad for class discussion. In the next decade, systems analysis and design may see: 1. AI-Driven Tools: Automation in design and analysis through AI. 2. Low-Code/No-Code: Growth of platforms for rapid development. 3. Quantum Computing: Advanced processing capabilities. 4. Immersive Interfaces: Use of AR/VR for system interaction. 5. Enhanced Cybersecurity: Stronger focus on security and privacy. Case Problem Solutions 1-25. Pine Valley Furniture Case Exercises a. How did Pine Valley Furniture go about developing its information systems? Why do you think the company chose this option? What other options were available? Answer: As mentioned in the scenario, Pine Valley Furniture developed its applications in-house. Many reasons are plausible for why the company chose this option. The company may have had unique processing needs that required the system to be built in-house, as opposed to purchasing a prepackaged system. The company may also have viewed its information systems as helping it achieve a competitive advantage. Pine Valley Furniture had several options, including purchasing a system off-the-shelf, implementing an enterprise-wide system, or hiring an information technology services firm to develop its information systems. b. One option available to Pine Valley Furniture was an enterprise-wide system. What features does an enterprise-wide system, such as SAP, provide? What is the primary advantage of an enterprise-wide system? Answer: To answer this question, encourage your students to visit a Web site devoted to enterprise-wide systems. Information about SAP can be found at its Web site: http://www.sap.com. You may wish to have your students compare enterprise-wide systems, such as SAP and PeopleSoft. Information about PeopleSoft can be obtained at http://www.oracle.com/applications/peoplesoft-enterprise.html. Enterprise-wide systems enable companies of all sizes to better manage their financial, human resources, sales, production, and distribution processes. The primary advantage of an enterprise-wide system is its ability to integrate information across the organization. An enterprise-wide system, such as SAP, provides: 1. Integrated Data: Centralized database accessible across all departments. 2. Streamlined Processes: Unified workflows and automation across functions. 3. Real-Time Information: Up-to-date data and analytics for better decision-making. 4. Scalability: Ability to grow with the business and adapt to changes. Primary Advantage: The main benefit is improved efficiency and consistency by integrating and automating business processes across the entire organization. c. Pine Valley Furniture will be hiring two systems analysts next month. Your task is to develop a job advertisement for these positions. Locate several Web sites and/or newspapers that have job advertisements for systems analysts. What skills are required? Answer: Encourage your students to classify the required skills into four categories: analytical, technical, management, and interpersonal. A good place to start looking on the Web is at http://www.monster.com. Students should be able to find numerous systems analysts job advertisements at this Web site. Job Advertisement: Systems Analyst Company: Pine Valley Furniture Location: [Your Location] Type: Full-Time Responsibilities: • Analyze and improve business processes. • Develop IT solutions and documentation. • Collaborate with stakeholders. Required Skills: • Systems analysis and design. • SQL and database management. • Knowledge of SDLC and ERP systems (e.g., SAP). • Strong problem-solving and communication skills. Education: Bachelor’s in Computer Science or related field. Apply: Send resume to [email/website]. Websites for Reference: Indeed, LinkedIn Jobs, Glassdoor. d. What types of information systems are currently utilized at Pine Valley Furniture? Provide an example of each. Answer: Pine Valley Furniture is currently using transaction processing systems, management information systems, and decision support systems. Although not specified in the case scenario, students should be able to quickly identify order processing, management reporting, and forecasting as examples of the different types of information systems. 1-26. Hoosier Burger Case Exercises a. Apply the SDLC approach to Hoosier Burger. Answer: The systems development life cycle can be used to analyze, develop, and support Hoosier Burger’s information systems. During systems planning and selection, Bob, Thelma, and the analyst, recognize the need for improvement in the existing Hoosier Burger systems. This need will translate itself into several projects, such as new order-taking, inventory control, and management reporting systems. Also, needs are prioritized, a scope is identified, and feasibility is assessed. During systems analysis, the analyst examines Hoosier Burger to determine system requirements, structure these requirements, and generate alternative design strategies. During systems design, both logical and physical designs are prepared. During logical design, the analyst concentrates on the business aspects of Hoosier Burger. During physical design, Hoosier Burger’s logical design is translated into physical design specifications. During systems implementation and operation, the design specifications for the new Hoosier Burger system become a working system, and modifications to the new information system are made when warranted. b. Using the Hoosier Burger scenario, identify an example of each system characteristic. Answer: The ordering system is an example of a component; the order and inventory systems are interrelated components. The boundary encompasses the ordering system, inventory system, and management reporting system. Hoosier Burger’s purpose is to make a profit for its owners and to provide quality products and services to its customers. Customers, suppliers, funding agencies, and regulatory agencies exist in Hoosier Burger’s environment. An interface exists between the customer and the counter. An order serves as input; a sales receipt serves as output. Constraints would include health regulations. c. Decompose Hoosier Burger into its major subsystems. Answer: Hoosier Burger has four major subsystems. These systems are order-taking, food preparation, inventory, and management reporting. Students may classify these subsystems differently; however, the goal is for students to decompose the Hoosier Burger system into its primary subsystems. Hoosier Burger Major Subsystems: 1. Order Management System: Handles order taking, processing, and payment. 2. Kitchen Management System: Manages food preparation and inventory. 3. Customer Service System: Manages customer interactions, feedback, and service. 4. Supply Chain System: Oversees procurement, inventory management, and supplier coordination. 5. Accounting and Finance System: Handles financial transactions, payroll, and reporting. 6. Human Resources System: Manages employee records, scheduling, and recruitment. Each subsystem integrates to support the overall operation of Hoosier Burger. d. Briefly summarize the approaches to systems development discussed in this chapter. Which approach do you feel should be used by Hoosier Burger? Answer: The textbook discusses several approaches, including systems development life cycle (SDLC), prototyping, computer-aided software engineering (CASE), joint application design (JAD), rapid application development (RAD), participatory design (PD), and Agile Methodologies. The SDLC is a series of steps used to mark the phases of development for an information system. Prototyping involves iteratively designing and building a scaled-down working model of a desired system. CASE tools provide automated support for the systems development process. Joint Application Design is a structured process that brings together end users, managers, and analysts in an effort to identify system requirements and review system designs. Rapid Application Development quickly builds systems through user involvement, JAD sessions, prototyping, integrated CASE tools, and code generators. Participatory design is a systems development approach that originated in northern Europe in which users and the improvement in their work-lives is the central focus. Agile Methodologies focus on adaptive methodologies, people, and a self-adaptive process. Systems development at Hoosier Burger will probably use the traditional SDLC. However, prototyping can be used to build working models of the system. 1-27. Natural Best Health Food Stores Case Exercises a. Identify the different types of information systems used at Natural Best Health Food Stores. Provide an example of each. Is an expert system currently used? If not, how could Natural Best benefit from the use of such a system? Answer: From the description provided above, students should recognize the existence of a transaction processing system, a management information system, and a decision support system. The transaction processing system is responsible for taking customer orders, scheduling deliveries, and updating inventory. The management information system is responsible for generating several management reports, including sales summary, delivery, and low-in-stock reports for each store location. Mr. Davis uses an Excel worksheet for decision support. The case scenario does not specifically mention an expert system. However, students should identify several potential uses of an expert system, including using the expert system to make product recommendations for customers. b. Figure 1–4 identifies seven characteristics of a system. Using the Natural Best Health Food Stores scenario, provide an example of each system characteristic. Answer: Inventory management and sales are two system components. Inventory management and sales are interrelated, because a product cannot be sold unless it is in stock or placed on back order. On a physical level, the boundary is defined by each store building. On a systems level, the boundary can be defined by the NBDS system activities, such as transaction processing, management reporting, and facilitating decision making. The purpose of Natural Best Health Food Stores is to provide healthy, quality products to its customers at an affordable price. The environment includes customers, suppliers, banks, and regulatory agencies. Interfaces include order taking, product deliveries, management reports, and low- in-stock notifications. Inputs include the order information, packing slips, and customer profiles. Outputs include sales receipts, delivery slips, and management reports. Constraints include the number of deliveries that can be made on a given day, lack of data exchange between stores, and the inability to deliver prepackaged meals at the present time. c. What type of computing environment does Natural Health Food Best Stores have? Answer: Natural Best Health Food Stores currently has a client/server environment. The clients are responsible for capturing the sales data. Data are then transmitted to a central server, which is responsible for processing this data and updating the central database. Chapter 2 The Sources of Software Chapter Overview Systems Analysis and Development involves developing software, but also involves purchasing or in other ways obtaining various types of software to accomplish various SDLC activities. Chapter 2 discusses where software can be obtained, advantages and disadvantages of various sources, and how the systems analyst decides on a vendor and manages software procurement decisions. Instructional Objectives Specific student learning objectives are included at the beginning of the chapter. From an instructor’s point of view, the objectives of this chapter are to: 1. Identify and discuss information systems development options, including IT services firms, packaged software producers, enterprise-wide solutions, application service providers, open-source software, and in-house developers. 2. Define and understand outsourcing and its implications. 3. Discuss choosing off-the-shelf software. 4. Make comparisons between off-the-shelf solutions and in-house solutions and validate purchased software. 5. Understand how and why reusing software can be a useful option. Classroom Ideas 1. This is a relatively short chapter. It may be easier to use the end of chapter elements for lectures. The review questions and problems and exercises provide targeted topics for discussion in terms of discussing the many sources of software. 2. Emphasize how many sources of software are available. Students should understand that being a systems analyst does not necessarily mean building code from scratch. Illustrate that, while a systems analyst might need a unique solution for their particular organization, there are many sources where the analyst can acquire already existing pieces that can be brought together to build their unique solution. 3. It can be useful to discuss the history of systems acquisition and show how changes in technology and availability have influenced where software can now be acquired. 4. If possible, try to obtain off-the-shelf validation documents (RFP or RFQ) from an actual organization to illustrate what these documents contain. 5. In lecturing about this chapter, you might want to use the tables and figures in the chapter to point out to students the major issues at stake in sourcing software. Lecture Notes Introduction Software is available from many sources. Some firms still do in-house programming, but many others acquire software from a variety of sources. This chapter discusses the various sources of software, from outsourcing to open source and off-the-shelf options. This chapter illustrates how systems analysts can make decisions about choosing from the many sources, and also discusses reusing software from previous sources. Systems Acquisition Considering how important information systems are to organizations, when did they begin to be used, and where did they come from? GE produced an in-house payroll option in 1954. Since then, in-house development has become a smaller component of many organizations’ systems development budgets as other sources of software have become available and more strategically advantageous than developing software in-house. Outsourcing Outsourcing is a practice where another organization develops or runs a computer application for your organization. Outsourcing can be very cost effective, and many organizations choose to outsource much, if not all, of their IT functions. This has resulted in a very large market for outsourcing—$930 billion in 2006. Considering the availability and cost-effectiveness of outsourcing, analysts should be aware of the option and carefully consider it as a potential alternative. Sources of Software Methods of acquiring software can be grouped into 6 major categories—(1) information technology services firms, (2) packaged software providers, (3) vendors of enterprise solution software, (4) application service providers and managed service providers, (5) open-source software, and (6) in-house development. Each of these sources are presented in Figure 2–1 and Table 2–2 provides a comparison of the 6 sources of software. Choosing Off-The-Shelf Software If an analyst chooses to purchase software, s/he should understand what criteria they should evaluate before making a decision, and how to compare the options available to them. The most common criteria for evaluating off-the-shelf software relative to in-house development are shown in Figure 2–2. Each of the criteria may be more important than the others depending on various aspects of the project. Another important consideration when evaluating off-the-shelf options is validating the software information. This can be done by asking the vendor, but can also be carried out by issuing a Request for Proposal (RFP), where vendors can propose hardware and software that will meet the requirements of your new system. Other users of the software are also good sources for feedback and validation. Reuse In addition to the sources of software already identified, some organizations may be able to Reuse software, or various components from already developed software. Reuse may apply to many pieces of previously developed software, but most often applies to object-oriented and component-based technologies. Reuse requires the organization to be able to leverage the cost of components across many users and projects. Figure 2–3 shows a graph illustrating this concept. If an organization makes the decision to reuse, there are four approaches to reuse, which are presented in Table 2–3. Key Terms Checkpoint Solutions Answers for the Key Terms Checkpoint section are provided below. The number following each key term indicates its location in the key term list. Review Questions Solutions 2-1. Describe and compare the six sources of software. Answer: The six sources of software identified in the textbook are: (1) information technology services firms, (2) packaged software providers, (3) vendors of enterprise solution software, (4) application service providers and managed service providers, (5) open-source software, and (6) in-house development. IT services firms help companies develop custom information systems for internal use; they develop, host, and run applications for customers; or they provide other services. An IT services firm may be chosen if the system can’t be developed internally or requires customer support. Packaged software providers are companies that produce software exclusively, like Microsoft or Intuit, and are preferable if the task needing the system is generic. Vendors of enterprise solution software create a system that is composed of a series of integrated modules. Each module supports a business function, such as accounting, or human resources. ERP systems may be appropriate if a complete system is required that can cross functional boundaries. A more intense option for larger, more customizable solutions are Managed service providers who can provide more services than application service providers. ASPs and MSPs may be appropriate when instant access to an application is desired, and in the case of ASPs, when the task is generic. Open-source software is a type of software that is developed by a community of interested people and it is freely available. Open-source software is preferable when the task is generic and cost is an issue. Finally, in-house development is still an option. In-house development refers to the organization developing software with its own IT assets, rather than purchasing software elsewhere. In-house development may be appropriate when a system must be built from scratch and as long as the personnel and resources are available to the organization. 2-2. How can you decide among various off-the-shelf software options? What criteria do you use? Answer: To decide what off-the-shelf software to buy, compare products and vendors. Use the following criteria (among others that may be more situation-specific): cost, functionality, vendor support, viability of vendor, flexibility, documentation, response time, and ease of installation. 2-3. What is an RFP and how do analysts use one to gather information on hardware and system software? Answer: An RFP is a formal document that provides detailed specifications about a target information system and asks vendors for information on how they would develop the system. Analysts use RFPs as a way to get vendors to perform the necessary research into specific design strategies and the hardware and system software vendors believe are necessary for developing the new system. 2-4. What methods can a systems analyst employ to verify vendor claims about a software package? Answer: To verify vendor claims about a software package, an analyst can ask for a software demonstration, use the software (and its documentation and training materials), personally talk with other users of the software, ask specific questions via a questionnaire, and consult independent software testing and abstracting services. 2-5. What are ERP systems? What are the benefits and disadvantages of such systems as a design strategy? Answer: ERP is a system that is composed of a series of integrated modules. Each module supports a business function, such as accounting, or human resources. An advantage of ERP systems is that the modules are integrated across business functional areas, so that, for instance, all aspects of a single transaction can occur seamlessly within one information system, where it would have had to have been processed multiple times across several systems in a more traditional environment focused on functional areas. Other benefits include having a single repository of data for all aspects of a business process and the flexibility of the modules; other modules can be added as needed and are immediately integrated into the existing system. Disadvantages include complexity, lack of knowledge among organization’s personnel and reliance on consultants, and expense. In some cases, an organization may be required to change how it does business to more efficiently utilize ERP systems. 2-6. Explain reuse and its advantages and disadvantages. Answer: Reuse refers to using previously written software resources, especially objects and components, in new applications. It can be more efficient to reuse objects or components, and research has shown that it can increase productivity, reduce defects, and reduce the amount of rework needed. Disadvantages include organizational lack of commitment, lack of proper training and rewards needed to promote reuse, and it is difficult to measure the economic gains from reuse. 2-7. Compare and contrast the four approaches to reuse. Answer: “Ad Hoc” reuse refers to individuals finding ways to reuse objects and components on their own. Facilitated reuse refers to reuse that is encouraged by the organization, but with limited resources, infrastructure, and policies that would make reuse easier. Managed reuse refers to reuse that occurs because the organization enforces reuse through resources, infrastructure, policies, and people. Designed reuse refers to an organization carefully designing assets for reuse. 2-8. Why would a company rely on cloud computing for its software needs? Answer: Cloud computing frees a company’s internal IT from developing application which results in a lower cost application as well as faster development time. In addition, since cloud computing in general is a pay as you go type service, applications can be quickly scaled up or down depending upon the needs of the company. Problems and Exercises Solutions 2-9. Research how to prepare a request for proposal. Answer: The request for proposal (RFP) is used when the organization wants to solicit proposals from several competing vendors. RFPs usually first give some background information on the company and the business units involved in the request, an explanation of the information system needs, a description of what is wanted from the vendors (i.e., what information they must provide or other actions they must take), and an explanation of any rules or procedures for the RFP and system development process. The bulk of the document then describes the mandatory, essential, and desirable requirements in the areas of need (e.g., functionality, hardware, software, and service). 2-10. Review the criteria for selecting off-the-shelf software presented in this chapter. Use your experience and imagination and describe other criteria that are or might be used to select off-the-shelf software in the real world. For each new criterion, explain how its use might be functional (i.e., it is useful to use this criterion), dysfunctional, or both. Answer: In addition to cost, functionality, vendor support, viability of vendor, flexibility, documentation, response time, and ease of installation, there are a number of other real world criteria that might be included. People often choose application packages, such as word processors and spreadsheets, based solely on their familiarity with the packages and/or their bias toward one hardware platform or operating system over another. To a certain extent this can be functional. However, this could also be dysfunctional. For example, it would be useful to consider the current staff’s familiarity with the new application software and the resulting need for retraining. However, it would be dysfunctional if a company did not ever choose new software because of the employees’ lack of familiarity with it. Eventually, software will evolve and the market will change, and the employees (and the company) will be left behind using antiquated technology. Some other criteria include compatibility with currently used application software (so, for example, data can be shared), compatibility with existing hardware and system software, ability to support a range from novice to experienced (or power) users, and appeal of the user interface (ease of use). 2-11. In the section on choosing off-the-shelf software, eight criteria are proposed for evaluating alternative packages. Suppose the choice was between alternative custom software developers rather than prewritten packages. What criteria would be appropriate to select and compare among competing bidders for custom development of an application? Define each of these criteria. Answer: The list for evaluating alternative custom software developers would be very similar to that for selecting off the shelf application software or for computer hardware and system software. In addition to cost, functionality, vendor support, viability of vendor, flexibility, documentation, response time, and ease of installation, we might include the current staff’s familiarity with the software, need for retraining, compatibility and connectivity with current systems, and the track record of the vendor in successfully implementing similar software in other organizations. Such vendors should have an established track record of developing similar software in other organizations. Their references should be checked thoroughly, including visits to these other sites. If the developer’s role will end after the application is accepted, then the reputation of the vendor for handling this transition from external development to internal maintenance is important. From a legal point of view, you may want to select a custom developer based on the willingness to sign a non-disclosure agreement, so that they are not allowed to develop a similar system for one of your competitors, at least for some amount of time. 2-12. How might the project team recommending an ERP strategy justify its recommendation as compared with other types of design strategies? Answer: The project team would need to justify an ERP strategy by highlighting the strategic advantage to reengineering business processes to integrate with ERP modules. Doing so will provide a single repository for data, which can streamline all IT within the organization and ensure that data is consistent and accurate. Furthermore, if expansion is required in the future, additional modules are able to be integrated immediately. Finally, considering the regulatory climate, the ERP vendor (and consultants) will likely be better at ensuring the organization’s compliance with regulations, such as Sarbanes-Oxley, HIPAA, etc. Petrie’s Electronics Case Questions Solutions 2-16.How do information systems projects get started in organizations? Answer: The two primary ways in which information systems projects get started in organizations are, simply put, top-down or bottom-up. Top-down projects start with management, where managers determine that a new system is needed or an existing system needs to be updated or replaced. Bottom-up projects start with lower-level employees, who determine that systems they use are inadequate and either need to be replaced or updated. 2-17. How are organizational information systems related to company strategy? How does strategy affect the information systems a company develops and uses? Answer: A company’s strategy should drive what it does and the goals the company should pursue. A company’s strategy is implemented through many tactical decisions, each of which relies on tools and technologies to fulfill. Information systems are some of the tools and technologies companies use to fulfill decisions and hence implement strategy. 2-18. Research customer loyalty programs in retail firms. How common are they? What are their primary features? Answer: Customer loyalty programs are very common in retail firms. Most students probably belong to several such programs. The most primary feature involves awarding points for purchases, points which can later be redeemed for discounts or prizes. Research into these programs will generate lists of other features, and students may also find numbers on how many such programs actually exist. 2-19. What do you think Jim’s next step would be? Why? Answer: This answer will differ with each student, but looking ahead in the systems development life cycle, the next step should involve some preliminary data gathering and analysis, especially in terms of feasibility analysis. Jim and his team need to determine if the proposed system makes sense for the company, from a variety of perspectives, before proceeding. Jim's next step would likely be to assess and prioritize the requirements for the new systems or improvements. This is crucial for identifying key needs, allocating resources effectively, and ensuring that the systems align with organizational goals. 2-20. Why would a systems analyst new to a company be a good choice to lead an important systems development effort? Answer: An analyst new to the company would not have any preconceptions about the system and how it might fit into the company’s strategy. Having a fresh perspective might allow for new insights and a new approach that could lead to a better and more creative system than would otherwise result. Solution Manual for Essentials of Systems Analysis and Design Joseph S. Valacich, Joey F. George, Jeffrey A. Hoffer 9780133546231
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