CH-5-6 Recruitment – Canadian Human Resource Management: A Strategic Approach : Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 5 to 6 5 RECRUITMENT CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Explain the strategic importance of the recruitment function. Discuss the constraints facing a typical recruiter. Identify the appropriate recruiting methods for different types of jobs. Explain how to generate effective recruitment advertisements. List key measures for evaluating the effectiveness of the recruitment function. POWERPOINT® SLIDES Canadian Human Resource Management includes a complete set of Microsoft PowerPoint® files for each chapter. (Please contact your McGraw-Hill Ryerson representative to find out how instructors can receive these files.) In the lecture outline that follows, a reference to the relevant PowerPoint slide for this chapter is placed beside the corresponding lecture material. The slide number helps you to see your location in the slide show sequence and to skip slides that you don’t want to show to the class. (To jump ahead or back to a particular slide, just type the slide number and hit the Enter or Return key.) LECTURE OUTLINE (with PowerPoint® slides) Recruitment Slide 1 Recruitment Defined Slide 2 The Recruitment Process Slide 3 Strategic Importance of Recruitment Slide 4 RECRUITMENT Finding new employees for the organization is a continuing challenge. Recruitment is the process of finding and attracting capable individuals to apply for employment and to accept a job offer if/when one is made to them. It is distinct from selection, which involves identifying candidates from this pool of applicants who best meet job requirements using selection tools such as interviews. It begins with generating a pool of applicants, continues during selection while decisions are made among applicants to choose the best one, and then extends after selection decisions have been made to convince candidate’s who have been made offer, to accept the job. • It includes both intentional (e.g., placing job ads) and unintentional (e.g., media coverage) actions • It is a two-way street where applicants are learning about the organization, and the organization is learning about the applicant • Responsibility for recruitment usually belongs to the human resource department -- Recruiters: Specialists within the human resource department of large organizations who are responsible for recruitment THE RECRUITMENT PROCESS • Identify job openings -- Human resource planning -- Requests by managers • Identify job requirements -- Reviewing job analysis information, i.e., job descriptions and specifications -- Reviewing manager comments on what is needed for the job • Determine recruitment methods -- Usually more than one method is used to find suitable candidates, e.g., school, college and university visits, advertisements, contacts with professional and labour associations, use of government agencies such as HRDC • Obtain applications -- The right type of applicant is more important than the number of applications received -- Maintain applicant interest in the organization during the selection process and then try to convince selected applicants to accept the job • Constraints -- Variety of constraints may be faced (discussed later in the chapter) STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF THE RECRUITMENT FUNCTION Recruitment decisions may have profound implications for the organization and its strategic success • Gaining Competitive Advantage from Human Capital -- Highly skilled and motivated employees are a source of competitive advantage Internal Recruiting Slide 5 External Recruiting Slide 6 Constraints: Organizational Policies Slide 7 Constraints on Recruitment Slide 8 • Reaping the Benefits of Diversity Management -- Diversity provides vitality and competitive advantage • Focusing on Employee Development -- Organization has a choice to develop and promote internal candidates or hire from outside • Investing Resources into Recruitment -- Decision on the total recruitment budget affects the quality of recruits and the overall effectiveness of recruitment INTERNAL RECRUITING • Advantages -- Employee is familiar with the organization and its culture -- Employee is “known” to the firm; this improves the organization’s ability to predict the person’s success in the job -- Improves workforce morale and motivation -- Information about employee performance is known in addition to scores on selection tests; improves ability to predict success in the new job • Weaknesses -- Internal rivalry and competition for higher positions can reduce interpersonal and interdepartmental cooperation -- No “new blood” is brought into the system, which can prevent creative solutions from emerging -- Poor morale (leading to possible turnover) of employees who were not promoted --Performance evaluation records are only relevant to the extent that the promotion job is similar to the employee’s current job EXTERNAL RECRUITING • Advantages -- Organization is able to acquire skills or knowledge (competencies) that may not be currently available within -- Newer ideas and novel ways of solving problems my emerge • Weaknesses -- Newcomers may not fit in with the organization and into its present culture -- Newcomers take a longer time to learn about the organization’s culture, policies, and practices -- Usually, hiring from the outside is more expensive -- Lowered morale and motivation levels of current employees who don’t see any career growth possibilities within the firm CONSTRAINTS ON RECRUITMENT 1. Organizational Policies • Promote-from-Within Policies -- Gives present employees the first opportunity for job openings and facilitates their career growth • Compensation Policies -- Recruiters seldom have the authority to exceed stated pay ranges • Employment Status Policies -- Some unionized settings have limitations against hiring part-time, temporary, and contract workers -- Policies may be in place against hiring employees who have second jobs • International Hiring Policies -- May require foreign job openings to be staffed with local citizens 2. Human Resource Plans • Recruiters need to consider the firm’s overall plan to fill existing and future vacancies, including decisions on whether to fill internally or by recruiting from outside 3. Diversity Management Programs • Where diversity management and Employment Equity Programs exist, recruitment must also take these programs into account 4. Recruiter Habits • The propensity of a recruiter to rely on methods, systems, or behaviours that led to past recruitment success • Habits may perpetuate past mistakes or obscure effective alternatives 5. Environmental Conditions • Leading Economic Indicators -- Statistics Canada publishes the direction of the leading indicators (upturns versus downturns in the national economy) • Predicted versus Actual Sales --Variations between predicted and actual sales may require recruiting efforts to be adapted accordingly • Employment Statistics --Monitor availability and competition for workers to see workforce supply by industry sector and job group 6. Job Requirements • Highly specialized workers are more difficult to find than unskilled • People with more experience generally cost more, so organizations are not always able to afford the most experienced workers 7. Costs • Recruiters must operate within budgets and minimize expenses wherever possible 8. Inducements • May be needed to stimulate a potential recruit’s interest • Examples include: monetary, flextime, non-traditional benefits Applying for a Job Slide 9 Job Application Forms Slide 10 Recruitment Methods Slide 11 Recruitment Methods (cont’d) Slide 12 Non-Traditional Recruitment Methods Slide 13 Choosing Recruitment Sources Slide 14 Evaluating Recruitment Slide 15 Applicants typically use one of two methods to apply for a job: submit a résumé or complete a job application form. • The résumé is a one- to two-page summary of the applicant’s education, work experience, personal contact information, work goals, and related skills • An application form designates the information the recruiters would like to have for each applicant, and may make indicators such as education credentials and gaps in employment history more readily apparent. JOB APPLICATION FORMS • Name and Address -- Are nearly universal requests—need to ensure that information sought is job-related, i.e., non-discriminatory • Employment Status -- Employment objectives and availability • Education and Skills -- Uncovers the job seeker’s abilities, e.g., specific skills and education • Work History -- Listing of past jobs • Memberships, Awards, and Hobbies -- Off-the-job activities may make one candidate preferable over another, e.g., managerial and professional positions • References -- In additional to traditional references questions may explore criminal record—must ensure job-relatedness • Signature Line -- Candidates are usually required to sign and date their applications -- Allows the employer to check references, verify records, etc. -- Affirms the information is true and accurate—falsification of an application form is grounds for discharge in most organizations RECRUITMENT METHODS To let job seekers know about job opportunities, there are many options for recruiters: • Walk-ins and Write-ins -- Job seekers who arrive at or write to the human resource department in search of a job without prior referrals and not in response to a specific ad (includes résumés via email) • Employee Referrals -- Recommendations by present employees to the recruiter about possible job applicants for a position -- Excellent recruitment technique however, caution must be taken to ensure this method does not intentionally or unintentionally discriminate • Advertising -- Ads are the most familiar form of employment advertising -- Blind ads are ads that do not identify the employer -- Other advertisements include media-billboards, television, radio, and transit advertising -- Regardless of the ad media, applicants prefer to learn basics about the job including hours of work, location, wages, and benefits right on the ad -- Ads may include attractive (only positive) or realistic (positive and negative) messages • The Internet The internet has become one of the most important recruiting tools: -- Cost-effective and research millions of users day and night -- Exact qualifications and job skills can be provided to weed out unsuitable candidates -- It is relatively inexpensive Job Board sites allow job seekers to post their résumés and recruiters to post their job opportunities Most organizations also have Careers pages on their websites containing detailed information about their job opportunities, wages and benefits, the organization, and employee testimonials • Human Resources and Social Development Canada (HRSD) -- Federal agency that provides programs and services for employers and present and potential employees -- Programs and activities include the Job Bank (database of jobs and work opportunities); and the Working in Canada website (containing information on the current and future demand for various occupations within specific geographical regions). • Private Employment Agencies -- Take an employer’s request for recruits and then solicits job seekers -- May screen applicants or provide a stream of applicants for the client’s human resource department to screen • Professional Search Firms -- More specialized than placement agencies -- For a fee, recruit specialized personnel by telephone, and at times, recruit from a competitor • Educational Institutions -- A common source of recruits for entry-level openings -- In recent years, “co-op education” programs have become popular as have summer placement programs -- Alumni associations can be an excellent source for hiring experienced technical and managerial staff • Professional Associations -- Professional associations can be a source of job seekers specific to a particular occupation • Labour Organizations -- Local labour organizations maintain list of people with trade skills who are looking for employment • Armed Forces -- Trained personnel leave the armed forces regularly. Many of these people have hard-to-find skills • Temporary-Help Agencies -- Provide “on-loan” employees for temporary jobs during vacations, peak seasons, illnesses, etc. • Departing Employees -- Buy-back is a method of convincing an employee who is about to resign to stay with the organization by offering increased wages, schedule changes, etc. • Open House and Job Fairs -- May be useful methods to attract employees NON-TRADITIONAL RECRUITMENT SOURCES • Applicant Tracking Systems -- Databases of potential candidates to facilitate matching of job requirements and applicants • Contingent/Contract/Leased Workers -- Includes self-employed, temporary or leased employees • Partnerships with Social Agencies -- Partnerships between employers and social agencies and community associations to help with recruiting • Direct Mail Solicitations -- To target a specific population segment or geographic area • Recruitment Abroad -- Canada recruits skilled workers from other countries, e.g., computer programmers CHOOSING RECRUITMENT SOURCES How does a recruiter choose which methods to use? 1. How many recruits are needed? 2. What is the skill level required? 3. What sources are available in the industry and geographic region? 4. What has worked in the past? 5. How much is the budget? 6. Are there labour agreements in place that specify recruitment options? Producing a system to track each recruitment method to see the number of applicants, quality of applicants, acceptances, performance on the job, and even retention saves recruitment time, effort, and money. EVALUATING THE RECRUITMENT FUNCTION The effectiveness of the recruiting function should be evaluated on an ongoing basis. Popular measures include: • Cost per Hire -- The dollar cost per person recruited—should include the direct and apportioned costs and overhead • Quality of Hires and Cost -- Addresses the quality of people hired from various sources e.g. performance, absenteeism • Offers-to-Applicants Ratio -- Ratio between the number of job offers extended and the total number of applicants calculated for each recruitment method • Time Lapsed per Hire -- Time taken to fill a position ANSWERS TO REVIEW AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What background information should a recruiter have before beginning to recruit job seekers? Recruiters need information in two general areas: knowledge of the constraints under which they are expected to perform and knowledge of the particular job to be filled. Familiarity with company policies, labour markets, human resource plans, and affirmative action guidelines are important constraints imposed on the recruiter. In addition, the recruiter must have knowledge of the particular job, either through job analysis information or discussions with the manager who has the job opening. 2. Give three examples of how organizational policies affect the recruitment process. Explain how these influence a recruiter's actions. Policies in compensation limit the money available to attract qualified applicants. The affirmative action plan and policies may suggest specific types and sources of workers. Promotion-from-within policies may require the recruiter to undertake a thorough review of present employees before seeking applicants externally. 3. Under what circumstances would a blind ad be a useful recruiting technique? Whenever an employer seeks to avoid large numbers of applicants or whenever the recruiter thinks people will be less willing to apply if they know the employer or nature of the job, a blind ad may be appropriate. Blind ads also are used in order not to inform competitors of hiring needs or to keep job incumbents from knowing an opening exists, especially where an employee is to be terminated. 4. "If a job application omits important questions, needed information about recruits will not be available. But if a needless question is asked, the information can be ignored by the recruiter without any other complications." Do you agree or disagree? Why? Disagree. Needless questions that are not job-related may be relied upon to make the final hiring decision. If such is the case, the irrelevant information may discriminate against a protected class. 5. Suppose your employer asks you, the human resource manager, to justify the relatively large recruiting budget that you have been historically assigned. What arguments would you provide? What indices or measures will you provide to show that your recruitment is cost-effective? To have quality recruits, a pool of candidates must be generated to allow for good selection decisions, and the chosen candidates must be convinced to accept the offered position. Less qualified employees may cause organizational problems and customer irritation or dissatisfaction. There is also the higher turnover problem with unsuitable employees, causing additional hiring and training costs. Some indices that can be used: cost per hire; quality of hires and cost offers; applicant ratios; time lapsed per hire. Figure 5-9, p. 200, shows additional measures to evaluate the effectiveness of a company’s recruitment function. ANSWERS TO CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. After months of insufficient recognition (and two years without a raise), you accept an offer from another firm for a $2,000-a-year raise. When you tell your boss you are resigning, you are told how crucial you are to the business and are offered a raise of $2,500 per year. What do you do? Why? What problems might exist if you accept the buy-back? Although there is no right answer to the first two parts of this question, students might be brought around to discussing the question of their obligation to the other employer with whom they have accepted an offer. The problems that might exist are several. The employee might not receive another raise for some time, having just received one. Secondly, the person's future loyalty to the organization may be questioned, and it may affect future promotions. Finally, nothing prevents the first employer from firing someone it kept through a buy-back once a replacement is found through a blind ad. 2. Suppose you are a manager who just accepted the resignation of a crucial employee. After you send your request for a replacement to the human resource department, how could you help the recruiter do a more effective job? By reviewing the job description and position description information to see if it is accurate and complete, the manager understands the type of recruit likely to be sought. If that information is outdated or incomplete, a call or visit from the manager would help the recruiter understand the needs of the job more precisely. 3. If at your company the regular university recruiter became ill and you were assigned to recruit at six universities in two weeks, what information would you need before leaving on the trip? The knowledge needed by a new university recruiter is extensive. An understanding of present and future hiring needs, specific job openings and their descriptions, affirmative action goals, and general compensation policies is necessary. It would also be helpful if the recruiter had knowledge to "sell" the company. This sales information requires an understanding of wages, benefits, company-provided services, the local community, opportunities for advancement, and other information sought by applicants. 4. In small businesses, managers usually handle their own recruiting. What methods would you use for the following situations? Why? (a) The regular janitor is going on vacation for three weeks. (b) Your office assistant who manages all appointments and handles all filing in your office has the flu and won’t be in the office for two days. (c) Two more salespersons are needed: one for local customers and one to open a sales office in Victoria, British Columbia. (d) Your only chemist is retiring and must be replaced with a highly skilled individual. (e) Next week, your only computer programmer/analyst plans to begin on a three-week leave to visit his sick mother in India. If his mother’s health turns for the worse, he may be delayed by another week or two. Janitor. Since janitorial services cannot be left undone for three weeks, a replacement is needed either by temporarily assigning those duties to someone or hiring a temporary worker or private contractor to do the work. Office assistant. Since urgent administrative information may have to be completed, many firms consider hiring a temporary office worker. Sharing an assistant or relying on an administrative support pool within the company also may be feasible answers. Salespersons. The local sales position may be filled through ads, employee referrals, or private or public employment agencies. Filling the Victoria position probably requires hiring a person from the area. Private placement agencies or search firms are the most logical source of such talent unless someone from the company is to be transferred. Chemist. To fill a highly skilled position, the manager probably would rely on the skills of a search firm, although present employees may be able to recommend someone. Computer programmer/analyst: To fill a highly skilled position, on a temporary basis, the manager would either assign the job duties to someone else in the organization or rely on a temporary or private contractor. The manager may wish to contact a related professional association as a source of a qualified person who may be seeking a temporary position. 5. You are the human resource manager in a large auto-assembly unit employing 2000 semi-skilled and skilled employees. Each year you recruit dozens of full time and part time workers. Recently, the vice-president, Finance, pointed that out that recruitment costs in your firm are increasing steadily. She is proposing a freeze in the recruitment budget. What kind of information will you provide in an effort to change her mind on the matter? The HR manager can show her the productivity of those who were recruited, such as error and scrap rates in their assembly work. The turnover rate of those who were hired would also show the benefit of maintaining the recruitment plan ETHICS QUESTION Comments to Instructors There is no right or wrong answer to this question. It is for class discussion purposes. WEB RESEARCH Comments to Instructors These exercises have been designed for students to demonstrate their computer and Internet skills to research the required information. Answers will vary. INCIDENT 5.1: ONTARIO ELECTRONICS EXPANSION Incident Comments Rapid expansion of an organization puts a considerable burden on the organization and the human resource department. To meet the demands of rapid expansion, firms often rely on the good judgment of recruiters to know where and how to find capable applicants. Under the circumstances described in the incident, most human resource specialists would take the following actions. 1. Assuming you are given the responsibility of recruiting these needed employees, what channels would you use to find and attract each type of recruit sought? A patent lawyer with considerable experience would be found by employing a professional search firm that specializes in legal talent. Another possibility would be to locate a professional association of patent lawyers. A third option might be to retain a law firm with the needed staff lawyers. A patent lawyer who is familiar with the ins and outs of the patent process and the patent office in Hull, Quebec, also is needed. Although hiring a lawyer might be feasible through search firms or professional associations, this level of expertise might be best obtained by retaining an appropriate law firm in Ottawa or Hull. Twelve engineers are needed, but they represent two different groups, the experienced and the less experienced. Experienced engineers almost certainly would be hired through a search firm, or perhaps through contacting an alumni association. The less experienced ones might be found at colleges and universities that the firm normally uses to recruit engineers through annual on campus job fairs. An office manager and clerical staff might be found by pursuing several channels simultaneously. Ads, private placement agencies, Human Resource Development Canada Centres, walk-ins, and employee referrals are feasible channels of recruitment for these skills. 2. What other actions should the human resource department take now that there is a possibility of very rapid expansion? The human resource plan should be revised to reflect the firm's new opportunities. Based on the outcome of that effort, additional training and recruitment might have to be started immediately in order to supply the human resources needed to meet expansion plans. CASE STUDY: MAPLE LEAF SHOES LTD. – A CASE STUDY IN RECRUITMENT Answers to Discussion Questions 1. What is your evaluation of the recruitment strategy used by Maple Leaf Shoes? Poor. The recruitment methods used (e.g., ads in the local newspapers and contacting a temporary help agency) are not appropriate given the responsibilities and competencies associated with the HR manager's position. Assuming the position is to be advertised, it should have been done in national (or even international newspapers/magazines). Advertisements in the publications of trade organizations and chambers of commerce would also be more appropriate than in local dailies. Hiring a search firm would have been a better approach given the time constraints faced by the firm. The position is also very critical for the survival and prosperity of Maple Leaf Shoes. Clark's actions do not show recognition of this fact. It should also be pointed out that the job description and competencies expected of the new job incumbent are not based on any systematic job analysis. Thus, the job description used for recruitment purposes is erroneous. 2. Evaluate the recruitment advertisement. What parts of the copy would seem undesirable? What items are missing in the advertisement? Once again, Poor! The student will note that several of the criteria listed in the text chapter for a good recruitment ad (e.g., clear job definitions, non-sexist language) are violated in this ad. The ad does not tell the reader very much about the job, responsibilities, or the job challenge except in generalities. The language is sexist and very masculine in tone. Adjectives such as aggressive, take charge, etc. show the firm's bias for a "macho" person to head this function. The statement, "qualified women and minority candidates are also encouraged to apply" is likely to be perceived as insulting by many. (Suggestion to the instructor: you may want to ask your female and visible minority students about their reactions to the statements in this ad.) The student should evaluate the ad against the chapter material and list the items that are missing in the ad. 3. Design a new recruitment advertisement for the position of the human resource manager. There is no single correct answer for this question. Emphasize the content when evaluating the final ad (especially the avoidance of illegal, discriminatory, or unnecessary statements). You may give bonus points to students who also give emphasis to copy layout (emphasizing visual balance and tension and attracting the reader's attention instantaneously). 4. Design an application form to be used for hiring a human resource manager in the firm. The application form should basically be along the lines suggested in this chapter. The application form given in the text chapter should however be modified to meet the needs of a senior managerial position such as this. The student should be asked to show a one-to-one correspondence between the job specifications s/he has identified for the position and the questions in the application form. CASE STUDY: CANADIAN PACIFIC AND INTERNATIONAL BANK: EVALUATING RECRUITMENT FUNCTION Answer to Discussion Questions 1. Make your recommendation on the best recruitment methods for each type of workforce. For investment managers, their specialized skills and experience suggests that the best recruitment method is through professional associations and advertisement in trade publications. Professional search firms may be expensive but may be able to locate qualified applicants for technical and managerial positions that are hard to fill. For sales staff, their skills suggest that recruitment can be done through newspaper ads and educational institutions. Internet recruitment can be used for both types of employees both on the organization’s Career webpages as well as on job boards such as Monster or Workopolis. 2. Looking at the figures provided in the case, what other conclusions can you arrive at? The statistics reveal the following patterns: Women are underrepresented among investment managers and analysts. Most of the investment managers and analysts are less than 30 years old, while the sales staff has a more balanced age distribution. Ninety percent of the investment managers and analysts have at least a university degree, whereas only 40 percent of the sales staff has a university degree. Both advertisements and Internet recruitment attract the most number of applicants for both investment managers and analysts, and for sales staff. Internet recruitment led to the most number of investment managers who accepted job offers, but also the highest number that left the firm within two years. Advertisements led to the most number of sales staff who accepted job offers with only two leaving within two years. In balancing between costs and the number of successful hires, internet recruitment appears to be the best-suited method for the managers, whereas advertisement appears to be best suited for the sales staff. Campus recruiting especially using referrals from current employees may be effective due to the savings associated with reduced training requirements. Consideration for this method will need to be balanced against the likelihood that allegations of discrimination may arise. Students should be encouraged to prepare an Excel type spread sheet to identify the total cost of a position under each method (recruitment cost + training cost+ replacement cost). They will find that some of their “obvious” answers are not necessarily the best recruitment methods. 64 SELECTION CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Explain the strategic significance of the selection function. Describe the various steps in the selection process. Discuss the types and usefulness of application screening tools in selecting employees. Explain the role of employment tests in the selection process. Discuss the major approaches to test validation. Outline the various steps in conducting an employment interview. POWERPOINT® SLIDES Canadian Human Resource Management includes a complete set of Microsoft PowerPoint® files for each chapter. (Please contact your McGraw-Hill Ryerson representative to find out how instructors can receive these files.) In the lecture outline that follows, a reference to the relevant PowerPoint slide for this chapter is placed beside the corresponding lecture material. The slide number helps you to see your location in the slide show sequence and to skip slides that you don’t want to show to the class. (To jump ahead or back to a particular slide, just type the slide number and hit the Enter or Return key.) LECTURE OUTLINE (with PowerPoint® slides) Selection Slide 1 Selection Process Defined Slide 2 Strategic Significance of Selection Slide 3 Strategic Significance of Selection (cont’d) Slide 4 SELECTION PROCESS DEFINED The selection process is a series of specific steps used to decide which recruits should be hired. • Begins when recruits apply for employment and ends with the hiring decision -- Steps in between involve matching the employment needs of the organization and the applicant STRATEGIC SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SELECTION FUNCTION The selection process is integral to the strategic success of firms. Critical dimensions include: 1. Successful Execution of an Organization’s Strategy Depends on the Calibre of its Employees -- Overall effectiveness and success depends on the quality and calibre of the employees it hires 2. An Organization’s Selection Decisions Must Reflect Job Requirements -- Mismatch could result in poor hires or possible lawsuits from applicants who believe they were discriminated against 3. Selection Strategy Must Be Well Integrated with Organizational Priorities -- Selection system should be consistent with the strategic posture of the organization and organizational characteristics discussed in chapter 1. 4. Selection Strategy Must Recognize Organizational Constraints -- Selection systems need to be cost-effective and consistent with organization’s budgetary and other (e.g., policies) constraints 5. Selection Strategy Should Recognize Labour Market Realities -- Ideally, an organization has a large, qualified pool of recruits from which to select applicants -- Selection ratio is the relationship between the number of applicants hired and the total number of applicants e e.g. 1:25 is a large selection ratio; 1:2 is a small selection ratio 6. Selection Practices Must be Ethical -- Hiring decisions are shaped by the ethics of employment specialists Steps in the Selection Process – Preliminary Reception Slide 5 Steps in the Selection Process – Screening Slide 6 Steps in the Selection Process – Employment Tests Slide 7 Steps in the Selection Process – Employment Tests (Types of Tests) Slide 8 Steps in the Selection Process – Employment Interviews(s) Slide 9 Steps in the Selection Process – Realistic Job Previews Slide 10 Steps in the Selection Process – Verification of References Slide 11 STEPS IN THE SELECTION OF HUMAN RESOURCES • Selection system needs to be related to the job descriptions and specifications i.e. job specifications should form the basis of all selection decisions • The type of selection procedure will depend on factors including the size of the organization, the stage of its growth, and the jobs involved Step 1: Preliminary Reception of Applicants • Initial contact may be in person, in writing (e.g., through e-mail) -- Walk-ins may receive a preliminary or “courtesy” interview -- Write-ins are often sent a letter of acknowledgment -- For many organizations, this step has disappeared due to the increasing use of Internet recruitment Step 2: Applicant Screening • At the screening stage, most organizations will have received a large number of resumes or job application forms. • The purpose of screening is to remove from consideration those applicants who do not need the broad qualifications of the job (such as education or experience requirements) • Weighted application blank -- Job application form in which various items are given differential weights to reflect their predictive power • Care needs to be taken to ensure application is useful and meets legal requirements • Biographical information blanks (biodata) -- Questionnaire about applicant’s personal history and life experiences (e.g., hobbies, family relations, accomplishments, values, reactions to stressful situations) -- Cautions: items may unintentionally discriminate, may be viewed by applicants as invasive, not easily verifiable, rarely commercially available so must be developed in house. Step 3: Administration of Employment Tests • Employment tests are used to obtain relatively objective information that can be compared with other candidates and current workers • Reliability means that the test yields consistent results • Validity asks the question, “Is the test accurately measuring what it is purported to measure?” -- Empirical approaches involves determining the correlation of the test scores and the job-related criterion, i.e., the higher the correlation, the better the match Predictive validity is determined by giving a test to a group of applicants and later correlating their performance and test scores. Concurrent validity involves testing present employees and correlating their test results with measures of their performance -- Rational approaches are used when there is not a large enough sample to use an empirical approach Content validity is assumed when the test includes a sample of the skills needed to perform the job, e.g., staffing test Construct validity seeks a relationship between performance and characteristics assumed to be required, e.g., cognitive ability TYPES OF TESTS • Personality Tests -- Measure personality or temperament -- Low cost, among the most reliable, moderate validity • Ability Tests -- Aim to predict which job applicants have the skills, knowledge, and ability to do the job. -- Low cost, high reliability and validity • Knowledge Tests -- Measure a person’s information or knowledge about job requirements. -- Moderate cost, high reliability and validity -- Validity is assumed when the test includes a representative sample of the work the application is to do when hired • Performance Tests (or work samples) -- Measure the ability of applicants to do some parts of the work for which they are to be hired. -- Although the cost is high for performance tests, they also have high reliability and validity • Situational Judgment Tests -- Applicants are placed into hypothetical job scenarios, and asked to select a behavioural response from among a list of alternative courses of action. • Assessment Centres -- Used for identifying managerial potential -- Several methods of assessment are used e.g. job simulations, in-basket exercises, interviews, etc. • Computer-interactive Tests -- Uses computer simulations to measure perceptual-motor skills (e.g., reaction time, control precision) • Integrity Tests -- Measure an applicant’s honesty and integrity through overt and non-overt questions about dishonesty and counter-productive behaviors --Low cost, high reliability, moderate validity Step 4: Employment Interview(s) • Supervisors should have input into the final hiring decision Step 5: Realistic Job Previews • Involve showing the candidate the type of work, equipment, and working conditions before the hiring decision is made • Highlights both the positive and negative aspects of the job • Tends to reduce employee turnover by attempting to reduce initial job dissatisfaction Step 6: Verification of References • Employment references discuss the applicant’s work history • Concern exists that former supervisors may not be completely candid, particularly with negative information • Many employment references become only a confirmation of prior employment -- Reference Letters are collected by an applicant from previous employers and contacts -- Rarely would an applicant pass along an unfavourable reference letter; virtually all reference letters are positive limiting their utility -- Background checks may be used to verify the applicant’s skills, education, and experience -- Employers need to be aware of their legal obligations including privacy and personal information protection in their collection, use, retention, and disclosure of personal information about applicants Steps in the Selection Process – Medical Evaluation Slide 12 Steps in the Selection Process – Hiring Decision Slide 13 Employment Interviews Slide 14 Types of Interviews Slide 15 Types of Structured Interviews Slide 16 Other Types of Interviews Slide 17 Employment Interview – Stages Slide 18 Employment interview – Stages (cont’d) Slide 19 Interviewer Errors Slide 20 Interviewee Errors Slide 21 Evaluating the Selection Slide 22 Step 7: Contingent Assessments • Medical evaluation - A health checklist indicating health and accident information or medical evaluation • Many employers do not include this step because of costs involved and potential for charges of discrimination from rejected applicants, e.g., rejected applicant may believe they were not hired due to a pre-existing medical condition • May be scheduled after the hiring decision • Drug tests are increasingly used, however, drug and alcohol testing without a demonstrable relationship to job performance has been found to be a violation of employee rights • Drug-dependent users are a protected class of individuals under the Canadian Human Rights Act Step 8: Hiring Decision • Whether made by the supervisor or the human resource department, the hiring decision marks the end of the selection process -- Job applications of those hired should be retained to update HRIS and for future analyses (e.g., to uncover invalid tests) -- For public relations purposes, applicants who were not selected should be contacted; retain applications for future openings where promising. --Trade-offs among predictors are made using different approaches (subjective, multiple cut off, compensatory) -- Selection for self-managed teams require careful planning to ensure inputs from everyone at the same time maintain objectivity, validity and professionalism. -- Applicants who are hired should be contacted immediately. The employment contract should be carefully prepared specifying conditions of employment and restrictive covenants where relevant. EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEWS • Formal, in-depth conversation conducted to evaluate the applicant’s acceptability • Most widely used selection technique -- Allows a personal impression -- Offers the firm an opportunity to sell a job to a candidate -- Provides opportunity to answer the candidate’s questions -- Effective public relations tool -- Popular due to flexibility and ability to offer a two-way exchange -- Flaw relates to their varying reliability and validity TYPES OF INTERVIEWS Interviews may be conducted on a one-to-one basis, panel or group interview basis • Unstructured Interviews -- Uses few if any planned questions to enable the interviewer to pursue, in depth, the applicant’s responses -- Lacks the reliability of a structured interview because questions are different for each applicant • Structured Interviews -- Rely on a pre-determined set of questions developed before the interview; the same questions are asked of each applicant -- A scoring guide is used to grade each applicant’s response on each question -- Interview may seem quite mechanical and rigid -- Claimed to be highly job-related and some past research studies improved reliability and validity over traditional, unstructured interviews There are three common types of structured interviews: • Behavioural Description Interviews -- Based on the principle that the best predictor of a person’s future behaviour is their past behaviour in a similar circumstance -- Attempts to determine how job applicants responded to situations in the past, e.g., “Tell me about the most serious disagreement that you have had with a co-worker.” • Situational interviews -- Questions focus on situations that are likely to arise on the job -- Applicants are asked to indicate what they would do in such situations -- Responses are scored according to a rating rubric wherein more points are given to better responses • Stress-Producing Interviews -- Used for jobs that involve high levels of stress and may involve a series of harsh, rapid-fire questions to learn how the applicant handles stress -- Should be used with other interview formats Computer-Assisted Interviewing • Interviews that use computers to electronically profile job candidates and screen new hires • May increase reliability by making the interviews uniform, however, some human resource managers are uncomfortable with the resulting in-depth electronic profiling THE INTERVIEW PROCESS 1. Interviewer Preparation • Develop specific questions/desired answers • Anticipate applicants’ questions • Be prepared to explain job duties, performance standards, pay, benefits • Review the application form • Average cost of hiring new employees often exceeds 30% of the annual salary for managerial and professional employees so there is a need to ensure interview process is efficient and comfortable for the applicant 2. Creation of Rapport • Interviewer is responsible for establishing a relaxed rapport • Use non-threatening questions and appropriate body language 3. Information Exchange • The heart of the interview process is the exchange of information • Use open-ended questions • Validity is enhanced by using structured interview questions 4. Termination • The interviewer must draw the session to a close e.g. “Do you have any additional questions?” 5. Evaluation • Use of a checklist improves reliability and should be completed immediately after the interview INTERVIEWER ERRORS • Halo effect – use of limited information about candidate to bias interviewer’s evaluation • Leading questions – communicating the desired answer • Stereotypes – harbouring prejudice or exhibiting personal bias • Interviewer domination – using the interview to oversell, brag, etc. • Contrast Errors – comparing the candidate to those who came before instead of to an objective standard INTERVIEWEE ERRORS • May be trying to cover job-related weaknesses or may be due to nervousness • Examples include: playing games (e.g., acting nonchalant), talking too much, boasting, not listening, and being unprepared EVALUATING THE SELECTION To evaluate new employees and the selection process feedback is needed • Quality and productivity of the workforce -- are superiors and peers satisfied with the hires? -- are training costs increasing? -- are managers spending too much time managing new hires? -- are grievances, absences, and turnover inordinately high? • Costs incurred in the process should be at a level appropriate to the organization ANSWERS TO REVIEW AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What is the strategic importance of the selection function for an organization? The selection function is strategically important because the successful execution of an organization’s strategy depends on the calibre of its employees. Poor selection practices may result in the organization not being able to fulfill its mission and objectives. 2. List and briefly discuss the various steps in the selection process. Figure 6-2, p. 212, provides a listing of the steps which are described under the major headings of the chapter. 3. What are the five stages of the employment interview? What specific actions should you, as an interviewer, take to conduct a proper interview? Figure 6-18, p. 241, lists the five stages of the employment interview; the discussion is on pp. 240-245. 4. What are the different types of validity? If you want to validate a new dexterity test (which measures physical co-ordination) for workers in an assembly plant, how will you go about it? There are 2 approaches to test validation: the empirical approach and the rational approach (see Figure 6-8, pg. 220). The empirical approach is test scores are related to either future job performance (predictive validity) or to current job performance (concurrent validity). The rational approach seeks to determine if the test items include reasonable samples of the skills needed to successfully perform the job (content validity) or to establish a relationship between performance and other characteristics that are assumed to be necessary to successful job performance. To validate the dexterity test using the rational approach, a content analysis of the test items would help to ensure that the necessary skills to perform the assembly work are measured in the test itself. Using the empirical approach, test scores of job applicants would be correlated with their job performance after they are hired. A high correlation would indicate that the test is able to predict who is able to perform the job. 5. What attributes of behavioural description and situational interviews make them appear more promising than traditional interview formats? Behavioural or situational interviews are claimed to be highly job-related; they ask the same questions in the same way to all candidates, and responses are compared to a list of potential responses and scored against a scoring rubric. Research studies have indicated improved reliability and validity over traditional, unstructured interviews. See pp. 237-240 for a summary of validity data and study results. 6. What is a weighted application blank? How is it different from a traditional application form? A weighted application blank is a job application form in which various items are given differential weights to reflect their relationship to various criteria important to job success. A weighted application form is different from a traditional application form in that it captures not only job relevant information but also serves as a screening tool to distinguish between satisfactory and unsatisfactory job incumbents. ANSWERS TO CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Suppose you are an employment specialist. Would you expect to have a large or small selection ratio for each of the following job openings? a. Janitors. Probably a large ratio, since many applicants qualify for this type of work. b. Nuclear engineers with five years of experience designing nuclear reactors. Since there are few people with this background, there would be a small ratio of hirees to applicants. c. Pharmacists. A small selection ratio is likely to exist because few people are qualified for this type of work. d. Software programmers. A small selection ratio will exist because candidates for this job seem to be scarce. e. Elementary school teachers in the Yukon. A small selection ratio is likely to exist because qualified applicants may be in short supply. f. Elementary school teachers in Ontario. A large ratio is likely to exist, due to the province’s relatively large population including many qualified teachers who may be willing to re-locate within the province. 2. If a human resource manager asked you to streamline the firm's selection process for hourly paid workers, which steps described in this chapter would you eliminate? Why? Perhaps the two most likely candidates for deletion would be the verification of references and the medical evaluation. Although both provide useful inputs, they do not appear as important as the other steps. 3. A Canadian university has been experiencing high student dropout rates in recent years. One calculation showed that although the first-year enrollment in commerce courses increased from 650 to 980 students in the last four years, the dropout rate for first-year students has worsened from 9 percent to 15 percent. The university has been using uniform admission standards during the years and has not made any significant changes in the grading or instructional procedures. Based on what you learned in this course on recruitment and selection, what recommendations would you make to the university to improve its retention rates? Why? Giving a realistic preview of life at the university may provide students with clearer expectations. Knowledge of potential "stressors" on campus may better prepare the new entrants to cope with them; those who are not confident of their ability to overcome the stress may simply not join the university. This should in turn reduce the drop-out rates of registered students. Other relevant information to be given to students may include: • the course load of a typical student • information on how many hours of study are usually needed to succeed in the various courses and programs • details about counselling services to let students know where help is available) • information on various systems that exist in the university (e.g., registration procedures, withdrawal from a course, faculty-advisor system, etc.) 4. If you are hired as a consultant to evaluate the selection process for salespersons in a large car dealership in the Toronto area, what kind of information will you collect? The performance assessment of current employees will provide the best measure of a successful hiring system. Other relevant information would include employee turnover, absenteeism, low employee satisfaction, union activity, grievances, and legal suits. Another measure is a utility analysis of the selection system. 5. Assume you are hired to improve the interview process employed by a large real estate organization when it hires sales and customer service representatives. When suggesting improvements, what factors will you focus on? What steps will you recommend to check whether your suggestion indeed resulted in better hires in the future? Factors to focus on: • interviewer preparation • creation of rapport • information exchange • termination • evaluation • interviewer errors Steps to be taken to improve the selection system: The performance assessment of current employees will provide the best measure of a successful hiring system. Other relevant information would include employee turnover, absenteeism, low employee satisfaction, union activity, grievances, legal suits. 6. Suppose you are approached by the human resource department in a large insurance firm that routinely hires dozens of clerical workers. Of the various types of tests discussed in the text, which would you recommend? What are the steps that you will suggest to validate the test(s) you recommended? For the clerical workers, performance tests, such as the Minnesota Clerical Test and the Revised Minnesota Paper Form Board Test, would be appropriate. The tests should first be checked for its content validity (i.e., do the test items adequately sample the skills necessary to perform the job). Next, assuming the test is content valid, the test scores of the job applicants can be related to job performance after they are hired (predictive validity). Alternatively, the test could be given to job incumbents and their scores related to job performance (concurrent validity). ETHICS QUESTION Comments to Instructors There is no right or wrong answer to this question. It is for class discussion purposes. WEB RESEARCH Comments to Instructors These exercises have been designed for students to demonstrate their computer and Internet skills to research the required information. Answers will vary. INCIDENT 6.1: A SELECTION DECISION AT EMPIRE INC. Incident Comments Perhaps the underlying problem at Empire is that the supervisors do not take enough time with new employees to ensure that they feel part of the team. Further, since the human resource department makes the final hiring decision, supervisors may feel little, if any, commitment to new employees. 1. What information would you consider irrelevant in the preceding selection profiles? Since the job is relatively easy to learn, the experience and educational levels probably do not play an important role in job success. (Having a university education may imply applicant A is more likely to become bored.) Age is not likely to be relevant either. To discriminate against applicant B because of age also would be illegal. Since the interviewer's evaluations vary, their opinions seem of little use, too. Work history, apparent eagerness, and availability may be the crucial variables. 2. Are there any changes you would recommend in the selection process? Supervisors should be more involved in the selection process. They may be able to offer valuable inputs. If they interviewed candidates, the supervisors could give potential employees a realistic job preview. 3. Which of the three candidates would you select, given the limited knowledge you possess? Why? Applicant B appears to be slightly preferable because of strong eagerness, reasonably early availability, a stable work history, and excellent job knowledge. INCIDENT 6-2: NATIONAL FOOD BROKERS' SELECTION PROCESS Incident Comments Perhaps the key to this incident is the comment employees make when they are given an exit interview. That is, they had no idea how much time they had to spend on the phone. Once employees have done this work for a couple of years, apparently they accept the constraints of the job and perform well. 1. Suppose you are asked by the human resource manager to suggest some strategies for improving the selection process in order to hire more stable workers. What suggestions would you make? Pre-employment testing might be aimed at measuring the characteristics commonly associated with long-service employees. Perhaps, some testable feature of certain applicants can help predict long or short service. Reference checks may help identify employees who are not easily satisfied by jobs and help pinpoint which applicants have an unstable work history which is likely to be repeated at National Food Brokers. 2. What role should the supervisory interview play in the selection process? What information conveyed to the applicants can help reduce the future worker turnover rates? The role of supervisors’ interviews is a crucial one because supervisors make the final hiring decision, not the HR manager. Supervisors can explain the demands of the nature of the job and the demands placed on the employee. This might cause some people to decline an employment offer before they are hired and trained. EXERCISE 6-1: HOW DO YOU SELECT YOUR FRIENDS? This exercise is meant to show that we generally like people who are like us, i.e., share similar values. This exercise is a demonstration of the similarity effect – an interviewer error. The exercise shows how selection criteria are often driven by personal and cultural values that we may not be consciously aware of. Moreover, the criteria used in selection will have varying degrees of importance or weight. Those criteria which help to differentiate among “liked” and “disliked” individuals, should be given more weight in the selection of friends. Similarly, those criteria, even if value driven, which help to differentiate successful from unsuccessful applicants should be given more weight in the selection of employees. However, unlike the selection of personal friends, selection of employees on such things as gender, race and other personal attributes not related to the job, is illegal and of course, should be discouraged! The exercise should be done individually and the application to employment selection should be discussed in activity groups or in class as a whole. CASE STUDY: MAPLE LEAF SHOES LTD. – SELECTION OF A HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGER Answers to Discussion Questions 1. Based on the information given in this case, what education, experience, job skills, and other competencies would seem to be required for the future human resource manager of Maple Leaf Shoes? The person selected as human resource manager in Maple Leaf Shoes should be able to immediately attend to some of the pressing problems and prepare the organization for the turbulent years ahead (mainly because of increased competition, potential for expansion and growth, dealing with a work force that is becoming increasingly unionized, etc.). This means that the new incumbent should possess: • a sound training in human resource management techniques • considerable experience in a somewhat similar setting • good “people management skills” • the ability to lead tough negotiations with unions The person should be a self-starter with considerable vision and be able to introduce systems and procedures in the organization. 2. How do the various candidates rate on these factors you identified? The profiles of the four major candidates indicate that no one possesses all these qualities to a very great extent. However, the firm has to make a decision quickly as the new incumbent must begin contract negotiations with one of the unions soon. This raises the difficult question: whom to hire? To complicate matters, there is not a whole lot of agreement among the three interviewers regarding the candidates. They seem to agree only on one thing, namely, Robinson is not the best candidate! While Robinson has a number of years of experience in human resource management work, it is mainly in service and the public sector where job demands are somewhat different. Working for a township is qualitatively different from working in a shoe company. The major argument in his favour is that he is black and that by hiring him the firm will be sending out a message to its work force and the larger community that it favours minority employment. However, Robinson's lack of formal training and inadequate experience should prevent him from being a serious contender for the job. Note that his “people skills” are also probably not very great, as indicated by the impressions formed by the interviewers. It should be noted that he has been active in a number of social activities and was a sportsman at college. It could very well be that he is a great team player. Dougherty is just the opposite to Robinson in the matter of dealing with people. This, in fact, seems to be the major strength of his candidacy. He has also worked for over five years in the human resource management area, though mostly in a clerical capacity. Dougherty is primarily a salesperson (16 years of sales experience) and this probably shows during his interview. In total, he has done four non-credit courses in the human resource management area. It is debatable whether this is adequate, considering the firm's present and future challenges. The impression one gets is that Dougherty is unlikely to start very many new human resource systems and procedures. Anderson and Reynolds are probably the two most promising candidates for the job. Anderson has several years of experience in a managerial capacity including five years as assistant human resource manager in a grocery store setting. Reynolds has eight years of experience in the HR area although not in managerial capacity (her title is only that of a human resource assistant; however, in the absence of a human resource manager in the firm, she probably has equivalent responsibilities of an assistant manager). Anderson is a self-starter and seems to have many years of administrative experience. He has also done extension courses in human resource management. Reynolds is the only one (if you do not seriously consider Robinson for the job) who has a degree in an area which is relevant for human resource management, has done extension courses, seems quite bright (Dean's List), and by nature is a mover (started several new systems since coming to Maple Leaf Shoes). Above all, she also has relevant experience, since she knows the company well. There is also the matter of her leaving the company if Anderson is hired over her. The personal details of the candidate are probably irrelevant for the purpose of selecting human resource management. The student should realize that these can't, in any case, be used for selection purposes, as this can create new criticisms of discrimination. However, the president's reservation about Reynolds has to be respected since he will have to work with the new hire closely. 3. What is your evaluation of the selection process employed by the firm (especially Robert Clark) in this instance? If you were in charge, would you have done anything differently? How? The case does not describe the interview process used in selecting these candidates, but Robert Clark could have made his decision easier had he conducted a behaviourally based interview. Also, there was apparently little agreement on the selection criteria among the four other managers, who conducted their own interviews. A job description and a job specification should have been given to all the interviewers. One possible solution may be to defer a hiring decision until the first contract negotiations with the union are completed. Reynolds should be asked to lead the negotiating team and informed that successful completion of the bargaining could lead to her being appointed as the new human resource manager. This will reduce the likelihood of her leaving the firm now. It could provide an opportunity for Clark to test her out before making the hiring decision. Hiring Anderson and in that process losing Reynolds will not be desirable for the firm right now, considering the number and criticality of the challenges facing the firm. 4. Among the candidates, who (if any) would seem to be suitable for the position? What are the issues you should consider and trade-offs you should make when selecting one of these candidates for the position? Students will give different answers to this question. Some will suggest Steven Robinson, who has experience in HRM, is black, and thus may present a great opportunity for the company to demonstrate being an “equal opportunity employer.” Jane Reynolds is probably the most suitable candidate, given that she has practically done the HRM job at Maple Leaf Shoes for two years in the absence of a human resource manager. She knows everyone in the company, including the union representatives, and may be able to conduct the bargaining process, perhaps with the assistance of a negotiation professional. Time is a major concern in this case. One would expect that a new human resource manager would need perhaps a year to “learn the ropes,” which means that an outsider may not be effective. Appointing a woman manager would indicate equal opportunities for women, signaling a change in the company’s policies. CASE STUDY: CANADIAN PACIFIC AND INTERNATIONAL BANK – EVALUATING A NEW SELECTION TEST Answer to Discussion Questions 1. Calculate the cut-off test score that will minimize the overall cost of testing plus training. The overall cost of training will be lowest when the success rate is the highest. However, the number of persons who receive these high test scores are not very high (for example, only 15 out of 100 receive the score of 90 or above where success rate is the highest (100%). The students should be encouraged to prepare a spread sheet which calculate the total number that need to be hired for each score. For example, the success rate for people who get a score of 40 is only 2/12 or (1/6). This means that to get one successful person, the firm has to hire six persons. However, only 82 out of 100 applicants get a score of 40 or above. Hence a lot more applicants have to be tested before getting 6 successful persons who have a score of 40. Adding the total testing and training costs would show that a score of 70 minimizes the total costs. 2. To get 40 “successful” employees, how many persons will have to be hired who have: a) A score of 70 or higher in the test? At a score of 70, 43 out of 100 applicants will meet this cutoff, but only 37/43 will be successful. Thus, to get 40 successful applicants, 47 will have to hired. b) A score of 60 or higher in the test? At a score of 60, 56 out of 100 applicants will meet this cutoff, but only 43/56 will be successful. Thus, to get 40 successful applicants, 52 have to be hired. 3. What suggestions will you make to the bank in validating and using the above test? The test should first be checked for content validity to ensure that the test items sample the skills necessary to perform the job. Since the test is administered to employees from other countries, checking for cultural bias is especially important. Items that are culturally biased should be replaced with less biased items. The test scores should then be correlated with job performance separately for the Canadian and Asian employees to ensure that there is no differential validity for the two groups. If the test predicts equally well for both, then one standard cutoff score should be determined. APPENDIX A Comment to the Instructor In Appendix A the concept of Utility Analysis is discussed. Since it is a complex procedure it would typically be dealt with in advanced undergraduate or graduate HRM classes. Utility Analysis is a powerful method to assess the bottom-line implications of using valid selection measures. Solution Manual for Canadian Human Resource Management: A Strategic Approach Hermann F. Schwind, Hari Das, Terry H. Wagar, Neil Fassina, Julie Bulmash 9780071051552, 9781259066665