CH-13-16 Renaissance Theatres – Theatre: The Lively Art : Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 13 to 16 Chapter 13 Renaissance Theatres Overview and Outline During the Italian Renaissance—the term renaissance means rebirth—the neoclassical rules for drama were formulated. Commedia dell’arte developed as a popular theatre, based on stock characters, repeated pieces of comic business, and recognizable costumes. Painted-perspective scenery, which could be changed easily, and the proscenium-arch theatre were both introduced, leading to greater verisimilitude—the quality of being true to life—in theatre. The neoclassical rules were developed during this time and would dominate dramatic theory for the next 200 years. The Italian Renaissance advanced theatre architecture with the development of the proscenium arch leading to advances in scene design. Of particular note was Torelli’s perspective scenery and his invention of scene shifting called chariot-and-pole. During the English Renaissance—the Elizabethan Age—the great plays of Shakespeare and
his contemporaries were being staged. Outdoor public theatres and indoor private theatres accommodated these extensive-form dramas through the use of an unlocalized platform stage
and a flexible tiring house, or stage house. Marlowe’s elevation of dramatic language through iambic pentameter, later refined by Shakespeare, increased the lyric beauty of the text. In Spain during its golden age, the secular dramas of Lope de Vega and Calderón de la Barca were performed in corrales, theatres built in courtyards. Corrales used many of the same staging conventions as Elizabethan theatres. In French neoclassical theatre, the tragic dramas of Corneille and Racine and the comedies of character by Molière were clearly patterned after traditions established in the Italian Renaissance particularly the commedia dell’arte. French theatre architecture and design were also based on Italian models. I. The Renaissance: Background II. The Italian Renaissance A. Commedia Dell’arte and other forms of Renaissance Theatre B. Italian Dramatic Rules: The Neoclassical Ideals C. Theatre Production in Italy Timeline: Italian Renaissance II. England A. Background: Elizabethan England B. Elizabethan Drama 1. Christopher Marlowe and the “Mighty Line” 2. William Shakespeare: A Playwright for the Ages C. Elizabethan Theatre Production 1. Public or Outdoor Theatres 2. Private Theatres 3. Scenery and Costumes in Elizabethan Theatres 4. English Actors and Acting Companies D. Theatre after Elizabeth’s Reign Timeline: English Renaissance III. Spain A. Background: The Spanish Golden Age B. Spanish Drama C. Theatre Production in Spain 1. The Corrales 2. Spanish Acting Companies Timeline: Spanish Golden Age IV. France A. Background: France in the Seventeenth Century B. French Neoclassical Drama C. Theatre Production in France Timeline: Neoclassical France Features: Experiencing Theatre History: Commedia dell’Arte Experiencing Theatre History: Hamlet In Focus: The Popular Arts of Shakespeare’s Time Experiencing Theatre History: The King, the Greatest Alcalde Experiencing Theatre History: Tartuffe Terms
amphithéâtre apprentices boxes cazuela commedia dell’arte compañías de partes corrales deus ex machina Elizabethan galleries groove system groundlings hirelings humanism intermezzi Jacobean lazzi lords’ rooms masque neoclassical ideals opera orchestra pastoral patio perspective pit plots pole-and-chariot prescriptive private theatres proscenium-arch public theatres scaena scenarios shareholders sharing plan sides slapstick soliloquy tiring house unities verisimilitude yard yard boxes zanni
Topics for Discussion 1. Discuss the improvisatory nature of commedia dell’arte. What special qualities does this bring to a performance? Compare it with the work of contemporary actors and performers such as Wayne Brady and Colin Mochrie. Improvisatory Nature of Commedia dell’Arte and Comparison with Contemporary Performers Commedia dell'arte was characterized by improvisation, with actors performing unscripted dialogue while following basic plot outlines (scenarios). The use of stock characters, such as Harlequin and Pantalone, gave performers a framework but allowed room for spontaneity, physical comedy, and audience interaction. This improvisational style brings a sense of immediacy and adaptability to performances, as actors must think on their feet and respond to changing situations or audience reactions. • Special Qualities: Improvisation fosters creativity and collaboration, enabling performers to break the fourth wall and engage directly with the audience. Physical comedy, quick wit, and exaggerated characters become central to the experience. • Comparison to Wayne Brady and Colin Mochrie: Performers like Brady and Mochrie, known for their work on Whose Line Is It Anyway?, use similar skills of improvisation, playing off audience suggestions and building scenes without scripts. Like commedia actors, they rely on a set of skills that includes quick thinking, humor, and physicality to entertain. 2. What are the various ways in which William Shakespeare is still produced today? How is his work adapted for contemporary audiences in theatre as well as film? William Shakespeare’s Contemporary Production and Adaptation Shakespeare’s works are produced today in various forms across theatre and film, demonstrating his lasting influence. Adaptations make Shakespeare's plays accessible to modern audiences while maintaining their timeless themes. • Theatre: Shakespeare’s plays are performed in traditional settings, such as the Globe Theatre replicas, as well as in modernized interpretations, including contemporary dress and settings. Directors often focus on universal themes such as power, love, or revenge, using modern props, multimedia, or altered staging to make the plays relatable. • Film: Many adaptations transpose Shakespeare's plays into modern settings. Examples include Baz Luhrmann's Romeo + Juliet (1996), which keeps Shakespeare's original language but sets the play in a modern city, and 10 Things I Hate About You (1999), an adaptation of The Taming of the Shrew. These adaptations often update the setting, costumes, and dialogue to appeal to new audiences, yet they retain the core conflicts and emotions of Shakespeare’s texts. 3. Discuss the increased interest in painting during the Italian Renaissance following the discovery of painted perspective. How does the emergence of the proscenium stage relate to this new discovery? How has the introduction of the proscenium arch changed the relationship between the audience and the performers? Italian Renaissance Painting and the Proscenium Stage The discovery of perspective during the Italian Renaissance had a profound effect on painting and stage design. Artists developed techniques for creating the illusion of depth on a flat surface, which was soon applied to theatrical sets. • Proscenium Stage: The introduction of the proscenium arch, a "window" that framed the stage, further enhanced the illusion of depth and created a more visually realistic world for the audience. This allowed for painted backdrops with perspective, making the set design appear three-dimensional. • Audience-Performer Relationship: The proscenium arch distanced the audience from the performers, transforming theatre into a more passive experience, where spectators viewed the action as if through a picture frame. This shift created a sense of separation that was less intimate than earlier thrust or open stages, changing the dynamic between actors and their audience. 4. Examine the financial structure of the typical Elizabethan theatre. Do the arrangements seem equitable? How do they differ from those of today’s theatre? Financial Structure of Elizabethan Theatre The financial structure of Elizabethan theatre was based on a combination of shareholder systems, patronage, and ticket sales. • Arrangements: Actors often became shareholders in theatre companies, sharing in profits and losses. Wealthy patrons, such as Queen Elizabeth I, provided financial support and protection, ensuring the survival of companies like the Lord Chamberlain’s Men. Profits were also generated through ticket sales, with different prices for seats in various sections (groundlings paid the least to stand in the pit). • Comparison with Today: Modern theatre relies on ticket sales, government grants, corporate sponsorship, and private donations. Unlike the shareholder system of Elizabethan times, most actors today work for a fixed salary. Additionally, modern unions protect actors’ rights, something absent in the Elizabethan era. 5. Discuss the common tradition of barring women from the stage or, in the case of Spain, of allowing them to perform only if they were married or otherwise related to actors in the troupe. Why might women not be allowed to participate in theatre? What effect might this have on the plays? Exclusion of Women from the Stage In many countries, including England and Spain, women were barred from performing on stage during certain historical periods. • Reasons for Exclusion: Societal norms and religious beliefs often saw public performance by women as immoral or inappropriate. In Spain, women were allowed to perform only if they were married to or related to male actors, which reflects a desire to control female performers and limit their independence. • Effects on Plays: The exclusion of women led to the practice of young boys playing female roles, which likely influenced how female characters were written and portrayed. Plays may have emphasized stereotypes or simplified female roles, limiting the complexity of women’s representation on stage. 6. Throughout history the church and the theatre have had an uneasy, if not hostile, relationship. Discuss reasons why this might be so. (An excellent source of information on this topic is The Anti-Theatrical Prejudice by Jonas Barish.) The Church’s Uneasy Relationship with Theatre The tension between the church and theatre stems from several factors: • Moral Concerns: The church often viewed theatre as immoral, associating it with vice, sexual impropriety, and blasphemy. Performances were seen as distractions from religious duties, and actors were sometimes regarded as sinful. • Theatrical Themes: Many plays, particularly comedies, satirized authority and mocked societal norms, which put them at odds with religious institutions. Jonas Barish's The Anti-Theatrical Prejudice provides in-depth analysis of the church’s suspicion of theatre, arguing that theatre’s ability to simulate life and evoke strong emotions threatened religious authority. 7. At the close of the seventeenth century in France, upper-class members of the audience were frequently seated on the stage. Discuss why they might want to be seated there. How might their presence affect the performance? Audience Members on Stage in Seventeenth-Century France In seventeenth-century French theatre, wealthy patrons often sat on stage to be seen by others, asserting their social status. • Motivations: Upper-class audience members wanted to display their prominence by positioning themselves close to the action. Being on stage allowed them to engage with the performance while maintaining visibility among their peers. • Effect on Performance: Their presence could distract the actors and other audience members, shifting the focus from the play to the social dynamics in the theatre. This practice also influenced how plays were staged, with actors adapting to the physical and social demands of having spectators so close. 8. Discuss Tartuffe in terms of feelings today about prominent religious figures. Might this play still cause a controversy today in religious circles? Tartuffe and Contemporary Religious Figures Molière’s Tartuffe, a satire of religious hypocrisy, critiques a pious fraud who manipulates others for personal gain. • Contemporary Relevance: Tartuffe could still resonate today, as religious figures who exploit their followers for personal gain remain a controversial topic. In some religious circles, the play’s portrayal of religious hypocrisy might provoke criticism or even censorship, much as it did when it was first performed. • Controversy: Like Tartuffe, modern plays or films that critique religious figures or institutions can still ignite debates about the role of religion in society and the potential for hypocrisy among leaders. 9. During and after the reign of Elizabeth I in England, several laws were enacted that limited the number of theatres and controlled the content of the plays performed. Discuss how these regulations may have affected the drama and theatre of the time. How does censorship, in any era, affect the arts? Elizabethan Theatre Regulations and Their Impact During and after Queen Elizabeth I’s reign, laws were passed to regulate the content of plays and limit the number of theatres in London. • Effect on Drama: Censorship affected the subjects that playwrights could explore. Content critical of the monarchy, religion, or sensitive political topics was restricted. As a result, playwrights like Shakespeare had to be creative in how they addressed controversial subjects, often using allegory or historical settings to avoid direct criticism. • Censorship in Any Era: Censorship stifles artistic expression by limiting the topics that artists can explore. It forces writers and performers to self-censor or alter their work to conform to societal norms, which can lead to a lack of diversity in ideas and perspectives. 10. Discuss how Shakespeare’s plays might have been different if he had adhered to the neoclassical rules. Shakespeare and Neoclassical Rules Neoclassical rules, inspired by Aristotle, emphasized unity of time, place, and action, and required plays to adhere to strict guidelines regarding structure and tone. • Shakespeare’s Plays: If Shakespeare had adhered to these rules, his plays might have been very different. He often broke the unity of time and place, jumping between settings and timeframes in plays like Hamlet and Macbeth. He also mixed genres, combining comedy and tragedy in plays like The Merchant of Venice. Following neoclassical rules would have restricted his creativity, potentially limiting the emotional and thematic depth of his works. Exercises and Demonstrations 1. Explain and demonstrate the concept of perspective drawing. Discuss its practical effects on theatre performance. For instance, how would the moving human figure relate to scenery painted in perspective? Perspective Drawing and Its Practical Effects on Theatre Performance Perspective drawing is a technique used to create the illusion of depth and three-dimensionality on a flat surface. By drawing objects smaller as they recede into the distance, artists can simulate realistic spatial relationships. The vanishing point is a key element, where parallel lines converge to give the impression of depth. • Practical Effects on Theatre Performance: In the context of theatre, perspective drawing was applied to painted backdrops and scenery, creating a sense of distance and space. Actors moving on stage interacted with these painted backdrops by walking towards or away from the audience, which could create dramatic effects of "approaching" or "receding" in a way that heightened the audience's visual experience. • Moving Human Figure and Scenery: The movement of actors in relation to perspective scenery required careful coordination. If the human figure moved too close to the painted scenery, the illusion of depth could be broken. Effective use of perspective made the actors appear part of a much larger, distant world, enhancing realism and visual storytelling. 2. Assign one of the commedia dell’arte characters as a topic of research. What was the tradition of the character? The costume? After the research has been completed, have the students create and perform a scenario using their research. (For examples of lazzi, see the book Lazzi by Mel Gordon or go to https://sites.google.com/site/italiancommedia/lazzi for a more thorough grounding in lazzi as well as the commedia dell’arte). Do we still see contemporary forms of lazzi performed in film and television? Commedia dell’Arte Characters and Lazzi in Modern Media Each commedia dell'arte character had distinct traits, costumes, and behavioral patterns. For example: • Arlecchino (Harlequin): Traditionally a witty, nimble servant, often wearing a patchwork costume of brightly colored diamonds. He was known for his acrobatics and quick wit. • Pantalone: A greedy, miserly old merchant, often portrayed with a hooked nose mask and red pants. He was a source of comedic conflict as a miser. After researching these characters, students can create a performance based on a typical commedia scenario, incorporating lazzi (improvised comic routines). These lazzi are still seen in contemporary forms of comedy, such as slapstick routines in films and television shows. Physical comedy in shows like The Three Stooges or the improvisational humor of sitcoms like Friends demonstrates modern adaptations of lazzi. 3. Describe iambic pentameter and explain how it was used in Shakespeare’s era. Read aloud Christopher Marlowe’s “Was this the face that launch’d a thousand ships” from The Tragical History of Dr. Faustus. Iambic Pentameter in Shakespeare’s Era Iambic pentameter is a metrical pattern in poetry where each line contains five iambs, which are two-syllable units with the first syllable unstressed and the second stressed (da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM). • Use in Shakespeare’s Era: In Shakespeare's plays, iambic pentameter was used as a standard rhythmic structure for dialogue, especially for noble or elevated characters. It gave the language a natural flow that mirrored speech while maintaining poetic form. For instance, the famous line from Christopher Marlowe's Dr. Faustus: "Was this the face that launch’d a thousand ships" This line is an example of iambic pentameter, with its alternating unstressed and stressed syllables. Reading this aloud helps students appreciate the musicality and rhythm of early modern English verse. 4. Using a scene from a Shakespearean play, distribute “sides” so that each student has only his or her own lines and a few words of the preceding speech as a cue. Have the students present the scene, reading only from these sides. Is this method difficult? How does it affect the actor’s attention during the reading? Point out that, because there were no copyright laws during Shakespeare’s time, one way to protect the theatre’s property (the play) was to have as few complete scripts in existence as possible. Using Sides in a Shakespearean Scene Distributing sides, where actors have only their lines and a few words from the preceding speech as cues, replicates a common practice from Shakespeare's time when entire scripts were rare. • Difficulty and Effects on Attention: This method requires actors to focus more intently on their cues and anticipate the next line without the full context of the scene. It creates a heightened sense of immediacy and encourages actors to listen carefully to their fellow performers. The limited information challenges actors to stay engaged and make quick, spontaneous decisions, which can add an interesting layer of unpredictability to the performance. 5. Divide the students into groups and give them a drawing or description of an Elizabethan theatre. Using one of Shakespeare’s plays that you have read in class, or a synopsis of scenes, have the students decide what area of the stage each scene would best take place in, and why. Staging a Shakespearean Play in an Elizabethan Theatre Elizabethan theatres, such as the Globe, featured a large, open stage with different areas (e.g., the balcony, inner stage, outer stage). • Staging Decisions: For example, in Romeo and Juliet, the balcony scene would naturally take place in the upper level, while fight scenes might be staged in the outer stage where there is more room for movement. The lack of elaborate scenery in Elizabethan theatre means students must think about how actors' positions and movement define the space for the audience. 6. Compare a play by Lope de Vega with one by William Shakespeare. How are they similar? How are they different? Comparing Lope de Vega and William Shakespeare Lope de Vega and William Shakespeare are two of the most influential playwrights of their time, but their works differ in several key aspects. • Similarities: Both playwrights wrote about love, honor, and social conflicts, often mixing comedy and tragedy within the same play. They used dynamic characters and explored themes of human nature. • Differences: Lope de Vega’s plays, such as Fuenteovejuna, often followed a faster, more action-packed pace with simpler, direct plots. In contrast, Shakespeare’s works tended to focus more on character development and the complexity of human emotions. Vega adhered less to the classical unities (time, place, action), allowing for more freedom in storytelling, while Shakespeare used historical and mythical settings to reflect on contemporary issues. 7. Examine a play by Jean Racine in terms of climactic structure (described in Chapter 3 of the text). Does it conform to this model? What is the effect? Compare it with a play by Shakespeare. Jean Racine and Climactic Structure Jean Racine's plays, such as Phèdre, follow the neoclassical model of climactic structure, which emphasizes unity of time, place, and action. The action is compressed into a short time frame and revolves around a central conflict that builds steadily toward a single climax. • Conformity to the Model: Racine’s use of climactic structure creates a focused, intense emotional buildup, as the entire play leads to a moment of tragic realization or downfall. In comparison, Shakespeare’s plays often feature multiple subplots and a more flexible narrative structure, with events unfolding over a longer period. • Effect: Racine’s approach delivers a more concentrated emotional impact, while Shakespeare’s plays offer a broader exploration of themes and characters. 8. The text notes that Moliére was greatly influenced by the traditions of the Italian commedia dell’arte. Read Molière’s The Doctor in Spite of Himself or The Miser and identify the commedia elements and characters. Commedia dell’Arte Influence on Molière Molière was heavily influenced by commedia dell'arte, particularly in his use of stock characters and improvisation. In The Doctor in Spite of Himself or The Miser, one can see clear parallels to commedia characters: • The Miser: Harpagon, the miserly father, echoes Pantalone, the greedy old man from commedia. His exaggerated obsession with money drives the comedic conflict of the play. • Lazzi: Molière’s use of physical comedy and absurd situations, like mistaken identities or exaggerated reactions, is reminiscent of commedia lazzi. These elements create a lively, humorous performance style similar to the improvisational antics of commedia dell'arte. 9. Read aloud sections of Lope de Vega’s “The New Art of Writing Plays.” Discuss how his ideas relate to the Elizabethan tradition as well as his own. Lope de Vega’s “The New Art of Writing Plays” In The New Art of Writing Plays, Lope de Vega advocated for a more flexible approach to playwriting, rejecting strict adherence to classical rules such as the unities of time, place, and action. • Relation to Elizabethan Tradition: Vega’s ideas were similar to the Elizabethan approach, where playwrights like Shakespeare also broke classical conventions, mixing genres and setting plays across multiple locations. • Vega’s Own Approach: He believed that plays should entertain audiences first and foremost, even if that meant breaking with classical rules. This aligns with Shakespeare’s use of a variety of settings, characters, and dramatic tones, prioritizing the audience’s enjoyment over strict formal structure. Chapter 14 Theatres from the Restoration through Romanticism Overview and Outline The theatre of the English Restoration combined aspects of English and continental Renaissance theatre. Restoration drama had elements of both Elizabethan theatre and the French theatre of Molière which gave birth to comedies of manners. The Restoration stage also had native and continental elements: its modified proscenium came from French and Italian practice, but its elongated apron came from Elizabethan theatres. Perhaps the most obvious change, however, was the appearance of women on the English stage. In the eighteenth century, there were many attempts throughout Europe to break away from the Italianate tradition. Revolutionary authors—especially the storm and stress dramatists of the late 1700s—abandoned the neoclassical ideals. Many new genres that ignored the Italian Renaissance rules were developed, including bawdy Restoration comedy, sentimental comedy, middle-class tragedy, drame, and ballad opera. Theatres were still constructed as proscenium-arch spaces, but their shapes and sizes changed. There were also attempts in the 1700s to develop unity in production; these included some primitive experiments with historical accuracy, and—especially notably—the directorial controls instituted by David Garrick and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. The nineteenth century was the bridge to our modern era. Two major forms of drama in the nineteenth century were melodrama, romanticism, and the well-made play. Wagner’s concept of unified production, or gesamtkuntzwerk, and the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen revolutionized stage production. Comfortable, modern proscenium-arch theatres, such as Booth’s theatre and Wagner’s Bayreuth Festspielhaus were built. Historical accuracy in costuming and settings as well as expanded use of the box set added to theatrical illusionism. Theatre was also affected by technological advances, such as gas lighting. I. The English Restoration A. Background: England in the Seventeenth Century B. Restoration Drama: Comedies of Manners C. Theatre Production in the Restoration 1. Performers and Acting Companies 2. Government and Theatre 3. Theatre Architecture 4. Scenery, Lighting, and Costumes Timeline: English Restoration II. The Eighteenth Century A. Background: A More Complex World B. Eighteenth-Century Drama: New Dramatic Forms C. Theatre Production in the Eighteenth Century 1. Government and Theatre 2. Eighteenth-Century Theatre Architecture 3. Scenery, Lighting, and Costumes 4. Acting in the Eighteenth Century 5. The Emergence of the Director Timeline: Eighteenth Century III. The Nineteenth Century A. Background: A Time of Social Change B. Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Life C. Nineteenth-Century Dramatic Forms 1. Romanticism 2. Melodrama 3. The Well-Made Play D. Theatre Production in the Nineteenth Century 1. Performers and Acting 2. Nineteenth-Century Developments in Directing 3. Nineteenth-Century Theatre Architecture 4. Scenery, Costumes, and Lighting Timeline: Nineteenth Century, 1800 to 1875 Features: Experiencing Theatre History: The Country Wife Experiencing Theatre History: The Marriage of Figaro In Focus: Nineteenth-Century Popular Theatrical Arts Terms
act drops Age of Enlightenment angle or multipoint perspective ballad opera baroque benefit bombastic bourgeois tragedy box set breeches roles burlesque circus combination companies comedy of manners continental seating domestic tragedy drame double entendre elevator stage exposition gas table Gesamtkunstwerk ground rows medicine shows melodrama minstrel show obligatory scene régisseur repertory company Restoration revolving stage Romanticism sentimental comedy Sturm und Drang (storm and stress) variety
well-made play wild west shows Topics for Discussion 1. During the course of the Restoration, the sharing plan of Shakespeare’s company was replaced by a system whereby theatrical entrepreneurs hired actors and actresses at a set salary and kept the profits for themselves. Discuss the effects of this change. How might the actors’ involvement in and loyalty to a particular theatre be changed by this? How might this new system have affected the actors’ independence? Effects of the Change in Theatrical Structure: The shift from a sharing plan to a salaried system likely diminished actors' loyalty to specific theaters, as their income was no longer directly tied to the theater's success. This could lead to less investment in the production quality or the theater's reputation. Additionally, actors may have experienced a loss of independence, becoming more like employees than stakeholders, which might affect their creative input and decision-making in productions. 2. Because there is strict control over what is allowable on television, double entendre is a major part of situation comedy. Discuss examples of television shows that employ this technique quite often. Examples of Double Entendre in Television Comedy: Shows like "Friends," "The Office," and "Brooklyn Nine-Nine" frequently use double entendre to deliver humor that can be understood on multiple levels. This technique allows for comedic moments that can appeal to a broad audience while navigating content restrictions. 3. The emergence of the middle-class tragic hero in theatre mirrored the rise of the middle class as a political and social force. Discuss how art reflects the political and social realities of an era. Is art merely a reflection, or can it also contribute to the shaping of a society? How does today’s art reflect today’s society? How does it affect today’s society? Art as Reflection and Influence: Art often reflects the political and social realities of its time, capturing the essence of societal change. However, it can also shape society by challenging norms and inspiring action. Today’s art, from films and music to visual art, often comments on issues like inequality and climate change, influencing public opinion and prompting discussions about these critical topics. 4. In Chapter 11, we encountered the Roman theorist Horace, who believed that drama should instruct as well as entertain. Comedy, he believed, was instructed by ridiculing foolish behavior; people would change their behavior in order to avoid ridicule. Eighteenth-century dramatists believed that the best way to instruct was to present a positive figure that could be imitated by audience members. Discuss both approaches as evidenced in contemporary comedy, particularly the television sitcom. Is one more prominent than the other? Which do your students believe is more effective? Contemporary Comedy Approaches: Both ridiculing foolish behavior and presenting positive role models are evident in sitcoms today. Shows like "The Office" often use satire to critique workplace dynamics, while series like "Parks and Recreation" showcase optimistic characters who inspire positive behavior. The effectiveness of each approach can vary; students may have differing opinions based on their personal experiences with comedy. 5. In the eighteenth century, the government played a greater role in the arts, both positive (Germany) and negative (France). Discuss the role of government in the arts. What are the positive aspects, for both the arts and society, of government involvement and support? What are the negative aspects? Example to investigate: In England one single national theatre company budgets an amount that is more than a quarter of the entire budget for the National Endowment for the Arts in this country. Role of Government in the Arts: Government involvement in the arts can provide funding and support, fostering cultural development and accessibility. Positively, it can lead to increased public access to the arts and the promotion of diverse artistic expressions. Negatively, it may result in censorship or the prioritization of certain narratives over others, potentially stifling creative freedom. 6. Theatre size increased considerably during the eighteenth century. How might this have affected the type of drama performed? How might it have affected acting styles? Impact of Larger Theatre Sizes: The increase in theatre size likely led to more elaborate productions and the need for grander storytelling techniques. This may have necessitated changes in acting styles, with a greater emphasis on projection and physicality to engage audiences seated farther away, possibly leading to more melodramatic performances. 7. In the nineteenth century, it became more common for a play to have a long run. What are the positive and negative aspects of the long run? What new problem presents itself for the actor in a long run? Long Runs in Theatre: Long runs can provide financial stability for productions and allow actors to develop their characters over time. However, they can also lead to actor burnout and loss of spontaneity in performances. Maintaining enthusiasm and freshness in a character after many performances can be challenging, requiring creative strategies to keep the experience engaging for both actors and audiences. Exercises and Demonstrations 1. One of the best scenes for illustrating the general style and subject matter of Restoration theatre, as well as the use of double entendre, is the “china closet” scene from William Wycherley’s The Country Wife. Assign students to play roles in the scene, either reading it aloud or actually staging it for the class. "China Closet" Scene from The Country Wife: Assign students to roles within the scene, emphasizing the use of double entendre and the character dynamics typical of Restoration comedy. Encourage them to focus on timing and delivery to capture the humor. After the reading or performance, discuss how the scene exemplifies Restoration theatre’s focus on wit and social commentary. 2. The Restoration tradition was to use three stock settings as the background for all plays. Read several Restoration plays and determine which setting each scene might best be played in front of. Restoration Stock Settings: After reading several Restoration plays, have students identify the three common stock settings—such as an urban drawing room, a country house, or a garden—and discuss how each setting enhances the themes and character interactions in the plays. They can create a visual representation of these settings to accompany their findings. 3. Historical accuracy in costuming became important during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. This involved considerable research. Using plays from periods other than the contemporary, have the students collect information about the clothing worn during each period. Have them prepare an oral report, an essay and portfolio, or a design for one character in one of these plays. How might the designer incorporate his own stamp or style on the design while be true to the clothing of the period? Historical Accuracy in Costuming: Students should research the fashion of the specific period represented in their chosen play, noting key elements like fabrics, silhouettes, and accessories. They can then design a costume for a character, integrating their unique style while ensuring it aligns with historical accuracy. Presentations could include sketches, fabric samples, and explanations of their design choices. 4. There were several theatre riots during the nineteenth century. Have the students research the causes of one of these riots. What social and political tensions were present? What set the riot off? What happened? Nineteenth-Century Theatre Riots: Students can choose a specific riot to research, such as the Astor Place Riot of 1849. They should explore the social and political context, including class tensions and rivalry between actors. Their findings could culminate in a presentation or report discussing the events that triggered the riot and its aftermath. 5. Discuss John Gay’s ballad opera The Beggar’s Opera, which set satirical lyrics to the melodies of popular songs. Then have the students create their own ballad opera by rewriting contemporary songs in order to satirize a current event. (For inspiration use the songs of Weird Al Yankovich as an example, or the political satire group The Capital Steps, or Gerard Allesandrini’s Forbidden Broadway which parodies Broadway musicals.) Creating a Ballad Opera: After discussing The Beggar’s Opera, students can work in groups to rewrite the lyrics of contemporary songs to satirize a current event or issue. They can perform these new ballads for the class, highlighting their use of humor and satire. Encourage them to consider the style and melody of the original songs while incorporating relevant themes. Chapter 15 The Modern Theatre Emerges Overview and Outline Modern theatre began in the late nineteenth century with the realistic plays of Henrik Ibsen, August Strindberg, and Anton Chekhov. In realism, events onstage mirror observable reality in the outside world. The characters speak, move, dress, and behave as people do in real life; they are seen in familiar places such as living rooms, bedrooms, and kitchens. One appeal of realism is that audiences can identify with and verify people and events onstage. One disadvantage of realism is that it excludes a number of traditional theatrical devices, such as poetry, music, ghosts, and special effects. Despite this drawback, however, realism is so effective that it has been a dominant theatrical form of the past 100 years. Naturalism developed alongside realism. A dramatic theatre that looked like a “slice of life,” it focused on problems in society and confronted audiences so as to bring about change. The Moscow Art Theatre developed the first systematic form of acting for realism and would later influence the Group Theatre in America. Because of its uncompromising presentation of life, realism was initially produced not commercially but by small independent theatres. The best known of these independent theatres was the Théâtre Libre founded by André Antoine. As it became more widely accepted, it entered the mainstream of theatre. In the twentieth century, Synge and O’Casey in Ireland, O’Neill, Hellmann, Miller, Williams, and Albee in the United States, and many other playwrights worldwide wrote powerful realistic drama. From 1875 through 1975, there were also significant movements that departed from realism: these included symbolism, expressionism, futurism, dada, surrealism, epic theatre, absurdism, and environmental theatre. Among practitioners who attempted to transform theatre were the designers Appia and Craig as well as the director Meyerhold. Key theories arguing against realism are Artaud’s theatre of cruelty and Brecht’s epic theatre; Grotowski and Schechner were proponents of environmental staging. Throughout this time period, there continued to be a strong tradition of popular theatre, or mainstream theatre. The American “book” musical flourished between 1945 and 1975 and was followed by many other developments. Globalization was one of the developments characteristic of twentieth century theatre. In Asian theatre, drama influenced by the West and avant-garde, experimental theatre took its place alongside traditional forms. Writers, directors, actors, and designers in the West were also strongly influenced by their Eastern counterparts. There were many theatre companies and artists who produced new experimental works. In the United States, the off-Broadway, off-off-Broadway and regional theatres nurtured new artists and forms. I. Realism and the Modern Era A. Background: The Modern Era B. Theatrical Realism C. Realistic Playwrights 1. Henrik Ibsen 2. August Strindberg 3. Anton Chekhov D. Naturalism E. Producers of Realism: Independent Theatres F. Realism in the Twentieth Century Timeline: 1875-1915 II. Departures from Realism A. Departures from Realism—Playwrights: Ibsen, Strindberg and Wedekind B. Symbolism C. Expressionism D. Futurism and Surrealism E. Unique Voices F. How were Departures from Realism Staged? 1. Designers: Appia and Craig G. Russian Theatricalism: Meyerhold H. Artaud and Brecht: The Theatre of Cruelty and Epic Theatre I. Impact of Totalitarianism on Theatre J. Experimentation and Departures from Realism Continue 1. Existentialism and Theatre of the Absurd Timeline: 1915-1945 III. Eclectics IV. Popular Theatre A. American Musical Theatre 1. The Appeal of Music and Dance 2. Antecedents 3. The High Point of American Musicals 4. American Musicals After 1975 Timeline: 1945-1975 IV. Globalization and Theatre in the Twentieth Century and Beyond A. Some Background on Asian Theatre B. Global Exchanges Features: Experiencing Theatre History: The Sea Gull Experiencing Theatre History: Waiting for Godot In Focus: Two Important International Directors Playing Your Part: Thinking About Theatre Terms
alienation, or alienated Beijing opera biomechanics book musical book/libretto concept musical constructivist setting departures from realism eclecticism environmental theatre epic theatre existentialism expressionism futurism globalization happening jukebox musicals kathakali multimedia naturalism poor theatre realism selective realism Stanislavski system surrealism symbolism theatre of cruelty theatre of the absurd theatricalism unit set
Topics for Discussion 1. It is often said that Darwin’s On the Origin of Species, Marx’s Das Kapital, and Freud’s Interpretation of Dreams were the source of intellectual, religious, and moral challenges that led to social and philosophical change. How did the questions raised in these books change society? Give examples. How was theatre changed? Intellectual Challenges and Society: Darwin's theories on evolution questioned religious beliefs about creation; Marx's critique of capitalism inspired socialist movements and labor rights; Freud's insights into the unconscious mind reshaped views on human behavior. These challenges led to a more questioning society, fostering social change, such as labor reforms and the women's rights movement. In theatre, these ideas spurred the rise of realism, as playwrights like Ibsen and Strindberg began addressing societal issues, reflecting the struggles of their time through characters and narratives. 2. In realistic theatre, everything that happens onstage is made to resemble observable, everyday reality. Discuss why this form of theatre might be popular with a middle-class audience. Are there topics that would be effectively treated in realistic terms? Are there parts of life that might be difficult or discomforting to present realistically? Popularity of Realism: Realism resonates with middle-class audiences because it reflects their everyday lives and concerns, making the themes relatable. Topics like family dynamics, marriage, and social issues can be effectively treated realistically. However, subjects like addiction, mental illness, or social injustice might be uncomfortable to portray, as they could challenge societal norms or provoke difficult conversations. 3. Many realistic plays have been attacked as disgusting and vile (Ibsen’s Ghosts for example). Discuss why this reaction might have been particularly common during the Victorian age, when realism began to become prominent. Are there parts of life that people might not want to see realistically portrayed onstage? Why? What about today? Victorian Reaction to Realism: During the Victorian era, the focus on propriety led to backlash against plays like Ibsen's Ghosts, which addressed taboo subjects such as venereal disease and family secrets. Audiences may have felt that such realism threatened their moral values. Today, while some topics remain sensitive (e.g., sexual abuse or violence), there’s generally more openness, although backlash still occurs for portrayals of racism, sexuality, or political issues. 4. The director has been particularly influential in productions of the nonrealistic style (Craig, Meyerhold, Brecht, etc.). Discuss why the director might be more important in a nonrealistic production than in a realistic production. Director's Role in Nonrealism: In nonrealistic theatre, the director often becomes the primary creative force, shaping the vision and interpretation of the piece. This is crucial in nonrealistic works, where abstraction and symbolism may require a strong directorial hand to ensure coherence and impact. In contrast, realistic theatre may allow actors' interpretations to shine more due to its focus on naturalism. 5. In expressionism, the action of the play is often seen “through the eyes” of the protagonist. In what ways might action presented with this point of view differ from “objective reality”? For instance, if the protagonist was insane, how might the action be presented? How might expressionism be accomplished in film? Discuss how the point of view of the protagonist might be conveyed through the focus of the camera. Expressionism and Protagonist's Perspective: Expressionism conveys action through the protagonist's subjective experience, distorting reality to reflect their emotions or mental state. If the protagonist is insane, the presentation might feature surreal imagery or disjointed narratives. In film, techniques like camera angles, lighting, and editing can evoke the protagonist's perspective, creating a sense of disorientation or emotional turmoil. 6. If realism presents onstage only those things that occur in observable, everyday life, with what subjects might nonrealism concern itself? What about things we cannot see but might believe to exist (e.g., thoughts, emotions, ghosts)? Are these nonrealistic? Is only what can be seen realistic? Can it be argued that nonrealism is just as realistic as realism? Subjects of Nonrealism: Nonrealism can explore abstract concepts like thoughts, emotions, or existential themes that are not observable but are integral to the human experience. These aspects can be as valid as realistic portrayals, arguing that they represent deeper truths about life. Nonrealism can be seen as equally realistic by addressing complexities that realism might overlook. 7. After four years of operation, the Federal Theatre Project lost its federal funding because, among other things, many members of Congress claimed that the project was sympathetic to communism. Compare the history of the Federal Theatre Project to the controversies surrounding the National Endowment for the Arts in the 1990s. How are the controversies similar? How are they different? Federal Theatre Project and NEA Controversies: Both the Federal Theatre Project and the National Endowment for the Arts faced scrutiny for perceived political biases and controversial content. While the FTP was criticized for communist sympathies in the 1930s, the NEA encountered debates over funding for artists whose work was deemed offensive. The key difference lies in the historical context; the FTP was a response to the Great Depression, while the NEA operates in a more contemporary, diversified cultural landscape. 8. Discuss the similarities and differences between Artaud’s idea of a theatre of cruelty and a punk rock concert. Theatre of Cruelty and Punk Rock: Artaud's theatre of cruelty aimed to provoke visceral reactions through shocking and intense experiences, similar to the raw energy of punk rock concerts. Both forms seek to challenge the audience and confront societal norms, yet they differ in medium—one being theatrical and the other musical—and in the methods used to elicit emotional responses. 9. Discuss Brecht’s idea of “historification.” Why might setting a play in a past era help an audience to remain emotionally detached from the dramatic action? What would be the effect on aesthetic distance? How might it give us a new perspective on aspects of our own lives? How does this relate to a drama like The Crucible? Brecht’s Historification: By setting a play in the past, Brecht intended to create emotional distance, allowing audiences to analyze the action critically rather than react emotionally. This technique fosters aesthetic distance, providing new perspectives on contemporary issues. In The Crucible, the historical setting invites audiences to reflect on themes of paranoia and moral panic, drawing parallels to their own societal challenges. 10. What are the ways in which globalization has influenced Western theatre practices? What theatrical traditions from around the world have found expression in western theatre? Globalization's Influence on Western Theatre: Globalization has enriched Western theatre by integrating diverse theatrical traditions, such as Kabuki, Noh, and Indian Kathakali, which introduce new storytelling techniques and aesthetic elements. This cross-pollination fosters innovation in Western productions, broadening the scope of themes and performance styles while enhancing cultural exchange. Exercises and Demonstrations 1. Compare and contrast the dramatic structure of Ibsen’s Ghosts and Sophocles’s King Oedipus. Dramatic Structure of Ghosts vs. King Oedipus: • Ghosts features a linear structure focused on the unraveling of familial secrets and moral dilemmas, with a strong emphasis on character development and psychological conflict. The play builds tension through dialogue and revelations about the past. • In contrast, King Oedipus follows a more traditional tragic structure with a clear beginning, middle, and end, showcasing a heroic downfall driven by fate and prophecy. The use of dramatic irony is significant, as the audience knows Oedipus’s fate before he does. • While Ghosts emphasizes moral ambiguity and social critique, King Oedipus embodies the themes of fate and inevitability common in Greek tragedy. 2. Many books, articles and websites have been written about the Group Theatre and its members. Have the students research some aspect of this company and develop a written or oral report. Research on the Group Theatre: • Students can explore the Group Theatre's founding principles, its commitment to realism, and key figures such as Lee Strasberg and Stella Adler. They could report on the company's influence on American acting techniques and the development of methods like "The Method." 3. Have your students research modern instances in which plays or other works of art have been censored by the government. Have the types of things that were censored been different at different times? Are there particular subjects that result in censorship? Discuss the effects of censorship on the arts and society. Are there things that should not be allowed to be said or seen on the stage? Censorship in Modern Art: • Students can research instances like the censorship of The Vagina Monologues or works by artists like Robert Mapplethorpe and Andres Serrano. Types of censorship have varied, often focusing on sexual content, political themes, or social issues. Censorship can stifle creativity and restrict freedom of expression, leading to a lack of diverse voices in the arts. While some argue that certain subjects should remain unaddressed to avoid harm, open dialogue is crucial for societal growth. 4. Have students watch Cradle Will Rock, the 1999 film by Tim Robbins that depicts a true story of politics and art in the 1930s USA, centered on a leftist musical drama and the attempts to stop its production. This will provide some entertainment and a little theatre history lesson about the Federal Theatre Project of the 1930s and its director Hallie Flanagan Davis. Viewing Cradle Will Rock: • This film provides historical context about the Federal Theatre Project and showcases the tension between art and politics in the 1930s. After viewing, students can discuss the implications of government interference in artistic expression and the legacy of leftist theatre movements. 5. In the preface to A Dream Play, August Strindberg clearly and simply outlines some of the basic concepts of the nonrealistic tradition. Compare this preface with the one he wrote for his earlier, realistic play Miss Julie. Are there any similarities? Any differences? Strindberg’s Prefaces: • In his preface to A Dream Play, Strindberg emphasizes abstraction and the exploration of psychological and metaphysical themes, contrasting with the more grounded, social realism of Miss Julie. Both prefaces reflect Strindberg’s evolving artistic vision, highlighting a shift from realistic portrayal to a more symbolic and dream-like approach. 6. Show images of the work of designers influenced by Appia and Craig, such as Robert Edmond Jones, Lee Simonson, and Norman Bel Geddes. Discuss how these designers create an atmosphere and an environment that differ from objective reality. Does seeing the design evoke a particular emotion? Design Influences of Appia and Craig: • Designers like Robert Edmond Jones and Norman Bel Geddes created environments that evoke emotions through stylization and abstraction rather than literal representation. Their designs often incorporate light, color, and shape to enhance the thematic elements of a production, fostering an immersive experience for the audience. 7. Many music videos use the style of nonrealism. Show your class a variety of videotape examples to illustrate each style of theatre, or ask your students to do so. It is interesting to note that country-western videos tend to use realistic images much more than rock videos. Why might this be so? Nonrealism in Music Videos: • Students can analyze various music videos that employ nonrealistic elements, such as surreal visuals and abstract storytelling. The tendency for country-western videos to embrace realism may stem from the genre's focus on relatable narratives and everyday life, while rock videos often prioritize artistic expression and emotional resonance. 8. Compare Brecht’s adaptation of Shakespeare’s Coriolanus with the original. How has Brecht altered it to suit his purposes and style? Do the same thing with Brecht’s Antigone or Sartre’s The Flies, which is a version of Aeschylus’s Oresteia. Brecht’s Adaptations: • In his adaptation of Coriolanus, Brecht focuses on the political implications of the story, emphasizing the class struggle and the impact of war on society. In Antigone, Brecht alters the characters' motivations to highlight the conflict between personal ethics and state law, aligning with his style of alienation and social commentary. 9. Find a variety of clips and interviews of Julie Taymor discussing her work. How might a director incorporate Asian theatre production techniques into your college or university production season? Julie Taymor’s Techniques: • Taymor’s use of puppetry and symbolic imagery can be incorporated into productions by integrating Asian theatre styles such as shadow puppetry or ensemble movements. Directors can emphasize visual storytelling, using minimalistic sets and strong physicality to convey themes and emotions. 10. Compare and contrast the classic American “book” musical with a “concept” musical (example: compare Rodgers and Hammerstein’s The Sound of Music with Stephen Sondheim’s Company). What are the critical differences? Book Musical vs. Concept Musical: • The classic book musical, exemplified by The Sound of Music, typically features a coherent storyline, character development, and songs that advance the plot. In contrast, a concept musical like Company centers around themes or ideas rather than a linear narrative, with songs that explore characters' inner thoughts and relationships. This distinction influences structure, storytelling, and audience engagement in each form. Chapter 16 Today’s Diverse Global Theatre Overview and Outline Contemporary theatre is global, diverse, and eclectic. Today’s playwrights and directors draw from a wide range of sources. The types of theatre available include realism and departures from realism (similar to the movements covered in Chapter 15), and additional forms of ethnic and political theatres: African American theatre, Latino-Latina theatre, Native American theatre, feminist theatre, gay and lesbian theatre, and so forth. All these exist side by side in numerous production settings, throughout the world: the rich storehouse of theatre available today is global in scope, with active theatres in Africa, Asia, Latin America, Canada, Australia, and the Middle East. Performance Art is based on the individual performer or director rather than a playwright. Several performance artists of note include Karen Finley, Spalding Gray, Bill Irwin, Anna Deavere Smith, John Leguizamo, and Ping Chong. Although difficult to define, postmodernism is a contemporary concept that suggests that artists and audiences have moved beyond the modernist movements of realism and departures from realism. Closely associated with the postmodernist approach to theatre is non-textbased theatre; meaning that there is no text in a traditional sense with dialogue written by a dramatist. Regional theatre, off-Broadway, off-off-Broadway, and alternative regional theatre created important alternatives to traditional Broadway commercial theatre. Playwrights Sam Shepard and David Mamet found early success in alternative theatre. Today’s theatre is complex because it mirrors the significant changes in our global society and the concerns of diverse peoples who populate our world. African American, Latino-Latina, Asian American, Native American, Feminist, Gay and Lesbian theatres have found voices of expression performing for a wide range of diverse audiences. Global theatre has greatly altered contemporary theatre and has led to interaction, collaboration, and adaptation of theatrical styles and techniques. Examples of global developments in theatre are found in England, Ireland, Australia, Canada, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East. Historical documents provide the source material for documentary drama. The goal of documentary plays such as The Investigation and The Exonerated is to convince audiences that they are watching history unfold. The vitality of today’s theatre in the face of challenges by new technologies demonstrates the continuing appeal of live theatre and the performer-audience relationship. If the present age is not one of great drama, it is a period of tremendous activity in writing and producing, in avant-garde experimental work, and in the revival of classics. I. The Dawning of a New Century Timeline: 1975 to Present II. Today’s Theatre: Global, Diverse, and Eclectic A. Performance Art B. Postmodernism III. Diverse Theatres in the United States A. Alternatives to Commercial Theatres in the United States 1. Regional Theatre 2. Off-Broadway, Off-Off-Broadway, and Alternative Regional Theatres 3. Two American Playwrights with Roots in Alternative Theatre B. African American Theatre 1. African American Theatre from 1900 to 1950 2. African American Theatre since 1950 C. Latino-Latina Theatre D. Asian American Theatre E. Native American Theatre F. Feminist Theatre and Playwrights G. Gay and Lesbian Theatre IV. Global Theatre A. A Continuing Global Trend: Documentary Drama B. English and Irish Theatre C. Canada and Australia D. Asia, Africa, and Latin America 1. Theatres in India, China, and Japan 2. Theatres in the Middle East 3. African Theatre and Drama 4. Wole Soyinka and Athol Fugard 5. Latin American Theatre V. Today and Tomorrow: A Look Ahead Features: In Focus: Tadashi Suzuki: Japanese Internationalist In Focus: Augusto Boal: The Theatre of the Oppressed Playing Your Part: Thinking About Theatre Terms
actos agit-prop deconstruction diversity documentary drama (or theatre of fact) eclectic fringe theatre global non-text based theatre Nuyorican performance art postmodernism shingeki
Topics for Discussion 1. Performance art is sometimes “like a continually transforming collage.” Does this form bear any relation to the style and form of the music video? Has music video changed the way that we look at art? Does it make traditional theatre forms seem too slow? Has it affected the way that we process information? Performance Art and Music Videos: • Performance art, described as a "continually transforming collage," shares similarities with the music video format, particularly in its use of rapid edits, visual experimentation, and a blend of different media. Music videos can change perceptions of art by emphasizing immediacy and sensory overload, potentially making traditional theatre feel slower and more static. This fast-paced style may affect how audiences process information, favoring quick, fragmented narratives over sustained, linear storytelling. 2. There is a trend toward solo performance in theatree.g., Anna Deavere Smith, Eric Bogosian, Maya Lilly (Mixed), and Sarah Jones (Bridge and Tunnel). How might the rising cost of producing theatre have affected this trend? What sort of flexibility does the solo performer have? What sort of restraints does he or she experience? Are there historical antecedents for solo productions? Trend Toward Solo Performance: • The rising cost of producing theatre likely drives the trend toward solo performances, as fewer resources are needed for production. Solo performers enjoy flexibility in storytelling and character exploration, allowing for intimate, personal narratives. However, they may face constraints such as limited technical support and the challenge of sustaining audience engagement alone. Historical antecedents for solo productions include the monologue and one-person shows that date back to ancient times and have evolved through figures like Spalding Gray and Anna Deavere Smith. 3. Discuss your students’ beliefs about the future of the theatre. Will it continue to thrive, or will it be overcome by other forms of entertainment? In what ways should it change to reflect current cultural life? What aspects should remain the same? How much does the price of tickets affect attendance? Why do young people seem to avoid the theatre? What could the theatre do to attract young audiences? Future of Theatre: • Students may have mixed beliefs about the future of theatre, with some seeing potential for growth and others fearing its decline in the face of other entertainment forms. To thrive, theatre may need to adapt by incorporating technology, diverse narratives, and contemporary issues while maintaining its core traditions. Ticket prices can significantly impact attendance, and the perception of theatre as an elitist activity may deter younger audiences. To attract young viewers, theatre could offer student discounts, engage with social media, and create relatable, modern content. 4. Postmodernism questions the idea of an accepted canon in art. Discuss the way that a canon is created. Are some things better than others? What does “better” mean? Are there ways to evaluate quality in art? What principles can be used to do so? Is everything simply a matter of personal taste? If not, what might be some values that could be used as a guideline? Postmodernism and the Canon: • The creation of a canon in art often reflects historical, cultural, and societal influences, leading to debates about what is considered "better." While personal taste plays a significant role, evaluating quality in art can involve criteria such as originality, emotional impact, and cultural relevance. Values like innovation, depth, and social commentary can serve as guidelines, suggesting that some works transcend mere personal preference. 5. Postmodernist directors are noted for “deconstructing” a text: taking it apart, reordering and re-conceptualizing, and examining the issues of power in the text. The result is often a very powerful production that bears little resemblance to the original text. Discuss whether the students think this is ethical. To what extent should a director attempt to interpret and present the play in a manner consistent with the text? Why not simply write one’s own play? Does the effectiveness of a performance justify itself? Ethics of Deconstructing Texts: • The ethics of postmodernist directors who deconstruct texts raise questions about fidelity to the original work. While interpreting a play creatively can yield powerful results, students may argue that a director should respect the text's intent and context. Writing an original play allows for complete creative freedom, while adaptations should balance interpretation with acknowledgment of the original work's themes and messages. The effectiveness of a performance is subjective, but it should engage the audience thoughtfully and meaningfully. 6. Since the 1960s, a great number of theatres have been formed devoted to plays by and about specific ethnic, gender, or political groups. What purpose might such theatres serve? How might their audiences differ from other theatres, and how might these differences affect the performance? The Purpose of Theatres for Specific Groups: • Theatres dedicated to specific ethnic, gender, or political groups serve to amplify underrepresented voices and explore unique cultural narratives. Audiences may differ in their backgrounds and expectations, influencing how performances are created and received. Such theatres often foster community engagement and dialogue, providing a space for exploration and reflection on social issues. 7. Many performers and playwrights who began their careers in a theatre committed to a particular group or political idea have moved on to more “mainstream” entertainment. Many feel that this signifies a betrayal of the original group—“selling out” for popular success and abandoning one’s values for fame and fortune. What might be the reasons for resisting temptation to move to the “mainstream”? What might be some reasons not to do so? Mainstream vs. Original Values: • The decision to move from a group-focused theatre to mainstream entertainment can be contentious. Reasons to resist such a transition include a commitment to artistic integrity, the desire to continue advocating for marginalized voices, and the importance of maintaining community ties. Conversely, moving to mainstream platforms can provide broader reach and influence, potentially allowing for greater impact on societal issues. Ultimately, the choice often reflects personal values and career goals, highlighting the tension between artistic vision and commercial success. Exercises and Demonstrations 1. Show Spalding Gray’s film Swimming to Cambodia. How does this type of performance differ from traditional theatre? Can it be considered theatre? Why or why not? Connect Gray’s performance with that of ancient storytellers. How is it similar? Spalding Gray’s Swimming to Cambodia: • Gray’s film is a unique blend of performance art and storytelling, differing from traditional theatre in its informal, autobiographical approach and use of a single performer. It can be considered theatre because it engages an audience through live performance and narrative, drawing parallels to ancient storytellers who shared personal experiences and communal tales. Like those early storytellers, Gray creates a personal connection, using his own experiences to explore broader themes of identity and cultural context. 2. Show the video of Anna Deavere Smith’s performance piece Fires in The Mirror, in which she portrays numerous characters of different races and genders. Why not have different actors portray each character? What effect does Smith’s solo performance have? Does it inform the meaning of the work? The play is documentary drama: How does this affect its impact? Anna Deavere Smith’s Fires in the Mirror: • By portraying multiple characters herself, Smith highlights the complexity of identity and the interconnectedness of various social issues. This solo performance allows for a deeper exploration of each character's perspective, emphasizing their individuality while simultaneously showing how they relate to one another. The documentary drama format enhances the work's authenticity, providing real voices and experiences that resonate with the audience, thus amplifying its impact and meaning. 3. For an introduction to performance art, show the video Sphinxes Without Secrets. Sphinxes Without Secrets: • This video serves as an introduction to performance art, showcasing its experimental nature and departure from traditional narrative structures. It challenges conventional notions of theatre by emphasizing visual and sensory experiences over linear storytelling, encouraging viewers to engage with the performance in a more abstract and interpretative manner. 4. Read the play Los Vendidos by Hispanic playwright Luiz Valdez and discuss it as an example of Hispanic theatre and political theatre. The play was written to be performed at political rallies and on picket lines. How is this purpose reflected in the story and characters? Los Vendidos by Luis Valdez: • Valdez's play serves as a powerful example of Hispanic and political theatre, reflecting the struggles and stereotypes faced by the Chicano community. Its purpose is evident in its direct engagement with social issues, using humor and satire to critique societal perceptions. The characters represent various facets of Hispanic identity, and their interactions illustrate the complexities of cultural representation, emphasizing the urgency and relevance of the narrative. 5. Read David Henry Hwang’s M. Butterfly and discuss what issues are raised that are unique to the Asian American community. How does the fact that the narrator of the play, Gallimard, is Caucasian affect the way these issues are received? Why do you think Hwang made that choice? M. Butterfly by David Henry Hwang: • Hwang raises issues related to racial identity, gender, and cultural stereotypes within the Asian American community. The choice of a Caucasian narrator, Gallimard, allows for an exploration of Western perceptions of the East, highlighting the dynamics of power and misunderstanding. This choice serves to challenge the audience's assumptions and invites reflection on how these themes are influenced by the characters’ racial identities and their societal contexts. 6. Read August Wilson’s essay, “The Ground On Which I Stand,” which appeared in American Theatre. In it, Wilson discusses his viewpoints on ethnic theatre and color-blind casting. Discuss these issues in class. August Wilson’s “The Ground On Which I Stand”: • In his essay, Wilson discusses the importance of ethnic theatre in preserving cultural narratives and the limitations of color-blind casting. He advocates for the authenticity of voices from specific communities and the necessity of telling their stories in a way that honors their cultural contexts. These discussions can lead to rich conversations about representation, ownership of narratives, and the broader implications of casting practices in contemporary theatre. 7. Read selections from Augusto Boal’s Theatre of the Oppressed. How does his idea of “Invisible Theatre” fit into our discussion of the nature of theatre? What purposes does it share with theatre of the past? What is different about its techniques? Augusto Boal’s Theatre of the Oppressed: • Boal’s concept of "Invisible Theatre" fits into the broader discussion of theatre as a tool for social change, akin to past forms that aimed to provoke thought and inspire action. Unlike traditional theatre, which often requires a clear audience-performer divide, Invisible Theatre blurs those lines by staging performances in public spaces where audiences may not initially recognize them as performances. This technique encourages spontaneous engagement and reflection, empowering participants to consider social issues in real-life contexts. Solution Manual for Theatre: The Lively Art Edwin Wilson, Alvin Goldfarb 9780073514307