CH-8 Solving Problems, Making Decisions, and Managing Change – Supervision: Concepts and Practices of Management : Book Guide

Chapter 8 Solving Problems, Making Decisions, and Managing Change Learning Objectives 1. Explain the importance of problem-solving and decision-making skills. Everything people do revolves around the decisions they make. Supervisors like Lori, the college student, encounter many situations that force them to carefully analyze the available information and ponder various courses of action. Supervisors must find solutions for problems that result from changing situations and unusual circumstances. Decision making is a choice between two or more alternatives, and the decisions made by supervisors significantly affect departmental results. Appreciative inquiry (AI) is a cooperative search for the best in people, their organizations, and the environment around them. At the heart of AI is asking questions. Decision making is a skill that can be learned. Organizations are giving employees a more active role in decision making today. A decision made today often sets a precedent for decisions made tomorrow. 2. Describe and apply the basic steps and skills involved in the decision-making process. Better decisions are more likely to occur when supervisors follow these steps of the decision-making process: •Define the problem. •Gather facts and information and analyze the problem. •Establish decision criteria. •Develop a sufficient number of alternatives. •Evaluate alternatives by using the decision criteria or by thinking of the alternatives as if they had already been placed into action and considering their consequences. •Select the alternative that has the greatest number of wanted consequences and the least number of unwanted consequences. •Implement, follow up, and appraise the results. Corrective action may be necessary if the decision is not achieving the desired objective. The supervisor should develop a problem statement that answers the questions of what, how, where, when, and who. Proper problem definition clarifies the difference between the way things are and the way they should be. After defining the problem, the supervisor must gather information. Decision criteria, which are measures or standards of what the supervisor wants to accomplish with the decision, should be specified. In developing alternatives, supervisors can use brainstorming and creative thinking techniques. Only alternatives that are lawful and ethical within the organization’s guidelines should be considered. In the process of evaluation and choice, a supervisor can be aided by ethical guidelines, personal experience, intuition, advice, experimentation, and quantitative methods. Once the decision has been made, specific actions are necessary to carry it out. Follow-up and appraisal are essential. 3. Identify and describe various decision-making styles. Supervisors constantly make decisions that vary in scope, complexity, and impact on stakeholders. Figure 8.7 is used to illustrate five decision-making styles: abdicator, free spirit, amiable, analytic, and driver. Most supervisors will use all of the styles depending on the complexity of the problem, who is involved, and how much time the supervisor has. The key to effectiveness is matching the appropriate style to the situation. 4. Discuss why a supervisor should not make hasty decisions. Supervisors risk getting themselves into trouble unless they follow the steps of the decision-making process and this is time-consuming. Most problems do not require immediate answers. It is often valuable to allow subordinates to help make decisions. They may see the problem from a different perspective, and they may have information that bears on the problem. 5. Suggest approaches for introducing change to employees and for proposing change to higher-level managers. To cope with employees’ normal resistance to change, supervisors must understand why resistance surfaces and what can be done to help employees adjust to and accept changes. Preparing employees for change by being open and honest, providing information and training early in the process, and encouraging participation in decision making will help employees take ownership of changes and make the transition more smoothly to new tasks and processes. A supervisor also should learn the principles of selling change to higher-level managers. Sometimes, supervisors may have to subtly convince their managers that changes were the managers’ ideas. Regardless of the approach, the supervisor must persuade all affected personnel that accepting proposed change will benefit them and the organization. 6. Understand the formula for organizational renewal. Organizational renewal is a continuous process, often resulting from the synergy of leadership and change. Baptist Health Care serves as an example of how one organization consistently responds over time to the swiftly changing healthcare environment and effectively manages the changes necessary to achieve success. Striving for a culture of continuous improvement where employees understand their role is a critical component. The process is cyclical, beginning with setting objectives (the five pillars). Then metrics are established against which to measure progress. Once progress is made and measured, new objectives are set, based on internal and external changes, and the cycle of improvement continues. The implications for supervisors are that they need to fix the problems of today while focusing on where they want to be tomorrow. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-2, Learning Objectives Lecture Outline I. The Importance of Decision-Making Skills Decision making is the process of defining problems and choosing a course of action from among alternatives. The term decision making often is used together with the term problem solving because many supervisory decisions focus on solving problems that have occurred or are anticipated. Decision making is an important skill that can be developed just as skill at any sport is developed—by learning the steps, practicing, and exerting effort. By doing these things, supervisors can learn to make more thoughtful decisions and can improve the quality of their decisions. At the same time, supervisors should ensure that their employees learn to make their own decisions more effectively. Appreciative inquiry (AI) is the cooperative search for the best in people, organizations, and the world around them. Definitions of AI include appreciate, synonyms, inquire, and inquiry. In practice, those companies that are the “best companies to work for” are giving employees more active roles in charting the future of their organizations. What Have You Learned? Question 1 PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-3, The Importance of Decision Making Skills PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-4, Figure 8.1 II. The Decision Making Process The decision making process is a systematic, step-by-step process to aid in choosing the “best” alternative. A. Step 1: Define the Problem When confronted with a situation, the supervisor should step back, look at the situation, and specifically identify the real problem. Defining a problem is not easy. What appears to be the problem might merely be a symptom that shows on the surface. It is usually necessary to delve deeper to locate the real problem and define it. Expressing a problem through a problem statement can help the supervisor understand it. While defining a problem often can be time-consuming, it is time well spent. A supervisor should go no further in the decision-making process until the problem relevant to the situation has been pinpointed. Unfortunately, many managers and supervisors do not spend the time necessary to frame the problems before them in proper terms. NOTE: Instructors would find it useful to use this chapter’s skill development module here to set the stage for a discussion of the systematic decision-making steps illustrated in Figure 8.2 of the text. However, it can be used at the conclusion of the discussion and serve as reinforcement for the process and concepts presented. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-5, The Decision-Making Process (cont.) PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-6, The Decision-Making Process (cont.) B. Step 2: Analyze the Problem: Gather Facts and Information The supervisor should try to be as objective as possible in gathering and examining information. A good practice is to observe reasonable time and cost limitations. This means gathering all information without undue delay and without excessive costs. In the process of analysis, the supervisor should try to think of intangible factors that play a significant role. Some intangible factors are reputation, morale, discipline, and personal biases. It is difficult to be specific about these factors, but they should be considered when analyzing a problem. Fishbone technique (cause-and-effect diagram) is the cause-and-effect approach to consider the potential interrelatedness of problem causes in decision making. This technique will allow the problem solver not only to identify the various factors that have produced the problem but to consider the potential interrelatedness of the causes of the problem PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-7, The Decision Making Process (cont.) PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-8, Figure 8.5 C. Step 3: Establish Decision Criteria Decision criteria are standards or measures to use in evaluating alternatives; they are typically statements of what the supervisor wants to accomplish with the decision. Such criteria also can be used to determine how well the implementation phase of the process is going—that is, whether the decision is doing what it was intended to do. Once the decision criteria are established, the supervisor must determine which criteria are necessary and must establish their order of priority. The supervisor may want to consult with upper-level managers, peers, or employees when prioritizing criteria. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-9, The Decision Making Process (cont.) D. Step 4: Develop Alternatives After the supervisor has defined and analyzed the problem and established decision criteria, the next step is to develop alternative solutions. The supervisor should consider as many solutions as can reasonably be developed. By formulating many alternatives, the supervisor is less apt to overlook the best course of action. Almost all problems have a number of alternative solutions. The choices may not always be obvious, so supervisors must search for them. When supervisors fail to make this search, they are likely to fall into an either/or kind of thinking. Supervisors must stretch their minds to develop additional alternatives, even in the most discouraging situations. E. Brainstorming and Creative Problem Solving When enough time is available, a supervisor should meet with a group of other supervisors or employees to brainstorm alternatives to a perplexing problem. Brainstorming requires an atmosphere that encourages creativity. Alex Osborn, an authority on creativity and brainstorming, suggests the following four guidelines for effective brainstorming: •Defer all judgment of ideas •Seek many ideas •Encourage freewheeling •“Hitchhike” on existing ideas When it involves a large group, unstructured brainstorming can become long, tedious, and unproductive because many ideas are simply not feasible and because conflicts may develop. The nominal group technique (NGT) is a group brainstorming and decision-making process by which individual members first identify alternative solutions privately and then share, evaluate, and decide on an approach as a group. It may not be feasible or convenient to get employees together, and the manager may prefer to use the electronic brainstorming system (EBS). EBS refers to using technology to share and evaluate ideas. Creative approaches and brainstorming meetings are particularly adaptable if the problem is new, important, or strategic. Brainstorming refers to a free flow of ideas in a group, while suspending judgment, aimed at developing many alternative solutions to a problem. What Have You Learned? Question 3 PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-10, The Decision Making Process (cont.) F. Ethical Considerations Both when developing and evaluating alternatives, a supervisor should consider only those alternatives that are lawful and acceptable within the organization’s ethical guidelines. In recent years, many firms have become concerned that their managers, supervisors, and employees make ethical decisions because they recognize that, in the long term, good ethics is good business. Consequently, many firms have developed handbooks, policies, and official statements that specify their ethical standards and practices, or ethical “tests. Ethical “tests” are considerations or guidelines to be addressed in developing and evaluating ethical aspects of decision alternatives. The following guidelines for decision making are not comprehensive, but they are relevant when addressing the ethical aspects of most problem situations. •Legal/compliance test •Public-knowledge test •Long-term-consequences test •Examine-your-motives test •Inner-voice test •Fairness test •The four-way test [Note: See Appendix to the Chapter 8 Instructors Manual for additional information: “Guidelines on Ethical Decision Making.”] Personal Skill Builder 8-2: Computer Rules PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-11, The Decision Making Process (cont.) G. Step 5: Evaluate the Alternatives The ultimate purpose of decision making is to choose the course of action that will provide the greatest number of wanted and the smallest number of unwanted consequences. After developing alternatives, supervisors can mentally test each of them by imagining that each has already been put into effect. Supervisors should try to foresee the probable desirable and undesirable consequences of each alternative. What Have You Learned? Question 4 What Have You Learned? Question 5 PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-12, The Decision-Making Process (cont.) H. Step 6: Select the Best Alternative Optimizing is selecting the best alternative. However, the supervisor sometimes makes a satisficing decision, selecting an alternative that meets the minimal decision criteria. Among the most prominent bases for choosing the best alternative are experience, intuition, advice, experimentation, and statistical and quantitative decision making. What Have You Learned? Question 4 What Have You Learned? Question 5 I. Experience When selecting from alternatives, the supervisor should rely on experience. Knowledge gained from experience is a helpful guide, and its importance should not be underestimated. When looking to experience as a basis for choosing among alternatives, the supervisor should examine the situation and the conditions that prevailed at the time of the earlier decision. Experience can be helpful when supervisors are called on to substantiate their reasons for making certain decisions. J. Intuition At times, supervisors base their decisions on intuition. Intuition may be particularly helpful when other alternatives have been tried with poor results. If the risks are not too great, a supervisor may choose a new alternative because of an intuitive feeling that a fresh approach might bring positive results. K. Advice from Others Although a supervisor cannot shift personal responsibility for making decisions in the department, the burden of decision making often can be eased by seeking the advice of others. The following four guidelines can help the supervisor decide whether groups should be included in the decision-making process: •If additional information would increase the quality of the decision, involve those who can provide that information. •If acceptance of the decision is critical, involve those whose acceptance is important. •If people’s skills can be developed through participation, involve those who need the development opportunity. •If the situation is not life-threatening and does not require immediate action, involve others in the process. L. Experimentation In supervision experimentation is often too costly in terms of people, time, and materials. There are instances in which a certain amount of testing is advisable to allow employees to try new ideas or approaches, perhaps of their own design. While experimentation may be valid from a motivational standpoint, it can be a slow and relatively expensive method of reaching a decision. M. Quantitative Decision Making Numerous quantitative techniques and models are available for helping managers improve the quality of their decision making. Decision trees, operations research, payback analysis, probability, and simulation models are but a few of these tools. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-13, The Decision-Making Process (cont.) N. Step 7: Follow Up and Appraise the Results Follow-up and appraisal of a decision can take many forms, depending on the decision, timing, costs, standards, personnel, and other factors. The important point to recognize is that the decision-making task is incomplete without some form of follow-up and action appraisal. When the follow-up and appraisal indicate that something has gone wrong or that the results have not been as anticipated, the supervisor’s decision-making process must begin all over again. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-14, The Decision-Making Process (cont.) III. Decision-Making Styles Decision making is influenced by many forces, making it difficult to formulate a simple to-do checklist that applies to every situation in the same way. It is important for supervisors to know that different types of decisions require different decision-making styles. Relying heavily on the social styles model, Mike Lynch and Harvey Lifton developed the decision-making styles model to describe how people make decisions. To help you analyze your decision-making style, see Figure 8.7. The five decision-making styles are driver, expressive, abdicator, analytic, and amiable. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-15, Decision-Making Styles PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-16, Figure 8.7 Team Skill Builder 8-2: Dealing with People that Make Your Life Difficult—The “Indecisive” Waffler IV. Time Impacts the Decision-Making Process In some situations, supervisors may feel they lack the time to go through the decision-making process. Supervisors cannot afford to make decisions without considering the steps outlined. Often, when an employee brings up a problem, the supervisor should ask questions like the following: •How extensive is the problem? •Does the situation need an immediate response? •Who else (the stakeholders) is affected by the problem? •Should they (the stakeholders) be involved in this discussion? •Have you (the employee) thought through the problem, and do you have an idea of what the end result should be? •What do you recommend? Why? This approach is a form of participative supervision and can help to develop the employee’s analytical skills. The supervisor can better think through the problem, apply the decision-making steps, and make a decision. Many supervisors get themselves into trouble by making hasty decisions without following all the steps in the decision-making process. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-17, Time Impacts Decision Making Process V. Introducing Change Often when a decision is made by a leader or a supervisor, that decision will indicate that a change is imminent in the department or the whole organization. Unplanned change comes as a result of circumstances beyond our control. A. Making Change Means Supervisory Involvement Despite the emphasis on change, there still appear to be numerous problems and considerable resentment concerning both the introduction and effects of many organizational changes. Supervisors must consider the pervasiveness of change in organizations, the goals of change, and its impact on employees. The introduction and management of change from the supervisory perspective is another challenging aspect of a supervisor’s leading function of management. In the final analysis, whether a change has been initiated by upper management or by the supervisor personally, it is the supervisor who has the major role in effecting change. The success or failure of any change is usually related to a supervisor’s ability to anticipate and deal with the causes of resistance to change. B. Reasons for Resistance to Change The supervisor should be familiar with the ways in which resistance to change can be minimized and handled successfully. If an organization is to survive, it must be able to react to prevailing conditions by adjusting. Employees become accustomed to a work environment in which patterns of relationships and behavior have stabilized. When a change takes place, new ideas and new methods may be perceived as a threat to the security of the work group. Change affects individuals in different ways. Remember that a change that greatly disturbs one person may create only a small problem for another, while it may actually inspire or energize some. A supervisor must learn to recognize how changes affect different employees and observe how individuals develop patterns of behavior that serve as barriers to accepting change. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-18, Introducing Change PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-19, Figure 8.8 C. Overcoming Resistance to Change Probably the most important factor in gaining employee acceptance of new ideas and methods is the relationship between the supervisor who is introducing the change and the employees who are affected by it. If the relationship has confidence and trust, employees are more likely to accept the change. D. Providing Adequate Information Resistance to change, when it comes from fear of the unknown, can be minimized by supplying all the information employees consciously and subconsciously need to know. Presenting employees with the vision, or idealized picture of the future once a change is fully implemented, can help supervisors introduce change. Whenever possible, a supervisor should explain what will happen, why it will happen, and how the employees and the department will be affected by the change. Robert H. Miles warns that the information dissemination process must take place rapidly and sequentially throughout all levels of an organization once a change is announced in order to get all employees to accept and commit to the initiative. Miles suggests that organizations cascade key information and skills related to the change, a process in which employees at all levels of the organization are rapidly engaged with their direct supervisors in education, training, and the establishment of clear line-of-sight accountability for change processes and tasks. When employees have been informed of the reasons for a change, what to expect, and how their jobs will be affected, they usually make reasonable adaptations. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-20, Introducing Change (cont.) E. Encouraging Participation in Decision Making If several employees are involved in a change, group decision making is an effective way to reduce their fears and objections. Group decision making is especially effective when the supervisor is indifferent about the details of the change. In these cases, the supervisor must set limits for the group. Change affects every aspect of what the organization does and how it does it. Figure 8.9 provides a guide for supervisors to use to help overcome the barriers to change. F. Proposing Change to High-Level Managers In many organizations, high-level managers complain that supervisors are too content with the status quo and are unwilling to suggest new and innovative ways to improve departmental performance. Supervisors, on the other hand, complain that higher-level managers are not receptive to ideas they suggest for their departments. It should be clear that top management’s job is to pollinate those seeds (ideas) and help them to bear fruit. If supervisors wish to propose changes, it is important that they understand how to present ideas not only to their employees, but to higher-level managers as well. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-21, Introducing Change (cont.) PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-22, Figure 8.9 G. Obtaining Needed Information Higher-level managers usually are interested if a change might improve production, increase sales and profits, improve morale, or reduce overhead and other costs. It is important to do considerable homework to see whether a proposed change is feasible and adaptable to the departmental operation. By thinking through the idea carefully and getting as much information as possible, the supervisor will be better positioned to argue strong and weak points of the proposal. H. Consulting with Other Supervisors To get an idea or a proposal beyond the discussion stage, the supervisor should consult with other supervisors and personnel who might be affected and get their reactions to the proposed change. Checking an idea out with them gives them a chance to think the idea through, offer suggestions and criticisms, and work out some of the problems. If possible, it is helpful to get the tentative commitment of other supervisors. I. Formal Written Proposal At times, a manager may ask a supervisor to put a proposed idea in writing so that copies may be forwarded to higher-level managers, other supervisors, or other personnel. Relevant information on costs, prices, productivity data, and the like should be included in the proposal, even if some data are only educated guesses. Risks, as well as potential advantages, should be acknowledged in the formal proposal. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-23, Introducing Change (cont.) J. Formal Presentation If a supervisor is asked to formally present the proposal, ample planning and preparation are required. The presentation should be made thoroughly and unhurriedly, allowing sufficient time for questions and discussion. The supervisor should be enthusiastic in explaining the idea, but at the same time should be patient and empathetic with those who may not agree with it. A helpful technique in a formal presentation is to use some type of chart, diagram, or visual aid. K. Acceptance or Rejection of Change by High-Level Managers A supervisor who can persuade higher-level managers and other supervisors to accept a proposed change will likely feel inner satisfaction. Following up and working out the problems with others are important aspects of making a change effective. However, despite a supervisor’s best efforts, an idea may be rejected, altered greatly, or shelved. There may be valid reasons for the rejection of an idea, or the timing may not have been right. A supervisor should resolve to try again and perhaps to further refine and polish the idea for resubmission. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-24, Introducing Change (cont.) VI. A Formula for Organizational Renewal Many organizations, like people, wait until they are near death before they recognize the need to make changes. Renewal requires doing the right thing today so that they are prepared to meet the challenges of tomorrow. Organizational renewal means that management must improve upon and sustain what they are doing today while creating processes for long-term success. A. Recognizing the Need for Renewal: One organization’s Quest for Excellence Studer now coaches other organizations on how to create a culture of excellence. According to Studer, the beginning of the journey starts with a focus on the organization’s core values. The five-pillar resources (Figure 8.10) serve as a starting point for establishing organizational objectives: service, quality, people, finance, and growth. Once objectives are set for each pillar, they are cascaded throughout, from division to department to unit to individual. These pillars then lay the metrics and framework for consistent evaluations. Among the true tests of leadership are (1) whether anyone follows and (2) the legacy the leader leaves. B. A Model for Renewal While most organizations are impacted by external forces, for example, rising gas prices, an uncertain economy, and the threat of increasing government intervention, the internal forces for change vary greatly. Managers vary in leadership styles and communication skills. Employees bring different values and SKAs to the workplace. Ordinarily, management may agree that change is needed but may have difficulty agreeing on the process to follow PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-25, A Formula for Organizational Renewal PowerPoint Presentation Slide 8-26, Key Terms Answers to What have you Learned? 1. Define the decision-making process. Why should supervisors write problem statements when defining the problem? What pitfalls should the supervisor avoid at each step of the process? Decision making is the process of choosing a course of action to solve a particular problem. The supervisor should develop a problem statement that answers the questions of what, how, where, when, and who. Proper problem definition clarifies the difference between the way things are and the way they should be. Defining the problem is one of the most—if not the most—important steps of the decision-making process because it will help a supervisor clarify his or her thinking about the problem at hand. To avoid pitfalls in the process, after defining the problem, the supervisor must gather information. Decision criteria, which are measures or standards of what the supervisor wants to accomplish with the decision, should be specified. In developing alternatives, supervisors can use brainstorming and creative-thinking techniques. Only alternatives that are lawful and ethical within the organization’s guidelines should be considered. In the process of evaluation and choice, a supervisor can be aided by ethical guidelines, personal experience, intuition, advice, experimentation, and quantitative methods. Once the decision has been made, specific actions are necessary to carry it out. Follow-up and appraisal are essential. 2. Think of a major decision you have made in your life. For example, why did you decide to go to college? Why did you choose the college you selected? How did you select a major? Explain how you applied the steps in the decision-making process. What factors might you have considered to have made a better choice? Students’ answers will vary on this major decision of college selection or something else of major importance in their life. Discussion will center on if they did or did not use the decision-making process or did they just “wing it” in their final decision; did they make the right decision? Often decisions are based on emotional responses, not rationale, logical data. NOTE: The text cites a number of pitfalls to be avoided at each step of the decision-making process. The instructor should have students attempt to define other pitfalls that they recognize as having had an impact on some of their own personal decisions. Additional Notes Relevant To Discussion Question 2 Why Management Decisions Go Wrong Approximately one-half of management and supervisory decisions go wrong, according to Professor Paul C. Nutt of Ohio State University’s Fisher College of Business. Based on 20 years of studying decision making in numerous business areas, Professor Nutt concluded that the main reasons so many managers and supervisors make poor decisions is that they “employ failure-prone tactics.” Chief among these are: •Problems are often framed in ways to protect supervisors’ own interests rather than being truthful and directed toward solving the real problems. •Managers and supervisors are more interested in action solutions (i.e., “doing something”) than in thoughtfully setting objectives to be accomplished by their decisions. •Supervisors often take shortcuts and look for “quick fixes” instead of going through a thorough decision-making process. •Participating with others in making decisions is limited (i.e., only on the order of one in five decisions). In summary, Professor Nutt makes the following comments on and recommendations for making better decisions: “So, what can you do to improve your chances of making better decisions? Certainly, as my studies show, you should resist pressure for a quick fix, accept uncertainty and ambiguity, and recognize subtleties in what works and what does not.” In addition, students should: •Personally manage their decision making. Delegation to experts or to people who are expected to champion their ideas may give them time for other things but will make success much less likely. •Search for understanding. Signals that capture their attention can be more urgent than important. The time spent in reflecting on what is at stake can pay handsome dividends. •Establish their direction with an objective. An objective that states the outcome one seeks opens up the search for new ideas. •Manage the social and political forces that can block them. Use an intervention to establish the rationale for action. Source: Adapted from the following: Paul C. Nutt, “Half of the Decisions We Make Are Wrong. Why?” Across the Board (March/April 2001), pp. 63-66. Professor Nutt is also the author of Making Tough Decisions: Tactics for Improving Managerial Decision Making (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1989), and Why Decisions Fail: Overcoming the Blunders and Traps That Lead to Decision Debacles (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2002). 3. “None of us is as smart as all of us.” Think of a situation in which you would prefer to solve a problem in a group setting rather than by yourself. Why would you rather “not go it alone?” a. What are the advantages of involving others in the decision-making process? The disadvantages? b. Identify the major elements in the brainstorming approach. The two heads are better than one as well as it takes a village to raise a child support the premise that “none of us is as smart as all of us.” Students will have personal examples; however, it is important to try to keep them focused on a work situation where they can see the relevance of the decision-making process and brainstorming approach to problem solving. A major disadvantage, of course, is when all brainstorming suggestions are not accepted, and there is a controlling, dominant voice in the decision-making process. When enough time is available, a supervisor should meet with a group of other supervisors or employees to brainstorm alternatives to a perplexing problem. Through the free flow of ideas in a group, with judgment suspended, the group should set out to identify as many alternatives as possible. Using this technique, the supervisor presents the problem, and the participants offer as many alternative solutions as they can in the time available. Any idea is acceptable—even one that may at first appear to be wild or unusual. Evaluation of ideas is suspended so that participants can give free rein to their creativity. Of course, brainstorming requires an atmosphere that encourages creativity. When supervisors are unwilling to devote sufficient time to brainstorming, or when supervisors try to dominate the process with their own opinions and solutions, the brainstorming effort is likely to fail. Alex Osborn, an authority on creativity and brainstorming, suggests the following four guidelines for effective brainstorming: •Defer all judgment of ideas. During brainstorming, allow no criticism by the group. People suppress ideas consciously and subconsciously, and this tendency must be avoided. Even if an idea seems impractical and useless, it should not be rejected because rejection could inhibit the free flow of more ideas. •Seek many ideas. Idea fluency is the key to creative problem solving, and fluency means quantity. The more ideas that are generated, the more likely some ideas will be viable. •Encourage “freewheeling.” Being creative calls for a free-flowing mental process in which all ideas, no matter how extreme, are welcome. Even the wildest idea may, on further analysis, have some usefulness. •“Hitchhike” on existing ideas. Combining, adding to, and rearranging ideas often produce new approaches that are superior to the original ones. When creative thought processes slow down or stop, review some of the existing ideas and try to hitchhike on them with additions or revisions. The preceding guidelines apply to both individual and group brainstorming. When it involves a large group, unstructured brainstorming can become long, tedious, and unproductive because many ideas are simply not feasible and because conflicts may develop. The nominal group technique (NGT) involves Nominal group technique (NGT) A group brainstorming and decision-making process by which individual members first identify alternative solutions privately and then share, evaluate, and decide on an approach as a group having group members first write down their ideas and their alternatives to the problem. Then, group members share, discuss, evaluate, and refine their ideas. The group’s final choice(s) may be made by a series of confidential votes in which a list of ideas is narrowed until consensus is attained. 4. Define and discuss the factors a supervisor should consider when developing and evaluating alternatives in the decision-making process. To what degree should ethical tests come into play in any decision? Among the factors to be considered when developing and evaluating alternatives in the decision-making process are: the degree of risk, timing, the various resources involved, and efficiency, or economy of effort. In making decisions, a supervisor should mentally test each alternative against these and other relevant factors to determine which alternative provides the greatest number of desired consequences and the fewest undesirable consequences. Of course, any alternative must not only be lawful, but must be acceptable within the ethical standards and policies of the firm. If a supervisor is concerned that a particular alternative might not be within such standards or policies, the supervisor should consult with his or her boss, or an appropriate staff specialist, for guidance. 5. Discuss how a decision to take no action to a problem might be most appropriate. Supervisors constantly make decisions that vary in scope, complexity, and impact on stakeholders. Supervisors risk getting themselves into trouble unless they follow the steps of the decision-making process, which is time consuming. Most problems do not require immediate answers. It is often valuable to allow subordinates to help make decisions. They may see the problem from a different perspective, and they may have information that bears on the problem. Thus, no action might be appropriate. 6. Consider the following statement, “People don’t resist change; they resist being changed.” To what extent is this statement true? Discuss strategies for overcoming resistance to change. Discuss the principles of proposing change to higher-level managers. Students’ answers will vary. However, some students might say that employees become accustomed to a work environment in which patterns of relationships and behavior have stabilized. When a change takes place, new ideas and new methods may be perceived as a threat to the security of the work group. Many employees fear change because they cannot predict what the change will mean in terms of their positions, activities, or abilities. A supervisor must learn to recognize how changes affect different employees and observe how individuals develop patterns of behavior that serve as barriers to accepting change. Probably the most important factor in gaining employee acceptance of new ideas and methods is the relationship between the supervisor who is introducing the change and the employees who are affected by it. If the relationship has confidence and trust, employees are more likely to accept the change. Presenting employees with the vision, or idealized picture of the future once a change is fully implemented, can help supervisors introduce change. Cascade refers to rapidly engaging supervisors and employees at all levels of an organization in education, training, and the establishment of clear accountability for change processes and tasks. When employees have been informed of the reasons for a change, what to expect, and how their jobs will be affected, they usually make reasonable adaptations. If several employees are involved in a change, group decision making is an effective way to reduce their fears and objections. Group decision making is especially effective when the supervisor is indifferent about the details of the change. In these cases, the supervisor must set limits for the group. Change affects every aspect of what the organization does and how it does it. Figure 8.9 of the text provides a guide for supervisors to use to help overcome the barriers to change. In many organizations, high-level managers complain that supervisors are too content with the status quo and are unwilling to suggest new and innovative ways to improve departmental performance. Supervisors, on the other hand, complain that higher-level managers are not receptive to ideas they suggest for their departments. If supervisors wish to propose changes, it is important that they understand how to present ideas not only to their employees, but to higher-level managers as well. 7. What are the major ways in which the concepts and principles of organizational renewal might be incorporated into every supervisor’s job? When the need for change is recognized, management will respond in radically different ways. Ordinarily, management may agree that change is needed but may have difficulty agreeing on the process to follow. To that end, the following will point you in the right direction: •Remember that as leader of the team, one is also a member of the team. •Identify the issues confronting the organization. •Analyze how those issues prevent goal attainment. •Recognize the difference between needed change and change for the sake of change. •Identify metrics that will be used to monitor and evaluate the change process. •Communicate to and involve all who have a stake in the change. •Understand what needs to be changed. •Seek consensus, but recognize when to sacrifice unanimity for decisiveness. •Confront the resisters to change. •Establish clear targets. •Take risks, experiment, and innovate. •Spend money to develop (train) employees so they have the competencies to implement the change. •Focus on the outcome(s). •Monitor progress and make adjustments as necessary. •Provide feedback and encouragement. •Guarantee total commitment to organizational renewal—to be the “best of the best.” •Celebrate victories. Answers to Personal Skill Builders Personal Skill Builder 8-1: You Make the Call! Molly exhausted her vacation hours for the year and has no personal time left. When Molly’s daughter fell ill she called her manager 15 minutes before her shift began and lied about falling ill and so couldn’t come to work. Brey, the manager, knows that it will be difficult to get coverage at that late hour and that the pharmacy staffing is lean to begin with. Brey contemplated the work ahead and called several employees, and none would be available to fill in for Molly until later in the day. The manager pondered some of the things that could help the pharmacy team get through the day. Later that week, Ronnie, a co-worker complains about Molly’s behavior saying she doesn’t go the extra mile and that she takes advantage of everyone. Students’ answers may vary as to whether Molly should be retained as an employee at the store. But since the company’s staffing is already lean, Brey could retain Molly and correct her behavior at the workplace. Brey should analyze the problem—gather the necessary facts and information, establish decision criteria, develop alternatives, probably brainstorm and come up with creative problem solving, and also keeping in mind ethical considerations and finally evaluating the alternatives to choose the best one. Ask students to find two current articles or reports that indicate why employee absenteeism is a serious problem in society. Based upon their findings and personal work experiences, ask them to share their views on what should an organization such as Kincaid Pharmacies do to help employees such as Molly get to work on time and show up when she is scheduled? Personal Skill Builder 8-2: Computer Rules This skill builder should incite some lively discussion among the students; today’s traditional students are technically “wired” to feel that whenever, wherever, and whatever is their right, and organizational rules may go against their personal right of freedom to use computers at work. As long as the job gets done, what’s the issue? The porn site; however, is terms for immediate termination; viewing porn sites in a company subjects the other employees to a hostile work environment which is considered sexual harassment. Personal Skill Builder 8-3: Identifying Supervisory Problems This exercise focuses on supervisory problems counter to organizational success. Students will have an opportunity to review the merits of collaboration, delegation, individualism, or thinking outside-the-box. The pooling of information, building on one another’s ideas, and participating in the process are likely to increase the quality of the problem-solving ideas. In all likelihood, some students will not have the real-life skills or experiences of others. This exercise may take more time to develop. Answers to Team Skill Building Team Skill Builder 8-1: Technology Tool—Decision-Making Apps Can Help You Make Data-Driven Decisions Students’ answers will vary. However, some students may cite the following websites on decision-making software applications. http://www.decisionbuddyapp.com/About http://techcrunch.com/2014/01/09/meet-choicemap-a-new-app-that-helps-you-make-better-decisions/ http://mashable.com/2013/04/05/decision-apps/ Decision-making experience may differ according to individuals, although, these apps help people solve dilemmas, be it in the form of a snapshot or a poll. An app like Seesaw allows individuals to put up posts with questions and they are open to a variety of answers or a debate. An app like Polar resembles polls and allows users to put up two choices. The answers are opinion based and helps increase engagement and audiences on one’s site. Students’ decisions could range from what career path to choose, what dress to wear for an occasion, which color to dye their hair, or what brand of cellphone to buy. Ask them to form a group of four to five students and each of them describe their decision crisis. Then ask other students in the group which decision they think you should make by taking a poll. Did the individual feel comfortable with their responses? Would he/she take their advice? Allow students to discuss in a one-to two-page paper the value and the challenges of using technology to help make decisions. Contrast that with the value and challenges of asking friends or colleagues to help make decisions. Then describe the process the individual finds most helpful when making decisions. Team Skill Builder 8-2: Dealing with People that Make Your Life Difficult—The “Indecisive” Waffler (Note: See Appendix to the Chapter 6 Instructors Manual for the IM TABLE 2: Guide Sheet for Dealing with People Who Make Life Difficult.” This table can be distributed to students so they can develop their own portfolio of strategies for dealing with difficult people.) Some students have found the following Web sites to be beneficial for this skills application: http://www.aquentmagazine.com/c/co/gw/lf/linda031.html http://www.projectperfect.com.au/info_making_decisions_in_projects.php http://www.thericks.com The waffler never makes a decision and couldn’t make a decision if they had to. Often this person is referred to as indecisive or a fence sitter. A non-inclusive list developed by IPFW students included the following strategies: •Set definite deadlines for the decision to be made; this will allow the person to know when the decision has to be made. •Ask probing questions to find out what the real concern(s) of the person are; this will help clear up confusion about making the decision and reasons why the person might be reluctant to make the decision. •Keep control—by controlling the flow of the decision-making process, one can help guide the person by moving them toward the point of making a decision. •Offer a list of possible alternatives to the person—get them to list the advantages and disadvantages of each. This may force them to make a decision and prevent them from waffling. •Let them know that an individual is counting on them to decide and that the decision is important. •Hold the person accountable for making the decision by the imposed deadline. In life, everyone is accountable to someone. There is a need to help people become answerable on a regular basis for the key areas of their life. Do not let them off the hook by making the decision for them. Patience becomes your virtue. Let them know that an individual is waiting on them to make a decision. •Ratchet down the pressure on them to keep them from waffling—this will let them know that an individual is aware of the situation. •Issue periodic reminders that you expect them to make the decision or complete the task by the deadline. People like to ask students for a definition of deadline—fail to meet it and they’re dead! A review of various Web sites will generate other strategies for dealing with the waffler. Remind them that they need to focus on what the person does or does not do. Team Skill Builder 8-3: Becoming an Agent for Change While on the mission to renovate the classroom, some students might find it as a threat because they do not know how the new classroom is going to look like. Will it be worse than it already is or have a better look than before? While working in a group these thoughts might clash as to change only a few necessary things and retain others or entirely change the whole classroom. Some may already be comfortable with a few aspects. Different groups will have different blueprints with respect to the renovations. Recommended changes could range from bringing in more greenery into the class—put in a few pots around the class, change the color of the walls to make it livelier, put up bulletin boards and change it weekly or monthly, keep a shelf with books, put up educational posters or projects made by the students, or bring in more space to the classroom. The persons in designated roles who are encouraged to ask probing and clarifying questions, may suggest alterations to the proposal as to whether the color is too dull/too bright for a classroom setting, will they will be enough light entering the class, is there enough space to move around and conduct activities in the classroom, or will the posters/plants/obstacles in the class act as distractions to the students? Students may vary according to their level of participation. Some students may be intensely involved in this process and come up with most of the ideas and concepts for the change, whereas other individuals may like a few things as they are. If the task wasn’t a success, it would be because of certain loopholes in the strategy, financial accounts, or approval of the higher authorities at school. Also while working in a group, it is always advisable to take into account everyone’s viewpoint. Perspectives, opinions and criticisms play a major role. Each group could be assigned a collaborative writing project (maximum of two pages) on “This is what we would do differently if we had to do it over again.” Answers to Supervision in Action Video Clip: Mi Ola—Managerial Decision Making 1. How did Helena Fogarty, CEO and Founder of Mi Ola, use the concept of appreciative inquiry? Helena recognized the significance of surfing in Costa Rica along with the quality of bikinis required by the women who surf in Costa Rica. She also recognized the magnitude with which her business would grow in Costa Rica when compared to other places. She admired, valued, and prized surfing so greatly that she made her dream a reality. Ever since she discovered that wearing the right kind of apparel for surfing is of utmost importance, she designed bikinis that stay put on the body so that women can move freely and flexibly. Helena also asks her consumers questions on the product and interacts with them to get feedback, hence makes changes and improvisations if necessary. 2. Explain the decision-making process Helena follows when making managerial decisions. Surfing is a sport that requires the perfect apparel to be comfortable. She, as an entrepreneur, wanted to approach this by designing bikinis that stay on the body and make women comfortable and confident while they surf. She talks to groups of surfers (and also competitors) who use her products and get feedback—to find out what they like about the apparel and says that it is more important to hear from people out there surfing–“do you like the way your tush looks in it?, do you like the way it stays on?, does it feel flimsy? Does it feel solid?” According to her, social media is a great feedback mechanism, it’s very divisive, whether it’s good or bad feedback. If it is bad feedback, she goes back to the drawing board and comes up with a better plan. The ability to get feedback from social media is getting limited, so she has to find other ways. When she started her business in Costa Rica, she ran into challenges. Helena was not used to making business in Spanish, she’d have import and export fabric, or, she had to go to New York. There she could get in touch with the industry and the manufacturers to get the fabric. Hence, she made the decision to get the quality consistency and functionality she needed and get it all made in the US. Also, moving to Costa Rica from New York she tapped into the maker movement, which she considers a marketing benefit and promotes it. But ultimately it is going to be a financial decision and she may have to off-shore it as the business expands. She had to be aggressive to get market share as there were a lot of competitors. She also points out that waiting too long for a decision would blow it off. 3. What problems does Helena face when making decisions and how does she overcome them? Moving to a third world country was a hard decision for her, as an entrepreneur, but she came with a plan in mind. It was beneficial to have an advisory board that she could consult and find out what to do with the plan at hand, have team members with whom she could work with, and had a specialist in image and brand building for fashion brands. She had to work with an imperfect amount of information and she would sometimes have to go with her gut feeling, see if was the right time to go with an additional burden financially, and whether she could raise the money to pay or sell for this plan. 4. Mention the alternatives that Helena undertook while trying to come up with her business in Costa Rica? Helena had to face a few challenges when she initially started business at Costa Rica. She was not used to making business in Spanish, and also had to import and export fabric, or, she’d have to go to New York and get the supplies. There she got in touch with her sources in the industry and the manufacturers to get the fabric. Hence, she made the decision to get the quality consistency and functionality she needed and get it all made in the US. But ultimately it is going to be a financial decision and she may have to off-shore it as the business expands. 5. How did Helena obtain the needed information? Initially, Helena had a dream of surfing and having a business in Costa Rica. And since she already had prior experience of working in the fashion industry (Chanel), she decided to make that dream a reality by coming up with surfing apparel for women. Since she was an entrepreneur and her own manager, she obtained information about her production from groups of surfers and also through the online media. Chapter 8 IM Appendix Guidelines for Ethical Decision Making It is not always easy to determine the ethical or “right” thing to do in a personal or work situation. Sometimes, because of the highly complex rules and regulations that govern the way people do business, a decision is not clear cut. A decision or situation can be difficult when the ethical issue includes: •A close call—these situations involve the careful balancing of different, yet valid interests. Sometimes, the correct decision is just not clear. •A new problem—these situations usually involve facts that have not yet been addressed specifically by the organization’s policies or procedures. •Multiple considerations—the decision in these situations requires the input of so many different people that the decision process becomes very inefficient. •Personal cost—the right or “fair” thing to do is clear, but the decision maker bears so much cost in lost time or personal sacrifice that the decision is difficult. By reviewing the following questions, every one of us can, at the very least, ensure that they have applied a process that is designed to call to mind sound principles of ethical decision making. Unless people apply such a process honestly and consistently, they risk failing to provide their customers, whether internal or external, with the quality of services or products they deserve. Analysis •What are the facts? •Who is responsible to act? •What or whose interests are involved, i.e., who has a stake in the situation? •Who has a stake in the situation? The impact of the ultimate decision? •What are consequences of the action? •What is “fair treatment” in this situation? Solution Development •What are the options available to a person? •Can one develop an Effect-Cause analysis? o What is the end-result (effect) we hope to achieve by the decision? o What are things that have to be in place (causes) in order for the end result to happen? •Has one considered all the creative solutions that might permit us to reduce harm, to maximize benefits, to acknowledge more interests, or to be fair to more individuals? •Has one developed a “decision of least decision,” in which the result will have fewer problems, concerns and issues than the original problem? Solution Manual for Supervision: Concepts and Practices of Management Edwin C. Leonard , Kelly A. Trusty 9781285866376, 9781111969790