CH-11 The Project Team – Successful Project Management : Chapter Notes

CHAPTER 11: The Project Team Chapter Concepts A project team is a group of individuals working interdependently to accomplish the project objective. Teamwork is the cooperative effort by members of a team to accomplish this common goal. The effectiveness, or lack thereof, of the project team can make the difference between project success and project failure. Although plans and project management techniques are necessary, it is the people—the project manager and the project team—who are the key to project success; project success requires an effective project team. This chapter covers the development and maintenance of an effective project team. Based upon this chapter, students will become familiar with • How teams are acquired and assigned • The development and growth of teams • The project kickoff meeting • Characteristics of effective project teams and barriers to effectiveness • Being an effective team member • Team building • Valuing team diversity • Ethical behavior • Sources of conflict during the project and approaches to handling conflict • Problem solving and brainstorming • Effective time management Learning Outcomes After studying this chapter, the learner should be able to: • Explain how teams are assigned and formed • Identify and describe the stages of team development • Plan and conduct a project kickoff meeting • Discuss characteristics of effective teams • Identify and describe at least five barriers to team effectiveness • Be an effective team member • Take actions to support team building • Identify at least five dimensions of diversity, and discuss the value of team diversity • Behave ethically in a project environment • Identify at least four sources of conflict on projects, and explain how to handle conflict • Apply the problem-solving process and the brainstorming technique • Manage time effectively Project Management Knowledge Areas from PMBOK® Guide Concepts in this chapter support the following Project Management Knowledge Areas of the PMI Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide): • Project Human Resource Management Teaching Strategies 1. The two vignettes reinforce the need for diversity and for different ideas. Diversity means more than including different genders and races. Having culturally aware members of the staff helps to create a more inclusive environment and project team. Different ideas can be a productive and important force. They are important for encouraging members of the team to think about different ideas and debate those ideas. Complacency leads to not caring and to having unsatisfied members on the team. 2. Have students evaluate their work on their class project team and the team’s effectiveness. 3. Project teams are part of nearly every organization. Observe project teams and their interactions. Evaluate the project team effectiveness. Determine how the project team can improve and what they are doing well. Lecture Notes 1. Real-World Project Management Examples Vignette A: Global Project Team Members Have Common Ground A multicultural team develops its own set of values to have a functioning team that is respectful of the multicultural background of each of its members. • Project teams on global projects for global companies are multicultural and, more often than not, virtual. ○ Understanding the cultural dimensions of team members begins with an understanding of the cultural dimensions. ○ Having cultural intelligence is one of today’s most necessary project management skills. • Each of the members of a project team was assigned to multiple international projects. ○ Everyone on the team had a similar vision of work, problem solving, and decision-making. It did not matter what nationality the team member was. ○ All had a common company-specific shared vision. ○ Team members from different nationalities had different points of view related to punctuality and commitments. • The project manager had to develop his cultural intelligence by using cultural dimensions. • The project manager helped the team to embrace the individual diversity and worked to have the team develop its own team identity. • The team members developed each team’s own set of norms and values. They developed their own common ground. What Toledo observed about the team’s shared vision was created through open, careful, and honest interactions with the team members and the project manager. Toledo recommends to project managers, “When leading a global team, the best way to work with multiple cultures is to create one of your own.” The shared vision helps the team work more efficiently to attain the project’s goals and create a productive work environment with a high functioning team. Vignette B: A Look at Meeting Impact on Post-Meeting Productivity Tenure diversity and meeting history helped a software development group be more productive following team meetings. • Project meetings occur at a set schedule with two or more project team members in an effort to achieve a pre-defined work-related goal. ○ Some project team members do not see a value in meeting. ○ Other team members view meetings as an opportunity to meet the complex demands of a project’s objectives. • A software development group collected and analyzed a year of meeting data ○ Examined the impact of diversity (tenure, staffing, functional role), meeting size, and meeting history on the amount of work completed after attending the meetings. ○ The team found that tenure diversity and meeting history can improve the likelihood of an increase in the amount of work completed after attending a project meeting. • The greater the amount of time an employee spent within the organization increased the volume of organizational knowledge the employee possessed. Workers with less tenure at a company were observed to have novel ideas and more limited organizational knowledge. The research team found that the project team was more effective at solving problems if more senior members attended the meeting with the more junior members of the team. • More senior and the more junior members of the team provided a mix of attitudes, experiences, perspectives, and values to the team meeting discussions. ○ Meeting data analysis indicated that as the team matured together, they developed procedural routines within the group on how the meetings functioned and how the team interacted with each other. • As the team members learned more about each other and the aspects of the projects each member was responsible to complete, the interactions of the team members demonstrated a coordination of thoughts and consistency in their perspectives. • With each meeting, the coordination increased as did the productivity following the meetings. Meetings are necessary to coordinate activities for a project team. The research results indicate project team experienced the time necessary to develop the relationships between the team members necessary to form a team that needed little direction from management to perform at a high level of accomplishment. The understanding gained by the software development group could help management to leverage the findings to promote increased productivity of project teams by ensuring that senior and junior members of a project team meet and interact on a regular schedule and are given the time to develop the necessary relationships to solve problems and increase productivity. 2. Acquiring the Project Team • In many projects, people who have never worked together are assigned to the same project team. A personal relationship between two people takes time to develop and teams evolve through various stages of development. • One of the first things the project manager must do is put together a project team. ○ What expertise, experience, or skills will be needed? ○ How many team members of each type are required? ○ When they will be needed? • Acquire the entire team for smaller projects. • Assemble team members as needed for larger projects. • The greatest constraint is the availability of the right resources at the right time. • In larger organizations, the project manager may have to negotiate for resources. • Project teams should be kept as small as feasible throughout the project. 3. Project Team Development • B.W. Tuckman has defined four stages of team development: forming, storming, norming, and performing • Figure 11.1 depicts the stages of team development: forming, storming, norming, performing • Figure 11.2 illustrates the levels of work performance and sense of team for the four stages A. Forming • Forming is the initial stage of the team development process. It describes the transition from individual to team member. ○ Individuals get acquainted. ○ Team members generally have positive expectations. ○ The group begins to establish an identity and attempts to define and plan the tasks that need to be done. Little actual work is accomplished. ○ Members depend on the project manager to provide direction and structure. ○ Feelings characteristic of this stage include excitement, anticipation, suspicion, anxiety, and hesitancy. ○ Individuals do a lot of questioning in the forming stage: • What is our purpose? • Who are the other team members? • What are they like? • The project manager must clearly communicate the project objective and create a vision of the successful result of the project and the benefits it will provide. • Project constraints regarding the work scope, quality levels, budget, and schedule must be stated. • Establishing structure is another task the project manager must perform in this phase. This includes defining initial processes and procedures for team operation and addressing such items as communication channels, approvals, and paperwork. B. Storming • The second stage of team development is known as storming. ○ Members start to apply their skills to work on their assigned tasks, and work begins to progress slowly. ○ Tasks may be more extensive or difficult than anticipated. ○ Team members feel increasing dissatisfaction with dependence on the direction or authority of the project manager. ○ Team members now begin to test the limits and flexibility of the project manager and the ground rules. • Conflict emerges and tension increases. • Motivation and morale are low in this stage. • Members express their individuality as opposed to team allegiance. • The storming stage is characterized by feelings of frustration, anger, and hostility. • The project manager still needs to be directive, but less directive than in the forming stage. • The project manager should not become defensive or take issues personally. • This is the time for the project manager to provide an understanding and supportive environment. C. Norming • After struggling through the storming stage, the project team moves into the norming stage of development. ○ Relationships have become settled. ○ Interpersonal conflicts have been resolved. ○ The project team has accepted its operating environment. ○ Control and decision making are transferred from the project manager to the project team. • Cohesion begins to develop. • Trust begins to develop. • Team members give and ask for feedback. • A feeling of camaraderie emerges. • The project manager minimizes directiveness and takes on a more supportive role. • Work performance accelerates and productivity increases. D. Performing • The fourth and final stage of team development and growth is the performing stage. ○ The team is highly committed and eager to achieve the project objective. ○ The level of work performance is high. ○ Communication is open. ○ Members frequently collaborate and willingly help each other. ○ The team feels fully empowered. • The project manager fully delegates responsibility and authority. • The project manager concentrates on project performance with respect to the budget, schedule, scope, and plan. • The project manager acts as a mentor, supporting the professional growth and development of the team members. 4. Project Kickoff Meeting • The project manager should schedule a project kickoff meeting, also referred to as a project orientation meeting, with the project team. ○ It should be held as early as possible during the forming stage of team development ○ It sets the tone for the project. • Figure 11.3 depicts the project kickoff meeting agenda ○ Welcome and introductions -- provide opportunity for team members to get to know each other and the potential value and contributions of each to the project. ○ Project overview -- discuss the elements of the project charter. ○ Roles and responsibilities -- clarify the roles and responsibilities of the team members. ○ Processes and procedures -- describe the protocols and plans for the project. ○ Expectations -- express expectations of the project and the experiences expected for team development. ○ Closing comments -- reinforce the expectations and the roles and allow team members to ask questions, make comments, and get to know each other. 5. Effective Project Teams • A project team is more than a group of individuals. • It is a group of interdependent individuals working cooperatively to achieve the project objective. • Helping these individuals develop and grow into a cohesive, effective team takes effort on the part of the project manager and each member of the project team. A. Characteristics of Effective Teams • Characteristics associated with effective project teams include: ○ Clear understanding of the project objective ○ Clear expectations of each person’s role and responsibilities ○ Results orientation ○ High degree of cooperation and collaboration ○ High level of trust • Figure 11.4 depicts a checklist for rating the effectiveness of a project team. B. Barriers to Team Effectiveness • Following are barriers that can hinder project team effectiveness: ○ Unclear vision and objective ○ Unclear definition of roles and responsibilities ○ Lack of project structure ○ Lack of commitment ○ Poor communication ○ Poor leadership ○ Turnover of project team members ○ Dysfunctional behavior C. Effective Team Member • Although the project manager is ultimately responsible for the success of a project, each member of the project team shares in that responsibility. • Each member of the project team needs to help create and foster a positive and effective project environment. • Effective team members plan, control, and feel accountable for their individual work efforts. • They have high expectations and make things happen. • Effective team members are self-directed and follow through on assignments. • They take pride in doing high-quality work. • Effective team members participate and communicate. • They are not only problem identifiers but also problem solvers. • Effective team members put the success of the project above personal gain. • It has been said that there is no “I” in TEAM—there are no individual winners or losers. • When a project is successful, everybody wins! D. Team Building • Legendary baseball manager Casey Stengel once said, “It’s easy to get the players. Gettin’ ’em to play together, that’s the hard part.” • Team building is an ongoing process. • It is the responsibility of both the project manager and the project team. • Socialization among team members supports team building. • The better team members get to know one another, the more team building is enhanced. When team members are located near one another, there is a greater chance they will talk. ○ Discussions should not always be work-related. ○ It’s important that team members get to know one another on a personal basis, without being intrusive. ○ The project team can initiate social events to celebrate project events, such as reaching a critical milestone. ○ An after-work pizza party, a team luncheon, an informal lunch in the conference room, and a trip to see a sports event or theater production are examples of events the team can organize to foster socialization and team building. ○ It’s important that such activities include everyone on the team. • In addition to organizing social activities, the team can periodically call team meetings, as opposed to project meetings. • The purpose of team meetings is to discuss openly such questions as the following: ○ How are we working as a team? ○ What barriers are impeding teamwork (such as procedures, resources, priorities, or communications)? ○ What can we do to overcome these barriers? ○ What can we do to improve teamwork? ○ Only team-related issues, not project items, should be discussed. • Team members should foster team building in whatever ways they can. They should not expect the project manager alone to be responsible for team building. E. Valuing Team Diversity • Diversity is differences among people. ○ Diversity is about acknowledging, understanding, and valuing differences and creating a work environment that recognizes, respects, and harnesses differences among team members for the benefits of accomplishing a shared goal. ○ Differences can create barriers to team performance. ○ Miscommunication and misunderstanding may be more likely to happen between people who are different. ○ If the differences within the project team are not valued as a strength, they can lead to low morale, diminished trust, reduced productivity, greater tension, and suspicion and can become a serious impediment to team performance. ○ Differences can lead to more creative, faster, and higher-quality problem solving and decision making. • Following are some dimensions of diversity: ○ Age or generational ○ Appearance ○ Ethnicity or ancestry ○ Gender ○ Health ○ Job status ○ Marital and parental status ○ Race ○ Religious affiliation ○ Other aspects of diversity -- sexual orientation, political affiliation, personal habits, and personal interests. • Stereotyping is categorizing individuals into a group and then conferring on them the characteristics that we believe apply universally to all members of that group. ○ Project team members should not stereotype or make assumptions about a team member’s behavior or performance based on differences. ○ Team members should not exclude or have lower expectations of certain diverse groups. ○ Do not identify or refer to team members by drawing attention to their diversity. ○ Nor should team members make derogatory or insensitive remarks or engage in behavior that demeans the dignity of others. ○ It is inappropriate for team members to tell jokes, ridicule, or make fun of a diversity characteristic of a team member or a particular group. ○ Inappropriate behavior regarding diversity includes closed-mindedness, stereotyping, labeling, exclusion, ridiculing, insulting, harassment, intimidation, and discrimination. ○ Any diversity issues or conflicts should be addressed immediately so they can be resolved before they fester and ‘‘explode’’ at a later time. • A project organization can take several steps to create and sustain a supportive and positive climate for diversity. ○ Two such actions are: • To develop a written policy regarding diversity • To provide training about diversity in the workplace ○ The goals of the policy might be to create a work environment where: • All team members flourish. • Differences are respected and valued. • The right of all team members to participate and contribute is respected. • Each team member is valued and respected for his or her unique contributions. • There is zero tolerance for a breach of respect or intolerant behavior. • Barriers to valuing diversity include lack of awareness and lack of understanding. ○ Therefore, a training session on diversity should raise awareness, create understanding, and help diminish misunderstanding and conflict. ○ The project manager must promote and foster a respectful and supportive work environment that removes barriers to valuing diversity, values differences, and encourages participation by all team members. ○ Team members can also do things to support valuing diversity and the contributions of all team members. ○ Individual team members can make a personal commitment to understand and value diversity and respect the differences of other team members. ○ Team members need to interact with each other differently based on each person’s unique characteristics. ○ Having a common goal such as the project objective can bring a diverse group together. 6. Ethical Behavior • Ethical behavior is necessary within a project organization, and in its business relationships with customers, suppliers, and subcontractors. Customers and suppliers want to do business with people they can trust. It is important for team members or the project manager to communicate information to the customer. Withholding or falsifying information is unacceptable. For example, a customer must be informed of a potential problem in a timely manner that is neither unnecessarily alarming nor misleading. • Examples of unethical behavior: ○ Dishonestly reporting hours worked, thus either overcharging the customer or misleading the customer or management about whether project expenditures are within budget ○ Padding or falsifying travel expense reports ○ Plagiarizing the work of others and taking credit for it ○ Knowingly approving test results that are inaccurate ○ Taking project supplies or using project equipment for personal use ○ Paying off inspectors to approve work that otherwise may not have passed inspection. • Some circumstances during a project are debatable regarding misbehavior. • It is the project manager’s responsibility to set the tone and expectations and to exemplify ethical behavior. • Two actions a project organization can take to prevent wrongdoing are: ○ Have a policy on ethical behavior • The project manager should discuss expectations, process for reporting misconduct, and consequences of engaging in unethical practices. • The project manager should regularly discuss the importance of ethical behavior at project team meetings. • Ethical actions should be encouraged, acknowledged, and appreciated. • Misconduct or conflict of interest should be addressed and disciplined appropriately. This shows that such behavior will not be tolerated. ○ Conduct training sessions on ethical behavior • Training informs the project team of the organization’s policy. Incorporating case studies or role-play can be helpful. • Employees who participate in ethics training are less likely to engage in unethical behavior. • Training sends a message that the organization places high value on ethical behavior. • Ethical behavior should be discussed as part of orientation for new employees. • Project members should bring possibly unethical situations to the attention of the project manager. • A non-threatening process should be established for individuals to report any actions by others that they think are unethical. ○ If wrongdoing is reported, the project organization must thoroughly investigate the allegations to separate facts from hearsay and to determine whether any disciplinary action should be taken. • Ethical behavior is everyone’s responsibility. Team members must feel accountable for their actions. ○ Members of the project team must pressure any members engaging in questionable behavior by communicating that they do not agree with or condone such behavior. ○ Key principles to guide ethical behavior: • Treat others the way you want to be treated. • Don’t do anything you wouldn’t want your family, friends, neighbors or co-workers to read about in the newspaper or hear on the news. 7. Conflict on Projects • You might think conflict is bad and should be avoided. However, conflict on projects is inevitable and can be beneficial. Differences of opinion are natural and must be expected. They provide an opportunity to gain new information, consider alternatives, develop better solutions to problems, enhance team building, and learn. A. Sources of Conflict • Here are seven sources of potential conflict on projects. ○ Work Scope—Conflict can arise from differences of opinion on how the work should be done, how much work should be done, or at what level of quality the work should be done. ○ Resource Assignments—Conflict can arise over the particular individuals assigned to work on certain tasks or the quantity of resources assigned to certain tasks. ○ Schedule—Conflict can result from differences of opinion about the sequence in which the work should be done or about how long the work should take. ○ Cost—Conflict often arises over how much the work should cost. ○ Priorities—Conflict is likely to result when people are assigned to work on several different projects concurrently, or when various people need to use a limited resource at the same time. ○ Organizational Issues—Organizational issues can cause conflict. There may be disagreement over the need for certain procedures established by the project manager, or ambiguous project communication, or failure to make timely decisions. ○ Stakeholder Issues—Conflict can arise from issues with certain stakeholders. ○ Personal Differences—Conflict can emerge among members of the project team because of differences in individuals’ beliefs, values, and attitudes. B. Handling Conflict • Conflict is not just for the project manager to handle and resolve; conflict between team members should be handled by the individuals involved. ○ Handled properly, conflict can be beneficial. It brings problems to the surface to be addressed. ○ Conflict stimulates discussion and requires individuals to clarify their views. ○ Conflict can force individuals to search for new approaches; it can foster creativity and enhance the problem-solving process. ○ If it is handled properly, conflict helps team building. • Here are five approaches to handling conflict: ○ Avoiding or withdrawing • In the avoiding or withdrawing approach, individuals in conflict retreat from the situation in order to avoid an actual or potential disagreement. • This approach can cause the conflict to fester and then escalate at a later time. ○ Competing or forcing • In the competing or forcing approach, conflict is viewed as a win–lose situation. • The value placed on winning the conflict is higher than the value placed on the relationship between the individuals. • The project manager may simply pull rank and say, “Do it my way.” • This approach to handling conflict can result in resentment and deterioration of the work climate. ○ Accommodating or smoothing • The accommodating or smoothing approach emphasizes the search for areas of agreement within the conflict and minimizes the value of addressing differences. • Topics that may cause hurt feelings are not discussed. • Although this approach may make a conflict situation livable, it does not resolve the issue. ○ Compromising • In the compromising approach, team members search for an intermediate position. • They focus on splitting the difference. • The solution, however, may not be the optimal one. ○ Collaborating, confronting, or problem solving • In the collaborating, confronting, or problem-solving approach, team members confront the issue directly. • They look for a win–win outcome. • They place high value on both the outcome and the relationship between the individuals. • Each person must approach the conflict with a constructive attitude and a willingness to work in good faith with the others to resolve the issue. • For this approach to work, it is necessary to have a healthy project environment. 8. Problem Solving A disciplined, creative, and effective approach to problem solving is needed for project success. The following is a nine-step approach to problem solving. A. Nine-Step Approach to Problem Solving • Develop a problem statement. ○ It’s important to start with a written statement of the problem, which gives definition and boundaries to the problem. ○ The problem statement should include a quantitative measure of the extent of the problem. For example: “We are two weeks behind schedule. If we don’t make the customer’s due date, she will be entitled to a 10 percent price reduction according to the contract.” • Identify potential causes of the problem. ○ There can be many reasons why a problem has occurred or is occurring. ○ A technique often used to identify potential causes of a problem is brainstorming. • Gather data and verify the most likely causes. ○ Gather data through asking questions, interviewing people, running tests, reading reports, or analyzing data. • Identify possible solutions. ○ This is the creative step in the problem-solving process. ○ Team members need to be careful not to jump to the first solution suggested or even the most obvious solution. ○ The brainstorming technique is very useful for identifying many possible solutions. • Evaluate the alternative solutions. ○ Once various potential solutions have been identified, it is necessary to evaluate them. ○ The problem-solving team has to first establish the criteria against which alternative solutions will be evaluated. ○ Once the criteria have been established, the team may want to use an evaluation scorecard similar to the one in Figure 3.3. ○ Each person on the problem-solving team should complete an evaluation scorecard for each of the possible solutions. • Determine the best solution. ○ The evaluation scorecards help determine the best solution. ○ However, they are not the sole mechanism for determining the best solution; they are used as input to the decision-making process. • Revise the project plan. ○ Once the best solution has been selected, it’s necessary to prepare a plan for implementing that solution. ○ Specific tasks need to be identified, along with their estimated costs and durations. ○ The persons and resources needed for each task must also be identified. ○ The project team members who will be responsible for implementing the solution should develop this planning information. • Implement the solution. ○ Appropriate team members should go ahead and perform their respective tasks. • Determine whether the problem has been solved. ○ Once the solution has been implemented, it’s important to determine whether the problem has indeed been solved. ○ If the problem has not been solved, the problem-solving team needs to go back to earlier steps to see what else could be causing the problem. B. Brainstorming • Brainstorming is a technique used in problem solving in which all members of a group contribute spontaneous ideas in a non-judgmental environment. • Before team members select a solution to a problem, they should make sure they have explored as broad a range of options and ideas as possible. ○ Brainstorming is a way to generate a lot of ideas and have fun. ○ Brainstorming generates excitement, creativity, better solutions, and greater commitment. ○ In brainstorming, the quantity of ideas generated is more important than the quality. ○ Members should be encouraged to come up with novel and unorthodox ideas. • The process: ○ The team sits around a table, with a facilitator at a flip chart, chalk board, or personal computer with a projector to record ideas. ○ One member states an idea. ○ The next member takes a turn to state an idea. ○ Some people will come up with ideas that build on ideas previously mentioned by others. ○ This round-robin process continues until no one can come up with any more ideas or the time limit is up. ○ Two important rules must be followed for brainstorming to work: • Individuals should simply state an idea—not discuss, justify, or try to sell it. • Other participants are not allowed to make any comments at all, supportive or judgmental. 9. Time Management • People engaged in projects are usually very busy working on their assigned tasks. Therefore, good time management is essential for a high-performance project team. • Following are some suggestions to help you effectively manage your time: ○ At the end of each week, identify two to five goals you want to accomplish the following week. ○ At the end of each day, make a to-do list for the next day. ○ Read your daily to-do list first thing in the morning, and keep it in sight all day. ○ Control interruptions from the items on your to-do list. ○ Learn to say no to activities that will consume your time but not contribute to accomplishing your goals. ○ Make effective use of waiting time. For example, carry reading material with you in case you get stuck in an airport. ○ Try to handle most paperwork only once. ○ Go through your incoming mail or e-mail only at the end of the day so it won’t divert you from working on your day’s to-do list. ○ When going through your mail, take action on each document while you are holding it. ○ Reward yourself at the end of the week if you accomplished all your goals. 10. Critical Success Factors • Project success requires an effective project team. Although plans and project management techniques are necessary, it is the people—the project manager and project team—who are the key to project success. • Putting a group of people together to work on a project does not create a team. Helping these individuals develop and grow into a cohesive, effective team takes effort on the part of the project manager and each member of the project team. • Project teams should be kept as small as feasible throughout the project. • A project kickoff meeting should be held as early as possible to inform members, reduce anxiety, manage expectations, and inspire the team. • Characteristics of effective project teams include a clear understanding of the project objective, clear expectations of each person’s roles and responsibilities, a results orientation, a high degree of cooperation and collaboration, and a high level of trust. • Each member of the project team needs to help create and foster a positive project environment. • Effective team members have high expectations of themselves. They plan, control, and feel accountable for their individual work efforts. • Members of effective teams have open, frank, and timely communication. They readily share information, ideas, and feelings. They provide constructive feedback to each other. • Effective team members go beyond just doing their assigned tasks; they act as a resource for each other. • Diversity of the team brings unique ideas and perspectives to projects. • Individual team members make a personal commitment to understand and value diversity and respect the differences of other team members. • Diversity is valued as a strength that will enrich communication, foster better relationships, create an enjoyable workplace, and enhance team performance. • Ethical behavior is crucial in project business relationships with the customer, suppliers, and subcontractors. • The project manager and the project team need to acknowledge openly that disagreement is bound to occur during the performance of the project and reach consensus on how it should be handled. • Effective project teams resolve conflict through constructive and timely feedback and positive confrontation of the issues. Disagreement is not suppressed; rather, it is seen as normal and as an opportunity for growth. • Handled properly, conflict can be beneficial. It causes problems to surface and be addressed. It stimulates discussion and requires individuals to clarify their views. It can foster creativity and enhance problem solving. • Conflict is not just for the project manager to handle and resolve; conflict between team members should be handled by the individuals involved. • Each person must approach the conflict with a constructive attitude and a willingness to work in good faith with others to resolve the issues. • To effectively manage their time, team members should establish weekly goals and make daily to-do lists. 11. Summary • A team is a group of individuals working interdependently to accomplish the project objective. • Project teams evolve through various stages of development: forming, storming, norming, and performing. • The project manager should schedule a project kickoff meeting with the project team as early as possible during the forming stage of team development to inform the members, reduce anxiety, manage expectations, and inspire the team. • Effective project team characteristics include a clear understanding of the project objective, clear expectations of each person’s role and responsibilities, a results orientation, a high degree of cooperation and collaboration, and a high level of trust. • Barriers to team effectiveness include unclear vision and objective, unclear definition of roles and responsibilities, lack of project structure, lack of commitment, poor communication, poor leadership, turnover of project team members, and dysfunctional behavior. • Team building is the responsibility of both the project manager and the project team. • Diversity is about acknowledging, understanding, and valuing differences, and creating a work environment that recognizes, respects, and harnesses differences among team members for the benefits of accomplishing a shared goal, such as the project objective. • Ethical behavior is necessary within a project organization and is crucial in its business relationships with the customer, suppliers, and subcontractors. • Dealt with properly, conflict can be beneficial because it causes problems to surface and be addressed. • A good nine-step problem-solving approach is to develop a problem statement, identify potential causes of the problem, gather data and verify the most likely causes, identify possible solutions, evaluate the alternative solutions, determine the best solution, revise the project plan, implement the solution, and determine whether the problem has been solved. • Good time management is essential for a high-performance project team. Questions 1. Discuss the stages of team development. Address the process, problems, and level of productivity of each. Forming is the initial stage of the team development process. It describes the transition from individual to team member. Team members generally have positive expectations. The group begins to establish an identity and attempts to define and plan the tasks that need to be done. Little actual work is accomplished because of the high level of anxiety. The second stage of team development is known as storming. The project objective is clearer in this stage. Members start to apply their skills to work on their assigned tasks, and work begins to progress slowly. Reality sets in, though, and it may not match individuals’ initial expectations. As team members begin to perform their tasks, they feel increasing dissatisfaction with dependence on the direction or authority of the project manager. Team members now begin to test the limits and flexibility of the project manager and the ground rules. During the storming stage, conflict emerges and tension increases. The project team then moves into the norming stage of development. Relationships have become settled. Interpersonal conflicts have been resolved. The project team has accepted its operating environment. Control and decision making are transferred from the project manager to the project team. Cohesion and trust begin to develop. Team members give and ask for feedback. There is a feeling of camaraderie. The project manager minimizes directiveness and takes on a more supportive role. Work performance accelerates and productivity increases. The fourth and final stage is the performing stage. The team is highly committed and eager to achieve the project objective. The level of work performance is high. Communication is open. Members frequently collaborate. The team feels fully empowered. 2. What are the benefits of a project kickoff meeting? From your project experience, describe how the project kickoff meeting for one project could have been improved. The project kickoff meeting benefits the project team by helping to inform team members, reduce anxiety, manage expectations, and inspire the team. It sets the tone for the entire project. Answers for improvements have included having more time for the team members to get to know each other and asking each to prepare a brief bio to share with the team at the meeting. 3. What are some characteristics associated with effective project teams? Can the same be said for an effective couple, orchestra, or professional sports team? Why or why not? Characteristics associated with effective project teams include: • a clear understanding of the project objective • clear expectations of each person’s role and responsibilities • a results orientation • a high degree of cooperation and collaboration • a high level of trust Yes, based on the definition of “project team,” the same can be said for an effective couple, orchestra, or professional sports team. 4. What are some common barriers to team effectiveness? Think of a team project on which you have worked. Discuss any barriers to success. Following are barriers that can hinder team effectiveness: • Unclear goals • Unclear definition of roles and responsibilities • Lack of project structure • Lack of commitment • Poor communication • Poor leadership • Turnover of project team members • Dysfunctional behavior Additional specific answers will vary and can include common barriers and those specific to the particular project. The barriers are anything that keeps the project from being completed in a successful manner, under budget, on time, and satisfactorily for the customer. 5. Why is it said that there is no I in TEAM? Do you agree or disagree? How can you be an effective team member? It is said that “there is no ‘I’ in TEAM,” because effective team members put the success of the project above personal gain. An effective team member helps create and foster a positive and effective project environment. Effective team members plan, control, and feel accountable for their individual work efforts. They have high expectations. They make things happen. They are self-directed and follow through on assignments, taking pride in doing quality work. Effective team members participate and communicate, identify problems and solve problems. 6. Describe three activities that facilitate the process of team building. Must the project manager initiate all of these? First, the team can request that team members be physically located in one office area for the duration of the project because then there is a greater chance that they will talk. Second, the project team can initiate social events. Finally, the team can periodically call team meetings, as opposed to project meetings. No, the project manager does not have to initiate all these activities. 7. Describe some of the dimensions of diversity. List some ways you can capitalize on diversity in order to achieve your project objective. Some dimensions of diversity include: • Age or generational • Appearance • Ethnicity or ancestry • Gender • Health • Job status • Marital and parental status • Race • Religious affiliation Project team members should not stereotype or make assumptions about a team member’s behavior or performance based on their diversity. Diversity should be seen and valued by the project team as a strength that can enrich communication, foster better relationships, create an enjoyable workplace, and enhance team performance. 8. What role does the project manager have related to ethical behavior on the team? What steps can be taken to help ensure a high level of ethical behavior? Describe a situation in which you were confronted with an ethical decision and the outcome of your decision. The project manager must set the tone and expectations and must exemplify ethical behavior. If the project team sees the project manager taking actions or making decisions that are ethically questionable, they will think it is acceptable for them to do the same thing. The project manager must be committed to always doing what is right and fair and communicate the same expectations to the project team. The project manager should discuss the importance of ethical behavior at a project team meeting at the beginning of the project and mention it regularly at meetings throughout the project. Ethical actions, such as a project team member’s raising an issue about an unsafe design, should be encouraged, acknowledged, and appreciated. Misconduct and conflicts of interest must be addressed and appropriate disciplinary action taken to show that such behavior is unacceptable and will not be tolerated. Two actions a project organization can take to help prevent any wrongdoing are to have a written policy on ethical behavior and to provide training about ethics in the workplace. Specific answers to the third part of the question will vary. Answers should include an evaluation of the ethical decision and its outcome. 9. Discuss some types of conflict that might arise during a project. Describe two situations in which you have experienced these types of conflict. Seven sources of conflict are: • Work scope • Resource assignments • Schedule • Cost • Priorities • Organizational issues • Personal differences Specific answers to the second part of the question will vary. Answers should include two situations where the student experienced conflict and the type of conflict. 10. Describe the methods for handling conflict on a project. How was the conflict handled in the two situations you described in your answer to question 9? Methods for handling conflict include: • Avoiding or withdrawing • Competing or forcing • Accommodating or smoothing • Compromising • Collaborating, confronting or problem solving Answers to the second part of the question will vary. They should include how the conflict was handled. 11. The manager at a local bank noticed that after a new information system was installed at the bank, some of the customer transactions were not getting posted. The manager knew that this problem could lead to serious financial difficulties as well as unhappy customers. Describe how she could apply the nine-step problem-solving process described in the chapter to solve the problem. Step 1: Develop a problem statement. For example, 5% of customer transactions are being posted incorrectly. Step 2: Identify potential causes of the problem: For example, problems with data entry, problems with the computer system, etc. Step 3: Gather data. Step 4: Identify possible solutions. For example, rewrite programs, train users, etc. Step 5: Evaluate the alternative solutions. Step 6: Determine the best solution. Step 7: Revise the project plan. Step 8: Implement the solution. Step 9: Determine whether the problem has been solved by measuring the percentage of transactions that were still being posted incorrectly. 12. With one or several friends, conduct a brainstorming session to name as many uses of a paperclip as you can. Specific answers will vary. Some responses from student brainstorming sessions have been: Open the CD drive on a computer, change the temperature on a locked thermostat, a bookmark, fix eye glasses, a hair barrette, a zipper pull, an earring, a tie tack, as a cotter key, a necklace clasp, a necklace or bracelet when strung together. 13. How can people more effectively manage their time? Which of these suggestions do you currently practice? For the next week, attempt to manage your time better. Heed all the advice given in the book. At the end of the week, write a summary of your experience. Some ways that people can more effectively manage their time: • At the end of each week, identify two to five goals you want to accomplish the following week. • At the end of each day, make a to-do list for the next day. • Read your daily to-do list first thing in the morning, and keep it in sight all day. • Control interruptions from the items on your to-do list. • Learn to say no to activities that will consume your time but not contribute to accomplishing your goals. • Make effective use of waiting time. • Try to handle most paperwork only once. • Reward yourself at the end of the week if you accomplished all your goals. Specific answers to the second part of the question will vary and should include time-management techniques that have been successful for the student. The summary should be an evaluation of the techniques tried for the week. Internet Exercises Assign the Internet Exercises to your students as homework or complete them together in a computer lab. The Fish! Philosophy, developed by Charthouse®, includes four simple, interconnected practices to help build stronger relationships within teams, with customers, or with others such as classmates, family, friends, or coworkers. A search the Web for resources related to The Fish! Philosophy should return the four simple relationships as well as other topics associated with the Fish Philosophy. For each of the four practices, list at least five ideas or actions that team members could do to build stronger relationships following that practice. Different results are returned if you search for "sources of conflict," "strategies for conflict resolution," and "sources of conflict strategies for conflict resolution." Have students indicate the search terms they used. Adding "project management" to the searches also results in different sites. The search for “time management” yields in technique and strategy sites. Adding “project management” to the time management search reveals specific suggestions for project managers and how to manage time. A number of case studies are available on the Internet. Adding terms about the specific project that is of interest to the student could help in finding a case to evaluate. Adding the term “ethical dilemma” to the search reveals additional projects with ethical dilemmas. The Project Management Institute website link provides a number of resources for ethics. The PMI Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct is an excellent resource to review with the class to determine what the ethical and professional standards should be for project managers. Access the code by clicking on About > Ethics > PMI's Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct. Case Study #1 Team Effectiveness? This is a great case study that can be used for a class discussion. There are lots of open-ended communication and team conflict issues that need to be resolved. Answers to Case Questions 1. What are some things Colin could have done in or after the meeting when Henri verbally attacked him? Clearly Colin was somewhat stunned by Henri’s behavior, although it wasn’t the first time. Immediately after the meeting he should have discussed the issue with Henri. 2. Is there anything more Raouf could have done during or after his meeting with Colin to prevent the situation from escalating? Raouf and Colin are friends and Raouf should have helped Colin to see that statements or attitudes such as “I’m gonna get that jerk if it’s the last thing I do” will not help the situation. 3. Could Jack have handled his meeting with Colin in a better way? Was there anything Jack could have done after his meeting with Colin and before he met with Henri? What are some things Jack could have done in his meeting with Henri? Jack was clearly in a rush, but maybe he should have taken a few minutes to discuss the issue with Colin. Jack could have gotten information about the meeting and the project status before meeting Henri. In his meeting with Henri he should have advised him on better ways to handle his stress. Jack also should have closed the door to keep others from hearing the private conversation. 4. What should Fatima do? Henri has accused Fatima and her software team of being lazy and not getting their work done. If the project were well-defined with tasks and deadlines, the truth would be known. At some point, Fatima needs to have a discussion with Henri. Fatima should have data to support her team's progress on the project tasks. Group Activity Divide the class into four groups and assign one of the case questions to each group to discuss and develop responses. Each group must identify a spokesperson to present its responses to the entire class. Case Study #2 New Team Member This case study describes a fresh graduate who has just joined a systems development firm. His supervisor takes him through an orientation – while providing the new team member his personal opinions and backgrounds on the remaining team members. This case study communicates the importance of valuing diversity, albeit in a humorous manner! Answers to Case Questions 1. Bob is demonstrating what behaviors with respect to valuing team diversity? What are some alternative choices for what Brad can do next? What should he do? As a team leader, Bob is setting a poor example for his team members. Instead of discouraging stereotyping and discrimination, he is actively participating in these. He clearly is not appreciative of the diversity in his team and is choosing not to use it for the organization’s benefit. Brad should communicate to Bob that he does not share his outlook, and that he prefers to know his team members without such an introduction of them. If he notices active discrimination and repeated references to their diversity, he should bring this to management’s attention. 2. What should any of the team members do? If the team members are aware of their supervisor actively stereotyping and discriminating against them, they should collectively report this to the Human Resources department of the organization. 3. What could be done to improve the climate for diversity in this case? Bob must be removed from his position of leadership since he can create a poor atmosphere in the organization. Additionally, his behavior should be corrected. If he does not show any sign of altering his attitude and behavior, the organization must decide whether to retain him at all. Finally, a leader who understands, respects, and values diversity must be placed in Bob’s position. This will help improve team morale. 4. What do you think Bob’s direct supervisor would do if she were aware of Bob’s actions? If we assume that Bob’s supervisor is not aware of this situation, and that his actions are an isolated case in the organization, the supervisor will most likely severely reprimand Bob or even fire him from the position, if not from the organization. Group Activity Divide the course participants into teams of three or four to discuss this case and develop responses to the case questions. Have each team select a spokesperson to present its responses to the entire class. Optional Supplemental Activities 1. Have each student prepare a one-page summary of a team situation in which he or she has participated and the results of that experience. 2. Have each student interview someone working in business who is engaged in a team project. Students should summarize the project and provide a discussion of the specific advantages and disadvantages of the project team. 3. Ask students to read the chapter and answer all the Reinforce Your Learning questions and the questions at the end of the chapter. 4. Have students interview members of PMI about ethics in project management and then report the findings of the interview to the class. Let them research responsibility, respect, fairness, and honesty in PMI's Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct. Instructor Manual for Successful Project Management Jack Gido, Jim Clements 9781285068374