CH-1-2 Introduction – Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology : Exam Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 1 to 2 Chapter 1 Introduction TRUE OR FALSE 1. Ab means “away” or “from,” whereas “normal” refers to “average” or “standard.” Thus, abnormal is defined as something the deviates from the average. Answer: True 2. Age is an important developmental index in judging behavior. Answer: True 3. Cultural norms for behavior rarely impact diagnostic rates for a disorder. Answer: False 4. Ethnicity denotes common customs, values, language or traits that are associated with national origin or geographic area. Answer: True 5. A child’s behavior should be consistent and not vary across settings (e.g., classroom, playground, home). Answer: False 6. In most cultures boys are expected to be less active and less aggressive than girls. This expectation is an example of a situational norm. Answer: False 7. Youth rarely refer themselves for clinical evaluation. Answer: True 8. According to the American Psychological Association, 10 percent of youth have a serious mental health disorder. Answer: True 9. Quantifying the prevalence of disorders is difficult because it depends on several factors, including the definition of disorders, the population examined, and the methods used to identify the problem. Answer: True 10. Changing social conditions may increase the risk of disorders in young people. Answer: False 11. Early disturbances, for example, feeding issues or sleep disorders in infancy, do not have developmental consequences. Answer: False 12. One difficulty in establishing the age of onset of any behavioral disorder is that the onset may occur gradually, so that age of onset may be an arbitrary estimation rather than a precise age. Answer: True 13. Schizophrenia is a disorder that typically begins during childhood. Answer: False 14. Males are more vulnerable than females to neurodevelopmental disorders that occur early in life. Answer: True 15. One explanation for differing rates of behavioral disorder between boys and girls is gender differences in disruptive behavior, which can result in gender differences in referrals for clinical services. Answer: True 16. The conceptualization of adolescence as a distinct period of life began in the 17th and 18th centuries. Answer: True 17. Somatogenesis refers to the belief that behavioral disturbance results from a person’s being possessed or influenced by devils or some similar force. Answer: False 18. Kraepelin is credited with creating a system to classify mental disturbances that serve as the basis for modern classification systems. Answer: True 19. The belief that mental problems are caused by psychological variables is called psychogenesis. Answer: True 20. Freud contributed to the field of childhood behavioral disorder by positing that early, unresolved psychological conflict is the source of emotional problems. Answer: True 21. Behavior modification or behavior therapy is the explicit application of learning principles for the assessment and treatment of behavioral problems. Answer: True 22. Longitudinal studies, focusing on normal development, assisted in the understanding and study of child and adolescent disorders. Answer: True 23. Anna Freud, a mother and visionary, advocated establishing a Child Welfare Research Station at the University of Iowa. Answer: False 24. Psychiatrists earn an M.D. and psychologists earn a Ph.D. Answer: True MULTIPLE CHOICE 25. Joe is in the second grade and cannot stay focused. He cannot read and tests below grade level in all subjects. He is rarely in trouble at school or at home. Joe A. is free from all behavior disorders. B. may have a behavioral disorder and should be evaluated. C. is a typical boy. D. is none of the above. Answer: B 26. Which is least likely to be considered an indication of problem behavior in youth? A. A behavior is excessively intense. B. A behavior is qualitatively atypical. C. A behavior is unusual but of no harm to anyone. D. A behavior is exhibited in inappropriate settings. Answer: C 27. Which of the following is a behavioral indicator of a disorder noted in Table 1.1? A. Parental intolerance of atypical behavior B. Bedwetting C. Gender D. Developmental delay Answer: D 28. Serafica & Vargas (2006), found that: A. anxiety is evident across cultures. B. Asian and Latino groups express fewer bodily symptoms of anxiety. C. Asian, Latino and European Americans did not differ in regard to symptoms of anxiety. D. individuals living outside of the United States tend to deny symptoms of anxiety. Answer: A 29. A study by Ly (2008) on parent perceptions of a child with intellectual disability found that compared to European American parents, Asian American parents: A. viewed their child as less successful on task performance. B. had higher expectations for future success. C. had more sympathy for their child with a disability. D. were no different in their views of their child. Answer: A 30. Alicia’s mother is worried because although Alicia’s behavior seems much like that of her peers, Alicia misbehaves relative to the setting she is in. Alicia’s mother is concerned that her daughter is not meeting A. gender norms. B. situational norms. C. regression norms. D. developmental norms. Answer: B 31. According to the book, which of the following is true regarding behavioral disorders of youth? A. Judgments about abnormality often change over time. B. Cultural norms should have no impact on diagnosis. C. Disorders are best viewed as located within individuals. D. Overall, girls display higher rates of externalizing behavior than boys. Answer: A 32. Which of the following is true regarding preschooler mental health? A. Preschoolers have fewer problems than older children. B. Preschoolers have more problems, but tend to outgrow them. C. The problems of preschoolers occur at the same rate as older children. D. Secular trends indicate that the risks for young children and mental illness are decreasing. Answer: C 33. Which of the following is true regarding the prevalence of behavioral disturbance of youth? A. Collishaw (2010) found that the number of adolescents reporting emotional problems decreased from 1986 to 2006. B. Research indicates that a majority of youth (80% or more) with mental health issues receive adequate mental health care. C. Less than 10% of adults with mental illness report having symptoms in childhood or adolescence. D. Prevalence rates are can vary depending on who is reporting on the symptoms (e.g., youth, parents, teachers). Answer: D 34. With regard to childhood behavioral problems and age of youth, A. little relationship exists between age and the occurrence of problems. B. sometimes what seems to be a relationship between age and the occurrence of a specific disorder may actually reflect the time at which the disorder is first identified. C. almost all behavior problems of young people appear in some form by age 6. D. children cannot be diagnosed with a specific disorder until they are at least 8 years old. Answer: B 35. With regard to gender and the rates of behavioral disorders, A. boys are more likely to be diagnosed with externalizing disorders. B. boys are more likely to be diagnosed with anxiety. C. boys demonstrate higher levels of relational aggression. D. externalizing problems increase for females as they get older. Answer: A 36. Jake is a 9 year-old boy. What does the book say about his risk factors for psychopathology? A. They do not differ from a 9 year old female. B. He is at lower risk for neurodevelopmental disorders. C. He is at higher risk for experiencing a traumatic brain injury. D. He is at higher risk to experiencing an inappropriate sexual encounter. Answer: C 37. Which of the following terms refers to biological causation of behavioral disturbance? A. Egogenesis B. Somatogenesis C. Demonology D. Operogenesis Answer: B 38. When the term syndrome is used in reference to a behavioral disturbance, it suggests that the disorder A. has a biological cause. B. has a psychological cause. C. occurs mostly in early childhood. D. is characterized by a group of symptoms. Answer: D 39. Who is credited with publishing, in the 19th century, an important classification system for mental disorders? A. Freud B. Myers C. Hillis D. Kraepelin Answer: D 40. According to Table 1.3 in the book, who established the first child clinic in the United States? A. Alfred Binet B. Lightner Witmer C. Arnold Gesell D. Leo Kanner Answer: B 41. Which of the following is true? A. Freud’s theory adhered to the concept of psychogenesis. B. Defense mechanisms serve no purpose. C. The ego houses our unacceptable impulses. D. Freud believed the personality was not completely formed until age 18. Answer: A 42. In the case of “Little Hans,” Freud proposed that Han’s fear and anxiety were based in his A. desire to have a mustache and wear glasses like his father. B. wish for more attention from his father and his mother. C. desire to own a horse. D. sexual impulses toward his mother and fear of his father. Answer: D 43. In Freudian theory, defense mechanisms are viewed as protecting the individual from A. overstimulation. B. under stimulation. C. recognizing one’s own unacceptable impulses. D. seeking immediate sexual gratification. Answer: C 44. In contrast to Sigmund Freud, John Watson argued for A. an emphasis on internal psychological conflicts. B. the study of biological influences on behavior. C. an emphasis on learning experiences. D. a stage theory of development. Answer: C 45. The idea that behavior is shaped by its consequences is called _________ and was created by _________. A. law of effect; Thorndike B. psychoanalysis; Freud C. classical conditioning; Watson D. observational learning; Bandura Answer: A 46. Who wrote the influential book, A Mind That Found Itself ? A. Beers B. Bandura C. Hillis D. Judge Baker Answer: A 47. The child guidance movement in the United States A. was related to the establishment of the Orthopsychiatric Association. B. was an outgrowth of behaviorism. C. received its impetus from longitudinal studies of children begun around 1920. D. was based on the work of Hall at Clark University. Answer: A 48. The theorist who linked the social context with cognition was A. Anna Freud. B. Emil Kraepelin. C. Skinner. D. Bandura. Answer: D 49. Which name does not belong with the others? A. Thorndike B. Binet C. Skinner D. Watson Answer: B 50. Who was the first president of the American Psychological Association? A. Skinner B. Gesell C. Hall D. Beers Answer: C 51. Who is best known for early efforts to evaluate children's intellectual functioning? A. Binet and Simon B. Healy and Bronner C. Kraepelin D. Beers Answer: A 52. Mrs. Cora Bussey Hills was instrumental in A. the establishment of the Juvenile Psychopathic Institute in Chicago. B. the establishment of the Judge Baker Guidance Center in Boston. C. the establishment of the Iowa Child Welfare Research Station. D. the establishment of the Fels Research Institute at Berkley. Answer: C 53. A _________ is a trusting, personal bond formed between the therapist and the client. A. confidentiality agreement B. therapeutic alliance C. treatment contract D. working relationship Answer: B BRIEF ESSAY QUESTIONS 54. Discuss three indicators that influence whether a child or adolescent will be identified as experiencing a behavioral problem. Answer: Three indicators that influence whether a child or adolescent will be identified as experiencing a behavioral problem include: 1. Frequency and Severity of Behavior: The frequency and severity of problematic behaviors play a significant role in identification. If a child consistently displays disruptive or harmful behaviors, it increases the likelihood of being identified as having behavioral issues. 2. Impact on Functioning: The extent to which the behavior interferes with the child's daily functioning, such as academic performance, social relationships, and family dynamics, is another key indicator. If the behavior significantly impairs their ability to function in various settings, it raises concerns. 3. Duration and Persistence: Long-term patterns of behavior are important indicators. If problematic behaviors persist over time despite interventions or if they escalate in severity, it suggests a deeper underlying issue that needs attention. These indicators, when observed in combination, help professionals and caregivers identify children and adolescents who may need support for behavioral problems. 55. Discuss how culture can influence the definition and understanding of disordered behavior of youth. Answer: Culture significantly influences the definition and understanding of disordered behavior in youth by shaping norms, values, and perceptions within a society. Cultural beliefs about appropriate behavior, family dynamics, and community expectations impact how behaviors are interpreted and labeled. What may be considered normal in one culture could be seen as problematic in another. For instance, behaviors that are deemed disrespectful in one culture may be viewed as assertiveness in another. Additionally, cultural attitudes toward mental health and help-seeking behaviors can affect whether certain behaviors are identified as disordered and how they are addressed within a community. 56. List and describe the four variables that are important to note in regard to infant mental health. Answer: The four important variables in infant mental health are: 1. Attachment: The emotional bond between the infant and their caregiver, crucial for healthy development. 2. Temperament: Innate behavioral and emotional tendencies that influence how infants react to the world. 3. Parental Sensitivity: The caregiver's ability to understand and respond appropriately to the infant's needs. 4. Environmental Factors: Surrounding conditions such as family dynamics, socio-economic status, and cultural influences that impact infant development. 57. How can gender bias in clinic samples indirectly affect gender differences in the prevalence of behavioral disorders (what methodological issues can create the appearance of gender differences)? Answer: Gender bias in clinic samples can indirectly affect gender differences in the prevalence of behavioral disorders through methodological issues such as: 1. Sample Selection Bias: Clinics may disproportionately attract one gender over the other, leading to skewed data. 2. Diagnostic Bias: Clinicians might diagnose certain disorders more frequently in one gender due to stereotypes or biases. 3. Symptom Expression Differences: Behavioral disorders may manifest differently in boys and girls, leading to misinterpretation or underdiagnosis in one gender. 4. Help-Seeking Behavior: Cultural norms and societal expectations can influence help-seeking behavior, leading to differential rates of diagnosis between genders. 58. Discuss three aspects of Freud’s theory that framed his important view of psychological disturbances in youth and adults. How has psychoanalysis changed over the years? Answer: Three aspects of Freud's theory that framed his view of psychological disturbances are: 1. Psychosexual Development: Freud proposed that early childhood experiences and the resolution of conflicts at each stage of psychosexual development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) shape personality and can lead to disturbances if not resolved adequately. 2. Unconscious Mind: Freud emphasized the significance of the unconscious mind, suggesting that repressed desires, memories, and conflicts influence behavior and contribute to psychological disturbances. 3. Defense Mechanisms: Freud introduced the concept of defense mechanisms, such as repression, denial, and projection, which individuals unconsciously employ to cope with anxiety and protect the ego from distressing thoughts and impulses. Over the years, psychoanalysis has evolved in several ways: • Theoretical Diversification: Psychoanalytic theory has expanded beyond Freud's original ideas to incorporate contributions from other theorists and researchers, leading to a more diverse and comprehensive understanding of the human psyche. • Clinical Practices: Psychoanalytic therapy techniques have evolved, incorporating new approaches such as object relations theory and attachment theory, and adapting to meet the needs of diverse populations. • Empirical Research: Modern psychoanalysis increasingly integrates empirical research findings, emphasizing the importance of empirical validation and evidence-based practice. 59. Briefly describe classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Answer: Classical Conditioning: A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and produces a similar response. For example, Pavlov's dogs learned to associate the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) with food (meaningful stimulus), eventually eliciting salivation in response to the bell alone. Operant Conditioning: A form of learning in which behavior is influenced by its consequences. Behaviors that are followed by rewards (reinforcement) are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by punishments are less likely to occur. For instance, a rat learns to press a lever to receive a food pellet (positive reinforcement). Observational Learning: Learning by observing others' behaviors and the consequences they experience. Individuals can learn new behaviors simply by watching others, without directly experiencing reinforcement or punishment themselves. For example, a child may learn to tie their shoes by observing an older sibling or parent. 60. Summarize the aims and early history of the mental hygiene and the child guidance movements. Answer: The mental hygiene and child guidance movements emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with aims to promote mental health and provide guidance for children and families: 1. Mental Hygiene Movement: Aimed to prevent mental illness through education, advocacy, and improving living conditions. It emphasized promoting mental health and well-being rather than just treating mental illness. Pioneers like Clifford Beers advocated for mental health awareness and the humane treatment of those with mental disorders. 2. Child Guidance Movement: Focused specifically on the mental health needs of children and adolescents. It aimed to identify and address emotional and behavioral issues early, offering guidance and support to families. The movement emphasized understanding child development and providing holistic interventions to nurture healthy development. Influential figures like William Healy and Grace Fernald played key roles in advancing child guidance services and research. Both movements laid the foundation for modern approaches to mental health promotion, prevention, and intervention, influencing policies, practices, and attitudes towards mental health in society. 61. List five themes (premises) viewed by the text’s authors as central to the current study and practice of developmental psychopathology. Answer: Five central themes viewed by the authors as fundamental to the study and practice of developmental psychopathology are: 1. Interplay of Risk and Protective Factors: Understanding how various risk factors (e.g., genetic, environmental) interact with protective factors (e.g., supportive relationships, resilience) to influence development and mental health outcomes. 2. Developmental Trajectories: Examining the dynamic pathways of development, including normative and atypical trajectories, to understand the emergence and progression of psychopathology across the lifespan. 3. Multifinality and Equifinality: Recognizing that similar risk factors can lead to diverse outcomes (multifinality), and diverse risk factors can result in similar outcomes (equifinality) in terms of psychopathology and development. 4. Transactional Processes: Investigating the bidirectional influences between individuals and their environments over time, emphasizing the reciprocal nature of interactions and how they shape developmental outcomes. 5. Contextual Embeddedness: Considering the impact of various contexts (e.g., family, cultural, socioeconomic) on development and psychopathology, highlighting the importance of understanding individuals within their broader ecological systems. 62. Define informed consent and how it applies to child therapy. Answer: Informed consent refers to the ethical principle that individuals must fully understand the nature, purpose, risks, and benefits of a treatment or procedure before agreeing to participate. In child therapy, informed consent applies to both the child and their legal guardians or parents. Therapists must ensure that parents or guardians understand the nature of the therapy, its goals, potential risks, confidentiality policies, and their role in the therapeutic process. Additionally, therapists should strive to provide age-appropriate information to children so they can understand the therapy process to the extent possible given their developmental level. Ultimately, informed consent in child therapy aims to empower both the child and their guardians to make informed decisions about participating in treatment. Chapter 2 The Developmental Psychopathology Perspective TRUE OR FALSE 1. The term paradigm refers to a shared perspective or cognitive set adopted, for example, by a group of investigators. Answer: True 2. The adoption of a paradigm typically results in a broadening of the kinds of questions asked, measures taken, and interpretations made. Answer: False 3. Another word for vulnerability is diathesis, as in the diathesis stress model. Answer: True 4. The biopsychosocial model is an example of the systems approach. Answer: True 5. Developmental theorists assume that human development proceeds in a coherent pattern. Answer: True 6. In the study conducted by Keller, Cumings and Davies (2005), parental problem drinking had a direct effect on child behavioral problems. Answer: False 7. If treatment X is more effective for girls than boys, then gender could be considered a moderating variable. Answer: True 8. If the effects of poverty operate through lack of health care to lower intellectual functioning, lack of health care mediates the relationship of poverty and intellectual functioning. Answer: True 9. Brain abnormality is a necessary cause of schizophrenia. This does not mean that it is a sufficient cause. Answer: True 10. According to the trajectories outlined by Compas, Hinden and Gerhardt (1995), adaptation level in childhood consistently predicts later functioning. Answer: False 11. Multifinality is the principle that the same outcome can be associated with different pathways or factors. Answer: False 12. In general, nonnormative events are considered more of a challenge to development than are normative events. Answer: True 13. Attachment is an example of a developmental task for infants and preschoolers. Answer: True 14. Resilience is defined as positive outcomes in the face of risk or threat. Answer: True 15. Risk factors reside in both the environment and the person, but resilience factors reside exclusively in the person. Answer: False 16. According to the model proposed by Ingram and Price (2010), resilience increases resistance to developing a disorder. Answer: True 17. Heterotypic continuity of behavior is demonstrated when the same behavior continues over time in an individual. Answer: False 18. Justine smiles and crawls to her mother. These behaviors facilitate attachment, according to Bowlby. Answer: True 19. Early attachment experiences can influence later relationships. Answer: True 20. Temperament is described as a person’s predisposition to irritability. Answer: False 21. According to Chess and Thomas, temperament is malleable. Answer: True 22. Inhibition is the one dimension of temperament that has been associated with academic adjustment. Answer: False 23. Emotion and temperament can be considered the same construct. Answer: False 24. Complex emotions such as shame or guilt are not evident until adolescence. Answer: False 25. Although emotional knowledge is important in relationships later in life, it is not linked to social problems in childhood. Answer: False 26. The area of study that examines how individuals take in, understand, and interpret social situations is called social cognitive processing. Answer: True 27. Research indicates that children with high levels of aggressive behavior usually view other youngsters as passive and trusting. Answer: False MULTIPLE CHOICE 28. A(n) _________ is a formal integrated set of principles or propositions that explain phenomena. A. perspective B. opinion C. cognitive set D. theory Answer: D 29. As a field of study, developmental psychopathology blends: A. developmental and clinical psychology. B. cognitive psychology and statistics. C. medicine and neuroscience. D. education and development. Answer: A 30. Human development is best viewed as A. always occurring in stages. B. changes in individuals due to environmental influences. C. change in persons over time due to the interactions of many variables. D. quantitative rather than qualitative growth. Answer: C 31. _________ is another term for cause. A. Effect B. Theory C. Paradigm D. Etiology Answer: D 32. Which disease supported the medical model of mental illness in the early 1900s? A. Syphilis B. Pneumonia C. Encephalitis D. Polio Answer: A 33. If a disorder occurs only in the presence of Factor X but only when Factor Y or Factor Z are present, we might suspect that Factor X is a _________ cause of the disorder. A. necessary but not sufficient B. sufficient but not necessary C. necessary and sufficient D. neither necessary nor sufficient Answer: A 34. The Lansford et al. (2005) study found that African American children may respond differently to physical discipline than European American children. Therefore, which of the following is true? A. Culture had a mediating effect. B. Culture had a moderating effect. C. Culture had no effect. D. Culture is a sufficient cause. Answer: B 35. Peter got along quite well as a child, but in adolescence he associated with a “bad” crowd, took drugs, and suffered academically. At 21 years of age, he appears to have put aside these behaviors and has successfully returned to college. Peter’s development is following which of the five adolescent developmental pathways described in the text? A. Unstable adaptation B. Unstable maladaptation C. Decline of adaptation D. Temporal maladaptation Answer: D 36. It has been shown that child abuse can lead to several different kinds of behavioral problems. This demonstrates the principle of A. equifinality. B. multifinality. C. cumulative continuity. D. excessive continuity. Answer: B 37. Which term refers to the principle that different factors or developmental paths can result in the same developmental outcome? A. Indirect causation B. Mediation C. Distal causation D. Equifinality Answer: D 38. Risk factors A. can be biological, psychological, or social. B. are best conceptualized as being mostly biological. C. are best conceptualized as characteristics of the individual. D. are best viewed as independent factors that do not affect each other. Answer: A 39. In regard to the timing of risky experiences, the idea that early trauma may program a child’s biological reactivity to stressful events is linked to which of the following? A. The sensitive period model B. The developmental programming model C. The life course model D. The decline of adaptation model Answer: B 40. In the Grant et al., (2003) model of the relationship between adversities and psychopathology, which of the following is a mediator? A. Major life events B. Child characteristics C. Psychological processes D. Syndromes Answer: C 41. Which is most likely to be a nonnormative influence on the development of the present generation of U.S. adolescents? A. Starting elementary school at about age 6 B. Severe childhood illness C. Learning to drive an automobile during adolescence D. Living in a culture concerned about violence Answer: B 42. Resilience is best defined as A. a person’s characteristics that protect him or her from negative outcomes. B. characteristics of the environment that protect a person from negative outcomes. C. one or more factors that work with risk factors to produce a disorder. D. one or more factors that protect a person in the presence of risk factors for a disorder. Answer: D 43. According to Masten and Coatsworth (1998), which of the following is a developmental task of middle childhood? A. Developing an attachment to caregivers B. Forming a cohesive sense of self identity C. Differentiating self from environment D. Rule governed conduct Answer: D 44. The study of resilience conducted on Kauai revealed that resilience A. was common despite the youth having numerous risk factors. B. was impacted by personal attributes, family characteristics and support outside of the family. C. was predicted primarily by personal attributes. D. was predicted primarily by support outside of the family. Answer: B 45. Billy and Kyle are both evaluated at a child assessment clinic at age 6. Billy comes from an affluent, loving and intact family. He is meeting all developmental tasks and is well adjusted. Kyle is living in poverty with his maternal grandmother after being abandoned by his parents. He is scoring in the clinically significant range on measures that test for behavioral problems. Years later, both boys are re-evaluated and both are found to be well adjusted and developing normally. Kyle reports that he became active in sports and was mentored by caring adults over the years. This is an example of A. ordinary magic. B. multifinality. C. unstable, maladaptive development. D. nonnormative development. Answer: A 46. Investigations of the continuity of childhood behavior problems into adulthood suggest that A. virtually all behavior problems carry over into adulthood. B. it is impossible to link child and adult problems. C. developmental changes in behavior can make it difficult to trace continuity. D. if childhood behavior problems are not linked to adult problems, they should not be treated. Answer: C 47. Heterotypic continuity refers to the continuance A. of risk factors across the lifespan. B. of resilience factors across the lifespan. C. of a problem in the same form over time. D. of a problem, with the problem changing in form over time. Answer: D 48. When Jane was worried at nine years of age, she tended to develop stomachaches. At age thirty, this is still true. Thus, Jane exhibits _________ continuity of anxiety. A. interactional B. proximal C. homotypic D. normative Answer: C 49. In the Strange Situation Kevin does not use his mother as a resource. He does not seem distressed when she leaves and ignores her when she returns. Which attachment style is Kevin exhibiting? A. Secure B. Insecure resistant C. Insecure avoidant D. Disorganized Answer: C 50. Which pattern of infant-caretaker attachment is especially associated with infants who have been exposed to abusive, pathological caretaking? A. Avoidant B. Secure C. Ambivalent D. Disorganized/disoriented Answer: D 51. Secure attachment between infants and their caretakers is positively correlated with childhood and adolescent A. aggressiveness. B. verbal ability. C. adaptive social behavior. D. dependency. Answer: C 52. _________ refers to the processes that facilitate or hinder reactivity. A. Goodness of fit B. Self-regulation C. Inhibition D. Emotion Answer: B 53. Sandy cries easily, has tantrums when facing novel situations, and is highly reactive to stress. Which temperament type best describes Sandy? A. Easy B. Slow–to-warm-up C. Difficult D. Disorganized Answer: C 54. The Chess and Thomas case study of Carl demonstrated that A. the relationship between difficult temperament and behavioral problems depends in part on the child’s academic achievement. B. the relationship between difficult temperament and behavioral problems depends in part on the child’s social environment. C. easy temperament in children can sometimes be associated with behavioral problems. D. slow-to-warm temperament in children can sometimes be associated with behavioral problems. Answer: B 55. A recent study of temperament and parenting types (good or poor) by Bradley and Corwyn (2008) found A. children with difficult temperaments had problems regardless of what type of parenting they received. B. children of all temperament types were impacted negatively by poor parenting. C. children with difficult temperaments were more responsive to the type of parenting they received. D. children with slow-to-warm-up temperaments were immune to poor parenting. Answer: C 56. Which of the following includes three well-recognized components of emotion? A. Private feelings, bodily reactions, overt expressions B. Temperament, reactivity, outcome C. Genetics, modeling, regulation D. Development, expression, regulation Answer: A 57. Youth who have been rejected by their peers or who exhibit high levels of aggression tend to see the world as more _________ than other youth. A. hostile B. envious C. secretive D. rational Answer: A 58. According to models of social cognitive processing, which is central in mediating children’s experiences and their behavior? A. Their interaction with their parents B. Their interpretation of their experiences C. Their earlier attachment to their parents D. Their temperamental tendencies Answer: B BRIEF ESSAY QUESTIONS 59. Define the term paradigm and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of applying a paradigm to understanding behavioral disorders. Answer: A paradigm refers to a framework or model that shapes how researchers and practitioners understand a particular phenomenon, guiding their assumptions, methods, and interpretations. Advantages of applying a paradigm to understanding behavioral disorders include: 1. Organized Understanding: Paradigms provide a structured framework for organizing complex information about behavioral disorders, helping to identify patterns, relationships, and underlying causes. 2. Guidance for Research: Paradigms guide research efforts by suggesting hypotheses, methods, and approaches for investigating behavioral disorders, facilitating progress in understanding and treatment. 3. Consistency and Communication: By establishing common terminology, concepts, and methodologies, paradigms promote consistency and facilitate communication among researchers, clinicians, and other stakeholders. Disadvantages of applying a paradigm to understanding behavioral disorders include: 1. Limiting Perspectives: Paradigms can limit perspectives by emphasizing certain aspects of behavioral disorders while neglecting others, potentially overlooking important factors or alternative explanations. 2. Resistance to Change: Paradigms may resist incorporating new evidence or perspectives that challenge established beliefs, hindering progress and innovation in understanding and treating behavioral disorders. 3. Stigmatization and Bias: Paradigms can perpetuate stigmatization or bias by framing behavioral disorders in ways that reinforce negative stereotypes or societal attitudes, potentially influencing treatment approaches and outcomes. 60. Define development and comment on three widely agreed-upon characteristics of human development. Answer: Development refers to the systematic and continuous process of growth, change, and maturation that occurs throughout the lifespan, encompassing physical, cognitive, emotional, and social aspects of functioning. Three widely agreed-upon characteristics of human development are: 1. Multidimensionality: Human development involves multiple domains or dimensions, including physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development. These dimensions are interconnected and influence each other throughout the lifespan. 2. Mult directionality: Development can involve both growth and decline in different areas over time. While some abilities may improve with age (e.g., vocabulary), others may decline (e.g., physical strength), highlighting the dynamic and heterogeneous nature of development. 3. Plasticity: Human development is characterized by plasticity, meaning that individuals possess the capacity for change and adaptation in response to experiences and environmental influences. This flexibility allows for learning, growth, and resilience in the face of challenges or opportunities throughout life. 61. Define and give an example of a mediator and a moderator. Answer: A mediator is a variable that explains the relationship between two other variables. It helps to clarify the process or mechanism through which one variable influences another. For example, consider a study examining the relationship between stress (X) and depression (Y) in college students. Social support (M) could act as a mediator, as it may explain how stress leads to depression. Higher levels of stress might decrease social support, which in turn increases the likelihood of experiencing depression. A moderator is a variable that influences the strength or direction of the relationship between two other variables. It specifies when or for whom the relationship between the two variables is stronger or weaker. For instance, consider a study investigating the relationship between exercise (X) and stress reduction (Y) moderated by personality type (M). Personality type could moderate this relationship, such that individuals with extroverted personalities may experience a stronger reduction in stress from exercise compared to introverted individuals. 62. Discuss the idea that abnormal behavior develops over time as children transact with their environments. Include in your discussion the Compas et al. descriptions of developmental pathways as well as the principles of equifinality and multifinality. Answer: The idea that abnormal behavior develops over time as children interact with their environments highlights the dynamic nature of development and the complex interplay between individual characteristics and environmental influences. Compas et al. describe developmental pathways as various trajectories or patterns of development that individuals may follow, influenced by factors such as genetics, family dynamics, peer relationships, and societal contexts. Equifinality suggests that different starting points or risk factors can lead to similar outcomes. For example, children exposed to various forms of adversity, such as poverty, maltreatment, or parental psychopathology, may develop similar behavioral problems despite experiencing different risk factors. Multifinality, on the other hand, suggests that similar starting points or risk factors can lead to diverse outcomes. For instance, children with a history of trauma may develop a range of psychological symptoms, including depression, anxiety, or conduct problems, depending on individual characteristics and environmental factors. Overall, understanding developmental pathways, equifinality, and multifinality emphasizes the need for comprehensive assessments and interventions that consider the unique needs and circumstances of each child. It underscores the importance of addressing risk and protective factors across multiple domains to promote positive developmental outcomes and prevent or mitigate the emergence of abnormal behavior over time. 63. Give three examples of normative and nonnormative influences on development. Answer: Normative Influences: 1. Biological: Puberty is a normative biological influence that occurs at a predictable age range, leading to physical changes such as growth spurts and hormonal changes. 2. Social: Attending school is a normative social influence experienced by most children, providing opportunities for academic learning, social interaction, and skill development. 3. Cultural: Celebrating cultural holidays and traditions within a family or community provides normative cultural influences that shape beliefs, values, and identity. Nonnormative Influences: 1. Trauma: Sudden loss of a parent in childhood is a nonnormative influence that can have profound and lasting effects on emotional, cognitive, and social development. 2. Natural Disaster: Experiencing a natural disaster, such as a hurricane or earthquake, can disrupt family life, community networks, and access to resources, leading to nonnormative stress and challenges for children. 3. Exceptional Talent: Being identified as exceptionally talented in a specific domain, such as music or mathematics, is a nonnormative influence that can shape opportunities, identity, and life trajectories in unique ways. 64. Recreate the flow chart from Figure 2.3 in the text which depicts the Grant et al. (2003) model of how stressors are related to psychopathology. Answer: I can describe the Grant et al. (2003) model of how stressors are related to psychopathology. In the Grant et al. model, stressors (e.g., environmental, interpersonal) are depicted as leading to the activation of biological and psychological processes, such as physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal. These processes, in turn, influence emotional and behavioral responses, including the experience of distress and the development of psychopathological symptoms. Additionally, the model may include moderators and mediators that influence the strength or direction of these relationships, such as individual differences in coping strategies or social support. Overall, the model illustrates the complex pathways through which stressors contribute to the onset and maintenance of psychopathology. 65. Define resilience and discuss known resilience correlates in young people. Answer: Resilience refers to the ability to adapt positively and bounce back from adversity or significant life challenges. It involves the capacity to maintain or regain mental health and well-being despite experiencing stress, trauma, or adversity. Known resilience correlates in young people include: 1. Social Support: Having strong and supportive relationships with family members, friends, teachers, and other significant individuals can buffer against the negative effects of stress and adversity. 2. Cognitive Skills: Developing cognitive skills such as problem-solving, emotional regulation, optimism, and a sense of mastery can enhance resilience by facilitating effective coping strategies. 3. Sense of Self-Efficacy: Believing in one's ability to overcome challenges and influence outcomes can promote resilience and motivate proactive efforts to address adversity. 4. Positive Coping Strategies: Utilizing adaptive coping strategies such as seeking social support, reframing negative events, and engaging in activities that promote relaxation and well-being can foster resilience. 5. Flexibility and Adaptability: Being able to adjust to change, tolerate uncertainty, and find creative solutions to problems contributes to resilience in navigating life's challenges. 6. Cultural and Spiritual Beliefs: Cultural values, traditions, and spiritual beliefs can provide a sense of identity, meaning, and connectedness, enhancing resilience in the face of adversity. Overall, resilience is a multidimensional construct influenced by various individual, familial, social, and cultural factors that can promote positive adaptation and well-being in young people. 66. Describe the differences between heterotypic and homotypic continuity and give one example of each. Answer: Heterotypic continuity and homotypic continuity are two concepts used to describe the consistency or change in the expression of a psychological characteristic over time: 1. Heterotypic Continuity: Refers to the continuity of a psychological characteristic over time, but with changes in its expression or manifestation. In other words, the underlying trait remains stable, but how it is observed or experienced may vary. For example, childhood anxiety may manifest as separation anxiety in early childhood, evolve into social anxiety in adolescence, and later present as generalized anxiety disorder in adulthood. 2. Homotypic Continuity: Refers to the continuity of a psychological characteristic over time without significant changes in its expression or manifestation. The trait remains consistent and recognizable across different developmental stages. For instance, a child who exhibits symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in childhood may continue to experience similar symptoms and impairment into adolescence and adulthood, demonstrating homotypic continuity. In summary, heterotypic continuity involves changes in the expression of a psychological characteristic over time, while homotypic continuity involves consistency in its expression across different developmental stages. 67. List and give an example of 3 out of the 5 factors identified as carrying problems forward in time in Figure 2.5 of your text. Answer: Here are three out of the five factors identified as carrying problems forward in time from Figure 2.5 of the text: 1. Parental Psychopathology: Children of parents with mental health disorders, such as depression or substance abuse, are at increased risk of developing similar issues themselves. For example, a child with a parent who has depression may be more likely to experience depression due to genetic predisposition or environmental influences. 2. Parenting Practices: Harsh or inconsistent parenting practices, such as neglect, abuse, or overcontrol, can contribute to the development and persistence of behavioral and emotional problems in children. For instance, a child who experiences frequent criticism or punishment from their parents may develop low self-esteem or conduct problems. 3. Child Characteristics: Individual characteristics such as temperament, cognitive abilities, and genetic predispositions can influence the development of psychopathology. For example, a child with high levels of impulsivity and low frustration tolerance may be more prone to developing attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or conduct problems compared to a child with different temperament traits. 68. Define infant-caretaker attachment and discuss factors that influence the development of attachment behaviors. Answer: Infant-caretaker attachment refers to the emotional bond or relationship that develops between an infant and their primary caregiver, typically the mother or father. This attachment bond is characterized by the infant's seeking of proximity, comfort, and security from the caregiver, especially in times of distress or uncertainty. Several factors influence the development of attachment behaviors: 1. Caregiver Responsiveness: The caregiver's ability to consistently and sensitively respond to the infant's needs, such as feeding, soothing, and comfort, fosters the development of a secure attachment bond. 2. Consistency and Availability: Regular and reliable availability of the caregiver provides the infant with a sense of security and trust in their caregiver's responsiveness to their needs. 3. Temperament: The infant's temperament, including characteristics such as sociability, adaptability, and emotional regulation, can influence the development of attachment patterns. For example, an infant with an easy-going temperament may form attachments more easily than a more temperamental infant. 4. Parental Sensitivity: The caregiver's ability to accurately perceive and interpret the infant's signals and cues, and respond appropriately, plays a crucial role in the development of secure attachment. 5. Cultural Influences: Cultural norms and practices regarding caregiving and infant-caregiver relationships can shape attachment patterns. For instance, cultural beliefs about independence versus interdependence may influence parental caregiving practices and expectations for attachment behaviors. Overall, the quality of the infant-caretaker attachment is influenced by a combination of caregiver characteristics, infant temperament, and environmental factors, all of which contribute to the development of a secure base for the infant's exploration and emotional regulation. 69. Summarize four patterns of infant-caretaker attachment and their relationship to later adjustment. Be specific. Answer: Four patterns of infant-caretaker attachment and their relationship to later adjustment include: 1. Secure Attachment: Infants with secure attachment show distress upon separation from the caregiver but are easily soothed upon reunion. They explore their environment confidently when the caregiver is present. Later in life, individuals with secure attachment tend to have better social skills, higher self-esteem, and healthier relationships. 2. Insecure-Avoidant Attachment: Infants with insecure-avoidant attachment may not show distress upon separation and may avoid or ignore the caregiver upon reunion. They may appear independent but may struggle with emotional intimacy and have difficulty expressing their needs in relationships. 3. Insecure-Ambivalent Attachment: Infants with insecure-ambivalent attachment often show intense distress upon separation and are difficult to soothe upon reunion. They may display clingy behavior and have difficulty exploring their environment. Later in life, individuals with insecure-ambivalent attachment may have issues with anxiety, dependency, and difficulty trusting others. 4. Disorganized Attachment: Infants with disorganized attachment exhibit inconsistent and unpredictable behaviors, such as freezing or contradictory responses, during reunions with the caregiver. They may show signs of fear or confusion in the presence of the caregiver. Later in life, individuals with disorganized attachment may struggle with emotional regulation, interpersonal relationships, and coping with stress. These patterns of infant-caretaker attachment are linked to later adjustment outcomes, highlighting the importance of early caregiving experiences in shaping social and emotional development throughout the lifespan. 70. Explain Chess and Thomas’ “goodness-of-fit” model and how the example of Carl reinforces this approach. Answer: Chess and Thomas' "goodness-of-fit" model emphasizes the importance of the match or compatibility between a child's temperament and the demands or expectations of their environment, including parental caregiving styles and cultural context. In other words, the model suggests that a child's positive adaptation and well-being depend on how well their temperament aligns with the characteristics and expectations of their environment. For example, consider Carl, a highly active and energetic toddler with a low attention span. In a home environment where his parents encourage exploration, provide opportunities for physical activity, and offer gentle guidance to help him focus, Carl's temperament may be a good fit with his environment. This positive match between Carl's temperament and his caregiving environment promotes his optimal development and well-being. However, if Carl's parents were overly strict or critical of his behavior, expecting him to sit still for long periods and conform to rigid rules, there would be a poor fit between Carl's temperament and his environment. This mismatch could lead to frustration, conflict, and behavioral problems for Carl. In summary, Chess and Thomas' "goodness-of-fit" model underscores the importance of considering both the child's temperament and the characteristics of their environment to promote positive development and adjustment. It emphasizes the need for caregivers to adapt their parenting strategies and environments to better match the unique temperament and needs of each child, as exemplified by Carl's experience. 71. Describe the three-factor, widely recognized, dimensions of temperament (Sanson, Letcher, Smart et al., 2009). Answer: The three widely recognized dimensions of temperament, as described by Sanson, Letcher, Smart et al. (2009), are: 1. Emotionality: Refers to the intensity and frequency of emotional reactions, including both positive and negative emotions. Children high in emotionality may experience strong emotional responses to various situations, while those low in emotionality may have more subdued reactions. 2. Sociability: Involves the child's tendency to seek out and enjoy social interactions with others. Children high in sociability may be outgoing, friendly, and enjoy being around others, whereas those low in sociability may prefer solitary activities and have difficulty with social interactions. 3. Activity: Relates to the child's level of energy, physical movement, and need for stimulation. Children high in activity may be constantly on the go, engaging in physical play and exploration, while those low in activity may be more calm, sedentary, and content with quiet activities. These dimensions provide a framework for understanding individual differences in children's temperamental traits, which can influence their behavior, interactions, and adjustment in various contexts. 72. Discuss the early development of emotion as well as the process of understanding and regulating emotion. Answer: The early development of emotion begins in infancy, with basic emotions such as joy, sadness, anger, fear, and disgust emerging within the first few months of life. Infants express these emotions through facial expressions, vocalizations, and body movements, often in response to their immediate environment and interactions with caregivers. As children grow and develop, they gradually gain a more sophisticated understanding of emotions and learn to regulate their emotional responses. This process involves several key components: 1. Emotion Understanding: Children learn to recognize and label their own emotions and those of others, as well as understand the causes and consequences of emotions. This development is supported by caregivers who provide emotional language, model appropriate emotional expressions, and help children make connections between emotions and situations. 2. Emotion Expression: Children learn to express their emotions in socially acceptable ways, adapting their emotional displays based on cultural norms and social expectations. They also develop the ability to modulate the intensity and duration of their emotional responses to fit the demands of different situations. 3. Emotion Regulation: Emotion regulation involves the processes by which individuals modulate their emotional experiences, expressions, and physiological responses. This includes strategies such as cognitive reappraisal, distraction, problem-solving, and seeking social support. Caregivers play a crucial role in teaching children effective emotion regulation skills through responsive parenting, scaffolding, and co-regulation. Overall, the early development of emotion involves both the understanding and regulation of emotions, which are essential for children's social and emotional competence, well-being, and relationships throughout life. 73. What is social cognitive processing and how does it relate to maladaptive behavior? Answer: Social cognitive processing refers to the mental processes involved in how individuals perceive, interpret, and respond to social situations and interactions. This includes processes such as attention, memory, judgment, reasoning, and decision-making in social contexts. In the context of maladaptive behavior, social cognitive processing can contribute to the development or maintenance of problematic behaviors in several ways: 1. Biased Perception: Individuals may perceive social cues or situations in a distorted or biased manner, leading to misinterpretation of others' intentions or emotions. For example, someone with social anxiety may interpret neutral facial expressions as hostile or critical. 2. Negative Interpretation: Maladaptive patterns of thinking, such as cognitive distortions or negative schemas, can lead individuals to interpret social situations in a negative or self-defeating manner. This can contribute to feelings of insecurity, rejection sensitivity, and low self-esteem. 3. Poor Social Problem-Solving: Difficulties in generating and implementing effective solutions to social problems can result in maladaptive behaviors such as avoidance, aggression, or withdrawal. For example, someone who lacks social problem-solving skills may resort to aggressive behavior when faced with interpersonal conflicts. 4. Impaired Social Learning: Social cognitive processing deficits can impair individuals' ability to learn from social feedback and adjust their behavior accordingly. This can result in the persistence of maladaptive behaviors despite negative consequences or feedback from others. Overall, social cognitive processing plays a crucial role in shaping individuals' social behavior and interactions. Dysfunctional patterns of social cognitive processing can contribute to the development and maintenance of maladaptive behaviors, highlighting the importance of addressing cognitive processes in interventions targeting social and behavioral problems. Test Bank for Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology Rita Wicks-Nelson, Allen C. Israel 9781317351344, 9780205036066, 9780205901128