CH-15 Managing Communication – Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Processes : Chapter Notes

CHAPTER 15 Managing Communication Chapter Overview This chapter addresses the issue of communication in organizations by focusing on six topics: • The communication process • Cross-cultural communication • The flow of communication within organizations • Interpersonal communication • Barriers to effective communication • Strategies for improving communication effectiveness Concerning the communication process, the seven primary elements of the process are explained: (communicator, encoding, message, medium, decoding, feedback, and noise). In discussing these elements, the distinction between verbal and nonverbal communication is defined. The importance of communicating across cultures is broken down into several culturally determined parts – words, space, time, and behavior. Within each of these categories, examples of the challenges of communicating across cultures are presented. The section on communicating within organizations focuses on the four primary patterns of communications flow (upward, downward, horizontal, and diagonal) and examples of each type are presented. The importance of the grapevine as an informal communication channel is examined. Interpersonal communication is discussed using the Johari Window. Its concepts (Arena, Blindspot, Facade, and Unknown) are examined in order to facilitate understanding of effective and ineffective communication. The two primary strategies for improving interpersonal communication effectiveness in this regard (exposure and feedback) are also explained. Four primary managerial communication styles (Type A, B, C, and D) are also discussed in terms of the communication tendencies. Barriers to effective communication are broken down into three main categories: • Barriers created by the sender • Barriers created by the receiver • Barriers created by the sender and/or the receiver The chapter then discusses specific barriers in each of these categories (differing frames of reference, selective listening, value judgments, source credibility, semantic problems, filtering, in-group language, status differences, proxemic behavior, time pressures, and communication overload). The chapter concludes with thorough coverage of nine primary strategies for improving communication: • Following up • Regulating information flow • Utilizing feedback • Empathy • Repetition • Encouraging mutual trust • Effective timing • Simplifying language • Effective listening Learning Objectives By the end of the chapter, students should be able to: 1. Define the term communication. 2. Describe the major elements in the process of communication. 3. Discuss how nonverbal cues influence communication effectiveness. 4. Understand the intersection between communication and technology 5. Identify the major barriers to effective communication and the means to overcome these barriers. Lecture Outline PowerPoint Slide Material from Text to Support Slide / Additional Comments Communication pervades organizational activity; it’s the process by which things get done in organizations. Every employee is continually involved in and affected by the communication process. For managers, effective communicating is a critical skill because the manager’s planning, organizing, and controlling functions become operationalized only through communicative activity. Culture has been defined as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from another.” Stated differently, culture is comprised of the morals, laws, and customs that influence behavior and that is shared by all or almost all members of a social group. When managers from two distant cultures attempt to communicate, misunderstandings can occur. Internationally savvy companies can manage this potential problem by providing each member of its virtual teams with intercultural training. The first part of the intercultural communication training should focus on helping each team member understand his/her own cultural beliefs, verbal and nonverbal communication styles, and attitudes toward time, space, authority, decision making, work ethic, and the like. The rationale behind this “inward looking” portion of the training is based on the research of Edward T. and Mildred R. Hall. The second part of the intercultural training for virtual team members focuses on learning how to work effectively with teammates from diverse cultures. Team members will learn how to interpret the verbal and nonverbal communication styles and cultural backgrounds of teammates and how to respond effectively to these unique cues. Finding an aspect of a manager’s job that does not involve communication would be extremely difficult. Serious problems arise when directives are misunderstood, when casual kidding in a work group leads to anger, or when informal remarks by a top-level manager are distorted. Each of these situations results from a breakdown somewhere in the process of communication. Accordingly, the pertinent question is not whether managers engage in communication because communication is inherent to the functioning of an organization. Rather, the real issue is whether managers communicate well or poorly. In other words, communication itself is unavoidable in an organization’s functioning; but ineffective communication is avoidable. Every manager must be a communicator. In fact, everything a manager does communicates something in some way to somebody or some group. The only question is, “With what effect?” Despite the tremendous advances in communication and information technology, communication among people in organizations leaves much to be desired. Communication among people depends not on technology but rather on forces in people and their surroundings. It is a process that occurs within people. Recognizing the ever-growing importance of communication, more and more organizations are implementing programs designed to assess managerial communication skills and to provide follow-up training to overcome any deficiencies. Managers who have participated in such programs have been found to possess significantly higher interpersonal skills and problem-solving abilities—leading to higher productivity levels—than those who have not. The general process of communication contains five elements: the communicator, the message, the medium, the receiver, and feedback (Figure 15.1). It can be simply summarized as: Who . . . says what, . . . in which way, . . . to whom, . . . with what effect? A widely recognized model of the process of communication has evolved mainly from the early work of Shannon and Weaver, and Schramm. These researchers were concerned with describing the general process of communication in a way that could be useful in all situations. The model that evolved from their work aids our understanding of communication. The basic elements include a communicator, an encoder, a message, a medium, a decoder, a receiver, feedback, and noise (Figure 15.2). Each element in the model can be examined in the context of an organization. Communicator In an organizational framework, the communicator is an employee with ideas, intentions, information, and a purpose for communicating. Encoding Given the communicator, an encoding process must take place that translates the communicator’s ideas into a systematic set of symbols—into a language expressing the communicator’s purpose. The major form of encoding is language. For example, a manager often takes accounting information, sales reports, and computer data and translates them into one message. The function of encoding, then, is to provide a form in which ideas and purposes can be expressed as a message. Message The result of the encoding process is the message. The purpose of the communicator is expressed in the form of the message—either verbal or nonverbal. Managers have numerous purposes for communicating, such as to have others understand their ideas, to understand the ideas of others, to gain acceptance of themselves or their ideas, or to produce action. Not as obvious, however, are unintended messages that can be sent by silence or inaction on a particular issue as well as decisions on which goals and objectives not to pursue and which methods not to utilize. Feedback One-way communication processes do not allow receiver-to-communicator feedback, increasing the potential for distortion between the intended message and the received message. Provision for feedback in the communication process is desirable. Two-way communication processes provide for this important receiver-to- communicator feedback. For the manager, communication feedback may come in many ways. In face-to-face situations, direct feedback through verbal exchanges is possible, as are such subtle means of communication as facial expressions of discontent or misunderstanding. In addition, indirect means of feedback (such as declines in productivity, poor production quality, increased absenteeism or turnover, and poor coordination and/or conflict between units) may indicate communication breakdowns. Noise In the framework of human communication, noise can be thought of as all factors that distort the intended message. Noise may occur in each of the elements of communication. The information a communicator sends that is unrelated to the verbal information—that is, nonverbal messages, or nonverbal communication—is an area of growing research interest among behavioral scientists. One of the most interesting aspects of nonverbal communication is that it’s irrepressibly effective. Try as they might, people cannot refrain from behaving nonverbally. If, for example, a person tries to act as passive as possible, she’s likely to be perceived as inexpressive, inhibited, withdrawn, and uptight. A research study examined the relationship between nonverbal behavior and speaker persuasiveness in a public speaking context. Speakers with greater vocal pleasantness, facial pleasantness, and facial expressiveness were judged by audiences to have greater perceived competence and composure than speakers exhibiting less appealing nonverbal behavior. As a result, these speakers were found to be more persuasive, even though message content for all speakers was identical. Ekman and Friesen have classified body language into five types of expression: emblems, illustrators, regulators, adaptors, and affect displays. Emblems are gestures much like sign language. These movements quickly convey an understood word or phrase. Illustrators are gestures that give a picture of what is being said. Regulators are movements that regulate a conversation. Emblems, illustrators, and regulators are consciously used by individuals. Adaptors and affect displays, on the other hand, are often subconsciously communicated and can reveal much about both the sender’s and receiver’s feelings and attitudes. Adaptors are expressions used to adjust psychologically to the interpersonal climate of a particular situation. Affect displays, usually subconscious, directly communicate an individual’s emotions. Most affect displays are facial expressions, which are particularly important communicators of a person’s feelings. Cross-cultural miscommunication can occur for a variety of reasons. Cultural anthropologists Edward T. and Mildred R. Hall theorized that culture is communication and that communication can be divided into several culturally determined parts: words, space, time, and behavior. Within each of these categories, examples of the challenges of communicating across cultures are presented next. The design of an organization should provide for communication in four distinct directions: downward, upward, horizontal, and diagonal. These four directions establish the framework within which communication in an organization takes place. Briefly examining each one will enable us to better appreciate the barriers to effective organizational communication and the means to overcome these barriers. Within recent years, several high-tech innovations have contributed to an explosion of communication tools, which has led to a “24/7” mentality among businesspeople today. In general, such innovations as Internet-capable mobile telephones and personal digital assistants like smart-phones have made communication faster, easier, and in some cases less expensive. Now an employee can download an e-mail message that a manager sent while walking down a street in a major city and quickly respond to that e-mail by typing a response into a telephone keypad and sending it back via a wireless Internet connection. There are many different ways to communicate within an organization, to supervisors and co-workers, and externally, to customers and vendors. Communication media differ in their information richness. The richness of communication refers to the amount of information that can be transmitted in an effective manner A medium that enables high richness, such as a face-to-face interaction, is more likely to result in common understanding between individuals or a group when compared with a low-in-richness medium, such as a generalized e-mail to all employees. The grapevine is a powerful means of communication that cuts across formal channels of communication. Despite the efforts of many companies to limit or disapprove of the grapevine’s use, it is still extremely prevalent. Although the nature of its effect on organizational effectiveness is debatable, there’s no denying that its effect is real. Many if not most of an organization’s employees listen to the assortment of facts, opinions, suspicions, and rumors the grapevine provides. This is information that normally does not travel through the organization’s formal channels. According to research, an organization has several grapevine systems, information traveling in a grapevine does not follow an orderly path, and the grapevine is at least 75 percent accurate. A rumor is an unverified belief that is in general circulation inside the organization (an internal rumor) or in the organization’s external environment (an external rumor). A rumor has three components: the target is the object of the rumor; the allegation is the rumor’s point about the target; and the source is the original communicator of the rumor. Some grapevine rumors are true; some are not. Rumors can be divided into four categories. 1. Pipe dreams or wish fulfillment. These express the wishes and hopes of those who circulate rumors. These are the most positive rumors, helping to stimulate the creativity of others. 2. The Bogie rumor. This type of rumor comes from employees’ fears and anxieties, causing general uneasiness among employees, such as during budget crunches. 3. Wedge drivers. This is the most aggressive and damaging type of rumor. It divides groups and destroys loyalties. These rumors are motivated by aggression or even hatred. They are divisive and negative rumors. 4. Home-stretchers. These are anticipatory rumors. They occur after employees have been waiting a long time for an announcement. There may be just one final thing necessary to complete the puzzle and this, in effect, enhances the ambiguity of the situation. Within an organization, communication flows from individual to individual in face-to-face and group settings. Such flows, termed interpersonal communication, can vary from direct orders to casual expressions. Interpersonal communication is the primary means of managerial communication; on a typical day, over three-fourths of a manager’s communications occur in face-to-face interactions. The problems that arise when managers attempt to communicate with other people can be traced to perceptual differences and interpersonal style differences. We know that each manager perceives the world according to his background, experiences, personality, frame of reference, and attitude. Managers relate to and learn from the environment (including the people in that environment) primarily through information received and transmitted. And how managers receive and transmit information depends in part on how they relate to two very important senders of information: themselves and others. Interpersonal style refers to how an individual prefers to relate to others. The fact that much of any interpersonal relationship involves communication indicates the importance of interpersonal style. Information is held by ourselves and by others but that none of us fully has or knows that information. The different combinations of knowing and not knowing relevant information are shown in Figure 15.3. The figure, popularly known as the Johari Window, identifies four combinations, or regions, of information known and unknown by the self and others. 1. The arena. The region most conducive to effective interpersonal relationships and communication is termed the arena. In this setting, both the communicator (self) and the receivers (others) know all of the information necessary to carry on effective communication. Because the arena is the area of common understanding, the larger it becomes, the more effective communication is. 2. The blind spot. When relevant information is known to others but not to the self, a blind spot results. This constitutes a handicap for the self, since one can hardly understand the behaviors, decisions, and potentials of others without having the information on which these are based. 3. The facade. When information is known to the self but unknown to others, a person (self) may resort to superficial communications—that is, present a “false front,” or facade. 4. The unknown. This region constitutes that portion of the relationship where relevant information is known by neither the self nor other parties. Figure 15.3 indicates that an individual can improve interpersonal communication by utilizing two strategies: exposure and feedback. 1. Exposure. Increasing the arena area by reducing the facade area requires that the individual be open and honest in sharing information with others. The process that the self uses to increase the information known to others is termed exposure because it sometimes leaves the self in a vulnerable position. Exposing one’s true feelings by “telling it like it is” often involves risk. 2. Feedback. When the self doesn’t know or understand, more effective communication can be developed through feedback from those who do know. Thus, the blind spot can be reduced, with a corresponding increase in the arena. The day-to-day activities of managers are closely tied to effective interpersonal communications. Managers provide information (which must be understood), they give commands and instructions (which must be obeyed and learned), and they make efforts to influence and persuade (which must be accepted and acted on). Thus, how managers communicate, both as senders and receivers, is crucial to effective performance. Theoretically, managers who desire to communicate effectively can use both exposure and feedback to enlarge the area of common understanding, the arena. As a practical matter, such is not the case. Managers differ in their ability and willingness to use exposure and feedback. At least four different managerial styles can be identified. Type A Managers who use neither exposure nor feedback are said to have a Type A style. The unknown region predominates in this style because such managers are unwilling to enlarge the area of their own knowledge or the knowledge of others. Type A managers exhibit anxiety and hostility and give the appearance of aloofness and coldness toward others. In an organization with a large number of such managers in key positions, expect to find poor and ineffective interpersonal communications and a loss of individual creativity. Type A managers often display characteristics of autocratic leaders. Type B Some managers desire some degree of satisfying relationships with their subordinates. Because of their personalities and attitudes, however, these managers are unable to open up and express their feelings and sentiments. Because they cannot use exposure, they must rely on feedback. The facade is the predominant feature of interpersonal relationships when managers overuse feedback to the exclusion of exposure. Subordinates probably distrust such managers, realizing these managers are holding back their own ideas and opinions. Type B behavior is often displayed by managers who desire to practice some form of permissive leadership. Type C Managers who value their own ideas and opinions but not the ideas and opinions of others use exposure at the expense of feedback. The consequence of this style is the perpetuation and enlargement of the blind spot. Subordinates soon realize that such managers are not particularly interested in communicating, only in telling, and are mainly interested in maintaining their own sense of importance and prestige. Consequently, Type C managers usually have subordinates who are hostile, insecure, and resentful. Type D The most effective interpersonal communication style balances exposure and feedback. Managers who are secure in their positions feel free to expose their own feelings and to obtain feedback from others. To the extent that a manager practices Type D behavior successfully, the arena region becomes larger, and communication becomes more effective. There are five specific barriers created by senders of communication. Semantic Problems Communication has been defined as the transmission of information and understanding through the use of common symbols. Actually, we cannot transmit understanding. We can merely transmit information in the form of words, which are the common symbols. Unfortunately, the same words may mean entirely different things to different people. The understanding is in the receiver, not in the words. Filtering Filtering, a common occurrence in upward communication in organizations, refers to the manipulation of information so that the receiver perceives it as positive. In-Group Language Each of us at some time has undoubtedly been subjected to highly technical jargon, only to learn that the unfamiliar words or phrases described simple procedures or familiar objects. Status Differences Organizations often express hierarchical rank through a variety of symbols (titles, offices, carpets, etc.). Such status differences can be perceived as threats by persons lower in the hierarchy, and this can prevent or distort communication. Time Pressures The pressure of time presents an important barrier to communication. Managers don’t have time to communicate frequently with every subordinate. However, time pressures can often lead to far more serious problems than this. Short-circuiting is a failure of the formally prescribed communication system that often results from time pressures. In some situations barriers are created by receivers. Selective Listening In this form of selective perception, the individual tends to block out new information, especially if it conflicts with existing beliefs. Thus, in a directive from management, the receiver notices only things that reaffirm his beliefs. Things that conflict with preconceived notions are either ignored or distorted to confirm those preconceptions. Value Judgments In every communication situation, the receiver makes value judgments. This basically involves assigning an overall worth to a message prior to receiving the entire communication. Value judgments may be based on the receiver’s evaluation of the communicator, previous experiences with the communicator, or on the message’s anticipated meaning. Source Credibility Source credibility is the trust, confidence, and faith that the receiver has in the words and actions of the communicator. The level of credibility that the receiver assigns to the communicator in turn directly affects how the receiver views and reacts to the communicator’s words, ideas, and actions. Senders and/or receivers also create barriers in organizational communication. For example, there are three specific types of barriers. Frame of Reference Different individuals can interpret the same communication differently, depending on previous experiences that result in variations in the encoding and decoding processes. Proxemic Behavior An important but often overlooked element of nonverbal communication is proxemics, defined as an individual’s use of space when interpersonally communicating with others. According to Edward Hall, a prominent researcher of proxemics, people have four zones of informal space—spatial distances they maintain when interacting with others: the intimate zone (from physical contact to 18 inches), the personal zone (from 18 inches to 4 feet), the social zone (from over 4 to 12 feet), and the public zone (more than 12 feet). Communication Overload One vital task performed by a manager is decision making. One of the necessary factors in effective decisions is information. The last decade has often been described as the time when information technology radically changed the corporate landscape. A manager has no greater responsibility than to develop effective communication. Why then does communication break down? On the surface, the answer is relatively easy. We have identified the elements of communication as the communicator, the encoding, the message, the medium, the decoding, the receiver, and the feedback. If noise exists in these elements in any way, complete clarity of meaning and understanding does not occur. In this section, we discuss the following barriers to effective communications: frame of reference, selective listening, value judgments, source credibility, semantic problems, filtering, in-group language, status differences, proxemic behavior, time pressures, and communication overload. These sources of noise can exist in both organizational and interpersonal communications. Managers striving to become better communicators must accomplish two separate tasks. First, they must improve their messages—the information they wish to transmit. Second, they must seek to improve their own understanding of what other people try to communicate to them. In other words, they must become better encoders and decoders. They must strive not only to be understood but also to understand. Figure 15.7 illustrates these barriers’ impact on the process of communication. Examining the barriers indicates that they are either within individuals (e.g., frame of reference, value judgments) or within organizations (e.g., in-group language, filtering). This point is important because attempts to improve communication must of necessity focus on changing people and/or changing the organizational structure. This chapter has described basic elements in the process of communication and what it takes to communicate effectively. These elements are necessary whether the communication is face-to-face or written and communicated vertically, horizontally, or diagonally within an organizational structure. We discussed several common communication barriers and several means to improve communication. Figure 15.8 shows techniques that facilitate more effective communication. Often, time does not permit managers to utilize many of the techniques for improving communication, and skills such as empathy and effective listening are not easy to develop. The figure does, however, illustrate the challenge of communicating effectively and suggests what is required. It shows that communicating involves both transmitting and receiving. Managers must be effective at both; they must understand as well as be understood. Larger print of detail on previous slide. Review objectives. Lecture Tips Lecture Ideas 1. One way to illustrate the nature and consequences of communication barriers is to have your students recount a past situation where they experienced a substantial breakdown in communication with another individual(s). Ask students to identify the communication barrier(s) at work. Why did they occur? What were the consequences of the breakdown? Was the problem resolved and if so, how? Then ask one or two students to share their experiences and explanations in class discussion. 2. A suggestion for classroom lecture would include the distinction between verbal versus nonverbal communication. Have students cite some nonverbal communications being displayed in the classroom. 3. Have your students participate to suggest ways to improve on communication. Have them cite advantages and disadvantages of open versus closed communication styles. 4. Have students discuss a work situation such as a sales situation developing different communication styles to interact with a client. Examples would be a directive style, a supportive style, a reflective or analytic style, and emotive style. Project and Class Speaker Ideas 1. Have students prepare a profile of someone they know well who is a type A, B, C or D communicator. Their profile should focus on the individual's communication style, personality characteristics, and the student's assessment of why the person uses the particular communication style. Is the style effective? What problem(s) does it present? 2. As a group project, have students interview the director of corporate communications for a local business. In their written report, students should focus on the department's communication functions, particular challenges in effectively communicating with employees, and on the director's perspectives on the uses of informal communication channels (in particular, the grapevine). 3. Have students, on an individual basis, interview a first-line, middle, or top-level manager concerning his/her use of formal and informal communication channels in management. The written report should focus on the respective manager's communication style, use of communication channels, perspective on communication barriers, strategies for alleviating barriers, and the manager's advice in developing effective communication skills. In discussing students' reports, focus on any differences in communication styles and use of communication channels that differ according to the manager's position in the organizational hierarchy. Some differences should emerge. 4. If a member of your school's faculty conducts research in communication, invite him or her to speak to your class on the latest research findings concerning the dynamics of the communications process. The speaker could provide some insights into ways to alleviate ineffective communication that are supported by research findings. Discussion Questions 1. Assume that you are about to ask your supervisor for a raise. Which communication medium or channel would you use? What steps would you take to decrease the amount of noise that can decrease the effectiveness of your message? Answer: Answers will vary by student, however most students should select face-to-face communication due to the ability to adjust the message according to real-time feedback. Students should realize that selecting the appropriate medium can have a major impact on the outcome and desired results of their communication. Assuming that students select face-to-face communication, they should ensure that they select the appropriate time and place for the conversation (make an appointment so that you don’t catch the supervisor right before an important meeting or other activity that may be distracting). Also prepare for the meeting by creating a well thought-out list of the reasons you are asking for a raise that ideally coincide with organizational policy and direction. For example, state that you have learned a new skill, taken on new responsibility or such rather than simply stating you think you deserve more money. This is critical even if a student selects a medium other than face-to-face. I would use email to request a meeting with my supervisor to discuss a raise. This allows for a clear, documented request and gives my supervisor time to prepare. To decrease noise and increase effectiveness: 1. Choose a quiet, private setting for the meeting. 2. Prepare a clear, concise agenda highlighting my achievements and contributions. 3. Avoid distractions by turning off notifications and ensuring both parties are focused. 4. Use positive, professional language to maintain a constructive tone. 2. With the increase of diversity in the workplace, discuss the additional issues needing to be addressed that may be present in today's organizations in relation to (a) the communication process and (b) the sending and receiving of nonverbal messages. Answer: Increased diversity may easily increase errors that occur in the communication process. For example, people from different cultural backgrounds might encode the same message differently, there may be differences among diverse groups in terms of the medium they prefer, or some groups may be more reluctant than others to provide feedback. The importance of understanding barriers to effective communication (i.e., frame of reference) becomes even more critical in light of these issues. The potential for misunderstanding also exists when communicating nonverbal messages as well. The study on the differences between how American and Japanese individuals interpret emotions illustrates this point. 3. Assume you are about to meet and negotiate with an individual from a low-context culture. Do you think the person will know a great deal about you before you meet with him/her? Explain. Answer: An individual from a low context culture detailed information about the other individual they are about to negotiate with. It is important open communication having exchange and trust will be important in this negotiation process. This will take time to develop and unfold between the parties that are part of this process. This individual will not have any previous insight or information concerning individual characteristics or profiles of individual make up for this negotiation. Germany and the United States are examples of low context cultures. 4. Think back to the last time that you heard a rumor about someone at work or school. What was the content of the rumor? Did it turn out to be true? Answer: Almost every student should have some experience with the rumor mill. Discussion can focus on how students felt about the rumor and how they think it affected the organization and employees. I once heard a rumor that a colleague was leaving the company for a competitor. It created quite a buzz in the office. However, it turned out to be false; they were actually being promoted within the company. 5. To what degree do you use upward communication effectively with your supervisor or professors at school? Give a specific example of when you used this type of communication and describe the outcome of the interaction. Answer: I use upward communication effectively by being clear, respectful, and proactive. For example, I once proposed a new project idea to my supervisor, detailing its potential benefits and how it aligned with our goals. This led to a productive discussion and the project being approved, which ultimately improved our team's performance. 6. Think back to a time when you knew a manager, coach, or teacher/professor who was an exceptionally good communicator. Why was this person so effective at communication? Describe. Answer: Answer will vary by student. However, students should cite specific reasons for their selection. For example, they may have had a teacher that listened as well as talked, allowed them to express their feelings, and simplified class material to a point where it could be easily understood. I had a professor who was an exceptional communicator because they actively listened, provided clear and constructive feedback, and tailored their teaching to each student's needs. Their ability to create a supportive and engaging learning environment made complex topics easier to understand and encouraged open dialogue. 7. Many individuals carry a variety of personal communication devices with them wherever they go (e.g., cell phone, personal digital assistant, etc.). Assuming these individuals leave their devices turned on 24/7, do you see any disadvantages associated with this continuous accessibility? Any advantages? Describe. Answer: The disadvantages of continuous accessibility by way of mobile phones, pagers, and digital assistants are numerous. Interruptions when conducting meetings, attending social functions, or any form of aural communication (face to face communication) are drawbacks to enhancing accessibility. A manager who is continuously accessible would have a substantial increase in job stress. Managers often feel buried by a deluge of information and data which cannot be absorbed or adequately responded to. They screen out the majority of messages, in an area of organizational communication; “more” isn’t always “better.” The advantages of continuous accessibility would be managers are available 24 hours a day. They deal with as issues as they arise, and with increased information management will be able to improve upon decision-making. 8. Describe a situation in which you have been the receiver in a one-way communication process. Give some reasons why certain individuals might not like it. Why might some people prefer it? Answer: Most students will probably describe feeling uncomfortable, perhaps even hostile, with the communicator in a one-way communication situation. They may express frustration at not being able to provide feedback. However, some students will undoubtedly describe certain situations where they preferred it. They receive information without being required to respond or form a relationship with the communicator. A situation where I’ve been the receiver in a one-way communication process could be attending a lecture where the speaker presents information without inviting questions or interaction. Reasons some individuals might dislike it: • Lack of Engagement: They may feel disconnected or uninterested due to the absence of interaction. • Limited Understanding: They might struggle to grasp concepts without the opportunity for clarification. Reasons some individuals might prefer it: • Structured Delivery: They appreciate a clear, focused presentation without interruptions. • Efficiency: They value the straightforward, time-efficient transfer of information. 9. In your opinion, which barrier to communication is the most frustrating? What can you do to deal with it in an effective manner? Answer: While opinion to which barrier is most frustrating dealing with barriers may follow the following steps. A critical first step involves understanding why the barrier exists. Once this process has been completed, managers can begin to take actions to either bring these barriers within their realm of control or better cope with these barriers. Examples might include actions managers can undertake to avoid filtering problems (change forms of communication) or to overcome in-group language problems (attempt to learn the particular terminology). 10. Discuss why organizational design and communication flow are so closely related. Answer: One of the purposes of organizational structure is to facilitate communication. In fact, it must formally provide for communication in three distinct directions: downward, upward, and horizontally. In effect, it establishes the framework within which communication in an organization takes place. Communication gives life to an organizational structure. Case for Analysis: Leigh Randall Case Summary This case emphasizes that horizontal communication is often overlooked in most organizations. Although vertical communication flows are the primary considerations in organizational design, effective organizations also need horizontal communication. This case should be of interest to students because of the problem faced, the male female confrontation, and the setting in which it takes place. Role-playing may be possible (the meeting between Leigh, Tom, Davis, and Brock). The final points to make, however, should be that horizontal communication is necessary for integration between diverse business functions. Since mechanisms for assuring it ordinarily do not exist in organization design, its facilitation is left up to individual managers. Thus, managers should provide ample opportunities for peer interaction. Answers to Case Questions 1. What barriers to effective communication do you detect in this case? Answer: Numerous barriers to effective communication can be identified in this case. Some are: a. Frame of reference. Both Leigh and Tom view Omega from different perspectives. One view is “from the terminal,” the other “from the aircraft.” This has resulted in variations in the encoding and decoding processes. b. Selective listening. Tom might be guilty of this in his ignoring of Leigh’s requests. c. Source credibility and value judgments. Again, Tom appears to be assigning an overall worth to Leigh and her communications. d. Time pressures. Tom apparently does not have time to respond to Leigh's requests. 2. Is anyone “wrong” in this situation? By what other means could Randall have requested the information from Tom Ballard? What do you think of Tom Ballard's reaction? Why? Answer: Neither Tom nor Leigh is really guilty of anything. Both, however, can do much to improve their effectiveness in communication. Some criticism might be made of higher-level managers for not developing mechanisms for facilitating horizontal communication. 3. While communicating information vertically up or down the organization does not present a major problem, why is it that horizontal and diagonal communication is more difficult to attain? What would you recommend that the management of Omega Airlines do to remedy this situation? How would your recommendations improve communication in the organization? Answer: Student recommendations will differ; however, most will suggest some type of mechanism (e.g., meetings, etc.) to facilitate needed horizontal communication among the managers at Omega Airlines. Horizontal and diagonal communication can be more challenging due to factors like departmental silos, rivalry, and lack of trust¹². These barriers can lead to miscommunication and inefficiencies. Recommendations for Omega Airlines: 1. Foster a collaborative culture: Encourage teamwork and cross-departmental projects. 2. Implement clear communication protocols: Establish guidelines for effective communication across all levels. 3. Provide training: Offer workshops on communication skills and conflict resolution. 4. Use collaborative tools: Adopt platforms that facilitate easy information sharing and collaboration. Benefits: • Enhanced teamwork and problem-solving. • Reduced misunderstandings and conflicts. • Improved efficiency and innovation. Experiential Exercise: Perceptual Differences Objective 1. To illustrate how people perceive the same situation differently through the process of selective perception. The Exercise in Class This activity is an entertaining exercise that clearly demonstrates how perceptions differ among individuals and groups. As each group discusses their responses to the questions, have the other groups attempt to describe the thought process the group went through in reaching this conclusion. Suggested answers to the exercise are: 1. T 6. T 11. ? 2. T 7. ? 12. F 3. ? 8. ? 13. F 4. T 9. T 14. ? 5. F 10. T 15. T Note that there will be considerable disagreement as to the correct answers. Possible additional questions to pose to the class include: 1. Are there really any correct answers to each of the questions? Why or why not? 2. Are there certain aspects of the story which appear to be more open to interpretation? 3. Drawing from your experiences in this exercise, what are the dangers of relying on selective perceptions? Ten Term Paper Topics 1. Managing Communication Overload 2. (Selected individual): Profile of a Type A Communicator 3. Body Language: Signs and Messages 4. The Dynamics of Nonverbal Communication 5. The Nuts and Bolts of Proxemics 6. The Art of Effective Listening 7. The Grapevine: Its Functions and Fallacies 8. Rumors in Organizations: How they’re Started and Stopped 9. Individual Personality and Communication 10. The Relationships of Organizational Structure and Communication Instructor Manual for Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Processes James L. Gibson, John M. Ivancevich, James H. Donnally, Robert Konopaske 9780078112669, 9781259097232, 9780071086417, 9780071315272