CH-10 The Tools of Quality – Managing Quality: Integrating the Supply Chain : Book Guide

Chapter 10: The Tools of Quality Chapter Outline Improving the System Ishikawa’s Basic Seven Tools of Quality The Seven New Tools for Improvement Other Tools for Performance Measurement Overview Chapter 10 starts the section on the tools that can be used to implement quality. So far, the text has looked at the various functional areas of business. As we know, they do not operate in a vacuum. Implementing quality involves looking at ways to optimize this interdependency. Chapter 10 introduces some of the fundamental tools that have proven successful. Discussion Questions 1. Why is it important to pursue quality management from a systems perspective? As we have seen, no part of the business operates independently. For a quality system to be successful, the interrelationships between the business systems must be taken into account. A quality system must therefore take the business system into account. Figure 10-1 presents the quality model and depicts the relationships. 2. Why is continual improvement necessary for a business organization? Deming made the point that for optimum results, the quality process must be continuing. If quality is treated as an add-on process, quality will suffer. As Figure 10-1 shows, the business model focuses on the customer and prompts continuous change and growth. Without this approach, the business will grow stagnant. 3. The statement has been made that “A quality system is not just a series of boxes and arrows. It is an interconnected, interdisciplinary network of people, technology, procedures, markets, customers, facilities, legal requirements, reporting requirements, and assets that interact to achieve an end.” What does this statement mean to you? For a quality program to be successful, it must be ingrained into the culture of the organization. If the workers see a quality program as just another set of forms to fill out and keep current, they will not be performing the tasks properly. If a culture of continuing quality exists, the workers will be a vital part of the process. The system is vibrant, ongoing, dynamic, and in need of constant updating and nurturing to remain effective. 4. How do the basic tools work within W. E. Deming’s plan–do–check–act (PDCA) cycle as a process for continual improvement? The plan-do-check-act cycle can be described as: plan represents strategy formulation, do refers to implementing strategy, check relates to evaluation and control, and act results in full-scale strategy implementation. These four simple steps become the base on which continual improvement is built. The cycle provides four identifiable activities into which continuing improvement can be integrated. 5. What are the seven basic tools of quality? Who developed these tools? Kaoru Ishikawa identified seven tools that, when used together, provide a path to continuing quality improvement. 6. Describe the purpose of a histogram. The figure below presents a histogram. As stated on page 249, histograms are simply graphical representations of data in a bar format. This histogram provides a comparison between occurrence and sales for various sales registers. 7. Describe the purpose of a Pareto chart. Describe an instance (other than the one in the book) in which a Pareto chart could be effectively used. A Pareto Chart is a histogram that allows the analyst to identify and prioritize potential or real problems based upon Juran’s “80/20” rule. The example on page 256 and 257 present the following: The frequencies of each problematic area are then plotted: This simple example presents the primary problem area – “Setup routines are not standardized.” Any multi-step process can be aided through the use of a Pareto Chart. In a class discussion, many applications will surface. 8. What are the three basic rules for constructing Pareto charts? On page 256, the three basic rules are presented as: Information must be selected based on types or classifications of defects that occur as a result of a process. An example of this might be the different types of defects that occur in a semiconductor. Data must be collected and classified into categories. A histogram or frequency chart is constructed showing the number of occurrences. A Pareto chart enables you to isolate and focus on the 20% of failures that cause 80% of the problems. 9. What is the purpose of a cause-and-effect (Ishikawa) diagram? Often, workers spend too much time focusing improvement efforts on the symptoms of problems rather than the causes. The Ishikawa cause and effect diagram is a good tool to help move to lower levels of abstraction in solving problems. The diagram looks like the skeleton of a fish: the problem being the head of the fish, major causes being the "ribs" of the fish, and sub-causes forming smaller "bones" off of the ribs. Figure 10-13 in the text shows an Ishikawa diagram that was performed for a wood mill that was experiencing problems with wobbling blades in its saws. The principle behind this is that for a problem to be solved, the focus must be placed on the problems, not the symptoms. The symptom of the problem was the wobbly blade. The major causes were associated with machines, materials, people, and methods. Under people, it was found that workers were not properly trained. Under machines, it was found that the blade was being set up off-center. 10. Describe the purpose of a check sheet. Describe an instance (other than the ones in the book) in which a check sheet could be effectively used. A check sheet is a simple mechanism that is used to gather information used to diagnose a problem. On page 248, the text shows a check sheet to collect information that will be used to compile a histogram. In Question 7, a class discussion was suggested to find alternative uses for a Pareto chart. This topic would be ideal for that discussion. A check sheet is a tool used to collect and analyze data in a systematic way, often to track frequency or occurrence of specific events or issues. It helps in identifying patterns or areas for improvement. Example: In a restaurant, a check sheet could be used to track the frequency of customer complaints about different aspects of service (e.g., wait times, food quality, staff behavior). This data can help identify and address recurring issues to enhance overall customer satisfaction. 11. Describe the purpose of a scatter diagram. Figure 10-10 presents a scatter diagram: This diagram presents a series of points that show the relationship between prevention and appraisal costs and percentage of conformance. A mathematic technique called curve-fitting presents a smoothed line that indicates the relationship between the two variables. A statistical tool called regression analysis will provide a value called the correlation, which uses the data to present the relative value of the relationship. When loaded into Excel, a correlation can be run between the two sets of data. The resulting correlation would be .8824, or approximately 88%. This indicates that there is approximately an 88% probability that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the two values. 12. Describe the purpose of a flowchart (process map). What are three of the rules for designing and using flowcharts (process maps)? A process map (flowchart) is a picture of a process. The first step in many process improvement projects is to create a map of the process, as it exists. This step presents the parameters for process improvement. The concept is that one must know the process before it can be improved upon. Three basic rules for designing and using a flowchart (process map) are as follows: Use these simple symbols (shown in Figure 10-3) to chart the process from the beginning, with all arcs in the process map leaving and entering a symbol. Develop a general process map and then "flesh it out" by getting more detailed. Step through the process by interviewing those who perform the process as they do the work. Determine which steps add value and which don't, in an effort to simplify the work. Before simplifying the work, determine if it really needs to be done in the first place. 13. What is the purpose of a control chart? A control chart provides information about a product or service that has measurable quantities. Figure 10-12 presents two control charts together: 14. Which of the seven (Ishikawa) tools of quality described in the chapter have been the most helpful to you in your experiences? Please make your answer as substantive as possible. Ishikawa’s seven basic tools consist of: Process maps Check sheets Histograms Scatter plots Control charts Cause-and-effect diagrams Pareto analysis Each of these tools provides a unique look at the environment being analyzed. Each student will probably have a different view based upon his/her respective background. This can make a lively class discussion. 15. What is the purpose of an affinity diagram? An affinity tool is a brainstorming technique that allows teams to break an issue down to its component sub-issues, enabling them to isolate the root problems and provide solutions to them. 16. Describe the purpose of an interrelationship digraph? The interrelationship diagraph is a continuation of the affinity diagram. It is designed to locate any possible errors that might result from the relationship between different issues. On page 262, the steps involved in creating this document are identified as: Construct an affinity diagram to identify the issues relating to a problem. After you have done this, place the cards with related issues in columns with gaps between the cards. It is helpful to use sticky notes on a large piece of flipchart paper. Create the digraph by examining the cards one by one asking, “What other issues on this digraph are caused or influenced by this issue?” As team members identify issues that are related, draw a one-way arrow from the first issue (the cause) to the second issue (the one influenced by the cause). Do this until all the issues have been discussed. After reviewing the arrows and making needed revisions, count the numbers of arrows pointing to each note, and write the numbers on the notes. Identify the cards with the most arrows as the "key factors." Experience has shown that there should not be more than 5 to 10 key factors, depending on the issue being discussed. Draw a double box around the key factors and brainstorm ways to address these issues. 17. Describe the purpose of tree diagrams. Describe an instance in which a tree diagram could be used. A tree diagram is accomplished by breaking a task down to its composite sub-tasks; this is done iteratively until a base activity level has been reached. The resulting hierarchic breakdown provides a manner of breaking the tasks to be accomplished into “bite-sized chunks.” Figure 10-22 on page 264 (shown below) provides an example. Trees (or hierarchic structures) are used in many situations. Their flexibility is apparent in any situation where a task is composed of subordinate tasks. 18. Describe the purpose of a prioritization grid. A prioritization grid allows a person to evaluate the options and assign weights to them to aid in the solution. The steps in creating a prioritization grid are presented on page 264: Determine your goal, your alternatives, and the criteria by which a decision is to be made. Place the selection criteria in order from most important to least important. Apply a percentage weight to each of the criteria for each option. Apply a weight to each of the criteria such that all the weights add up to 1 (for example, A = .40, B = .30, C = .25 D = .05). Add the individual rating for each criterion to come to an overall ranking. Divide by the number of options to find an average ranking. Rank each option with respect to the criteria. Average the rankings, and apply a completed ranking. Multiply the criteria weight by its associated criterion rank for each criterion in the matrix. Notice that in this case a ranking of 4 is best and 1 is worst. The result in each cell of the matrix is called an importance score. Add the importance scores for each alternative. Rank the alternatives according to importance. 19. Describe the purpose of a matrix diagram. In what ways is the matrix diagram a brainstorming tool? Brainstorming is a process by which a group of people collectively participates in a problem-solving exercise. A matrix diagram presents the relationships between ideas or issues. Figure 10-23 presents the relationships between assignments and tasks in reducing the number of billing errors. 20. What is the purpose of a process decision program chart? A process decision program chart is used to help brainstorm possible contingencies or problems associated with the implementation of some program or improvement. The tool can take the form of either an outline or a tree chart. Figure 10-24 on page 268 shows a process decision program chart in tree form. Case 10-1: Corporate Universities: Teaching the Tools of Quality Are corporate universities a good idea? If so, why? The corporation that dedicates resources to education signals to its employees that the corporation considers its employees an asset. A corporate university also provides an organization a permanent place to train its employees in the methods and procedures that make the company unique and successful. 2. How can a corporate university do a better job of teaching a firm’s employees the “tools of quality” than traditional training programs? Corporate universities can do a better job of teaching a firm's employees the "tools of quality" than traditional training programs in the following ways: Corporate universities can prioritize a firm's training initiatives and quickly share with a firm's employees the skills, techniques, and best practices that are necessary to remain competitive. Corporate universities can provide focus to a company's training and development activities. Corporate universities can develop a standard curriculum to ensure that all of a company's employees receive consistent training. Corporate universities, because they are permanent, can provide "follow-up" training and consulting services to firm employees. 3. Select a corporate university and visit its website. How does the company’s corporate university facilitate the company’s overall quality-related goals and initiatives? Each of the listed companies is in a different industry and has a different product mix. Each has a different set of needs for its employees. Motorola University bases its training on Six-Sigma. Sears provides an ongoing Management Skills Curriculum. Food for thought: How do these programs reflect the needs of the company? How do they reflect the culture of the company? Case 10-2: Lanier: Achieving Maximum Performance by Supporting Quality Products with Quality Services 1. Why was it important for Lanier to develop specific programs, such as Customer Vision and Performance Promise, to facilitate its dual emphasis on quality products and quality services? The specific programs focus Lanier's employees and customers on areas that have been particularly important to the company in achieving its dual emphasis on quality products and quality services. For instance, the Customer Vision program focuses the company's employees on providing high customer service. Similarly, the Performance Promise program focuses the company's customers on the strength of Lanier's commitment to guarantee total product satisfaction. Lanier's commitment to quality products and quality services might not come through as clearly to its employees and customers without these tangible programs to rally around. 2. What steps has Lanier taken to reinforce the importance of quality services to its employees? Lanier has initiated the programs referred to including Customer Vision, The Performance Promise, 100 Percent Sold, and The Lanier Team Management Process as tangible evidence of its commitment to quality service. Lanier has also shifted its marketing emphasis from sales to customer satisfaction and has shifted its corporate culture accordingly. 3. Do you believe that Lanier continued to be successful? Why or why not? Lanier has grabbed an interesting niche. The field of document production has been massively enhanced by the current state of office automation. This trend will most likely continue. Their success obviously depends on how well they integrate themselves into the burgeoning culture. Will they continue to be successful? This is a fascinating question for a classroom discussion. Suggested Answers to End of Chapter Problems 1. Develop a process map of washing a car. Include a high level of detail in your map. Make six recommendations for improvement to your process. There are several different versions of this map. It is important to tell students that this is a map for hand washing a car. This assignment has been used for several years. If the students use PowerPoint to draw their maps, a few can be presented to the class as a basis for discussion. Here’s a high-level process map for washing a car: 1. Preparation • Gather supplies (soap, sponge, hose, towels, etc.) • Park the car in an appropriate washing area • Ensure all windows and doors are closed 2. Initial Rinse • Hose down the car to remove loose dirt 3. Apply Soap • Fill a bucket with water and car soap • Use a sponge or wash mitt to apply soap, starting from the top and working down 4. Scrubbing • Scrub each section thoroughly to remove dirt and grime 5. Rinse • Rinse the car completely with the hose to remove soap 6. Drying • Use clean towels to dry the car, ensuring no water spots are left 7. Final Touches • Clean the windows, tires, and rims • Optionally, apply wax for a protective finish Six Recommendations for Improvement: 1. Use a Two-Bucket System: One for soapy water and another for rinsing the sponge to avoid scratching the paint. 2. Microfiber Towels: Use microfiber towels instead of regular ones to prevent scratches and absorb more water. 3. Waterless Car Wash Solutions: Consider using eco-friendly waterless car wash solutions to save water. 4. Foam Cannon: Use a foam cannon attachment for the hose to distribute soap more evenly and reduce the need for scrubbing. 5. Tire and Wheel Cleaner First: Clean tires and wheels before washing the car body to prevent dirt from splashing back. 6. Air Drying Tools: Use air drying tools or a leaf blower to remove water from hard-to-reach areas, preventing water spots. 2. Take the process map from Problem 1 and develop it into an extended process map. Make five recommendations for simplifying the extended process as it exists. This map takes suppliers into account. See the above comments. Extended Process Map for Washing a Car: 1. Preparation Stage • Gather cleaning supplies: car soap, microfiber towels, two buckets, sponge, hose, wax, tire cleaner, and window cleaner. • Pre-treat heavy dirt spots or bird droppings with a dedicated cleaner. • Park the car in a shaded area to prevent soap from drying too quickly. • Ensure windows and doors are closed securely. 2. Pre-Wash Stage • Fill two buckets: one with soapy water, the other with clean water for rinsing the sponge. • Use a hose or pressure washer to rinse the car, starting from the top and moving downward to loosen dirt. • Apply a tire cleaner and scrub tires thoroughly with a brush. 3. Soaping and Scrubbing Stage • Apply soap from the top of the car using the two-bucket method (dip sponge in soapy water, rinse in clean water). • Work section by section (roof, hood, sides) to prevent soap from drying. • Use different sponges or wash mitts for the upper body and lower body to avoid transferring dirt to cleaner areas. 4. Detailing Stage • Scrub intricate areas (grilles, mirrors, under door handles) with a soft brush or detailing tool. • Clean windows with a window cleaner and microfiber cloth. 5. Rinsing Stage • Rinse the car thoroughly from top to bottom, ensuring no soap residue is left. 6. Drying Stage • Dry the car using microfiber towels, starting from the top. • Use a leaf blower or air dryer to remove water from tight spaces like mirrors, door seals, and trim. • Inspect for water spots and dry any remaining areas. 7. Waxing/Protecting Stage (Optional) • Apply wax or sealant to the car in small sections using a clean applicator pad. • Buff off excess wax with a microfiber towel for a shiny finish. 8. Final Touches • Apply tire shine and clean the wheels. • Wipe down interior surfaces if needed. • Check the car for any missed spots and touch up as necessary. Five Recommendations for Simplifying the Extended Process: 1. Foam Cannon for Soaping: Use a foam cannon for faster and more even soap application, reducing the manual scrubbing time. 2. One-Step Cleaner/Wax: Switch to a combined cleaner/wax product to reduce the need for a separate waxing stage and save time. 3. Automated Tire Cleaning: Use a tire cleaning tool that automatically applies cleaner and scrubs tires, eliminating manual scrubbing. 4. Quick-Drying Spray: Use a quick-drying spray or water-repellent rinse to eliminate the need for extensive towel drying, saving time and effort. 5. Air-Dry System: Install an air-dry system (or portable air blower) for quicker water removal, especially for hard-to-reach areas, speeding up the drying stage. 3. Develop a process map for making chocolate chip cookies. Include a high level of detail if you need to. You may need to consult a cookbook. Make three recommendations for improvements to your process. Discuss these with the class. See the answer to Problem 1. Process Map for Making Chocolate Chip Cookies: 1. Preparation Stage • Gather ingredients: flour, sugar, brown sugar, butter, eggs, vanilla extract, baking soda, salt, chocolate chips. • Preheat the oven to 350°F (175°C). • Prepare baking sheets with parchment paper or a non-stick surface. 2. Mixing Dry Ingredients • In a separate bowl, combine flour, baking soda, and salt. • Set the dry mixture aside. 3. Creaming Butter and Sugars • In a large mixing bowl, beat softened butter with both sugars (granulated and brown) until light and fluffy. • Add eggs one at a time, followed by vanilla extract, and mix until fully combined. 4. Combining Wet and Dry Ingredients • Gradually add the dry mixture to the wet mixture, mixing until a dough forms. • Stir in the chocolate chips by hand to avoid over-mixing. 5. Shaping Cookies • Use a spoon or cookie scoop to portion out dough balls onto the baking sheet, leaving space between them. 6. Baking • Bake in the preheated oven for 10-12 minutes or until the edges are golden brown. • Remove from the oven and let the cookies cool on the baking sheet for 5 minutes before transferring them to a cooling rack. 7. Cooling and Storing • Let cookies cool completely on the cooling rack before storing them in an airtight container. Three Recommendations for Process Improvement: 1. Chill the Dough: Let the cookie dough chill in the refrigerator for at least 30 minutes before baking. This will help the cookies retain their shape better and develop a richer flavor. 2. Use a Cookie Scoop: To ensure consistent cookie sizes and even baking, use a cookie scoop rather than eyeballing dough portions. This will lead to more uniform results. 3. Add Cornstarch: Add 1-2 teaspoons of cornstarch to the dry ingredients. This can help create a softer, chewier texture, improving the overall quality of the cookies. These improvements will streamline the process and enhance the final product. 4. Take the process map from Problem 3 and develop an extended process map. Make recommendations for three improvements to the extended process. Be sure to include all suppliers and logistics associated with the customers. See the answers to Problems 1 and 2. Extended Process Map for Making Chocolate Chip Cookies: 1. Ingredient Sourcing (Suppliers) • Flour, Sugar, Butter, Eggs, Baking Soda, Salt, Vanilla, Chocolate Chips: • Sourced from local grocery stores or online suppliers. • Consider quality of ingredients (e.g., organic, fair trade chocolate chips). • Logistics: • Ensure consistent availability of ingredients. • Use bulk purchasing for efficiency and cost savings if baking frequently. • Plan for ingredient storage (e.g., pantry, fridge). 2. Preparation Stage • Gather all ingredients, measuring tools, mixing bowls, spoons, and baking sheets. • Preheat oven to 350°F (175°C). • Line baking sheets with parchment paper or a non-stick surface. 3. Mixing Dry Ingredients • In a bowl, combine flour, baking soda, salt, and cornstarch. • Set the dry ingredients aside. 4. Creaming Butter and Sugars • In a large mixing bowl, cream softened butter, granulated sugar, and brown sugar until light and fluffy. • Add eggs one at a time and mix well. • Add vanilla extract. 5. Combining Wet and Dry Ingredients • Gradually mix the dry ingredients into the wet ingredients until fully incorporated. • Fold in the chocolate chips manually to avoid over-mixing. 6. Dough Chilling (Logistics) • Transfer dough to a container and chill in the refrigerator for at least 30 minutes for better texture and shape retention. • Logistics: Consider space for chilling large quantities of dough if baking in bulk. 7. Shaping Cookies • Use a cookie scoop or spoon to form uniform dough balls. • Place the dough balls on prepared baking sheets with appropriate spacing. 8. Baking • Bake cookies in a preheated oven for 10-12 minutes, or until edges are golden brown. • Logistics: Use multiple ovens or staggered baking sheets to speed up the process for large batches. 9. Cooling and Storing • Allow cookies to cool on baking sheets for 5 minutes before transferring them to a cooling rack. • Once cooled, store the cookies in an airtight container for freshness. 10. Distribution to Customers (Logistics) • For home bakers: Store in containers or package for gifting. • For bakeries or commercial use: Package cookies in appropriate containers and deliver to customers or retail outlets. • Logistics: Organize transportation (delivery service or self-transport) to ensure fresh delivery, especially in bulk orders. Three Recommendations for Improvements: 1. Ingredient Quality and Sustainability: • Use high-quality, sustainably sourced ingredients (e.g., organic flour, fair trade chocolate chips). This will appeal to environmentally-conscious customers and enhance flavor. • Establish long-term relationships with reliable suppliers to ensure consistent ingredient quality and delivery. 2. Automated Mixing Process: • Implement commercial-grade mixers if baking large batches frequently. This will speed up the mixing process and ensure consistency in every batch of cookies. 3. Efficient Distribution Channels: • Use temperature-controlled packaging or delivery options to ensure cookies remain fresh during transport to customers or retailers. • For larger-scale distribution, partner with logistics providers who specialize in perishable goods to maintain quality during delivery. These improvements will enhance the efficiency of the extended process, ensure consistent ingredient quality, and optimize logistics for customers. 5. Develop a check sheet for defects in a flat screen computer monitor. Answers will vary. Use the Figure on page 248 as a guide. Check Sheet for Defects in a Flat Screen Computer Monitor Instructions for Using the Check Sheet: 1. Date & Time: Record the date and time when the inspection is performed. 2. Inspector: Enter the name of the person conducting the inspection. 3. Monitor Serial Number: Input the serial number for easy identification of the monitor being inspected. 4. Defect Type: For each defect type (e.g., dead pixels, stuck pixels), check the quantity observed. 5. Remarks: Provide any additional notes or observations about the defects. This check sheet helps track and categorize defects found in flat-screen monitors, aiding in quality control and defect analysis over time. 6. Develop a check sheet for defects in a quality management class exam. Identify how you would use the check sheet to improve performance on future exams. Answers will vary. Use the Figure on page 248 as a guide. Check Sheet for Defects in a Quality Management Class Exam How to Use the Check Sheet to Improve Future Exam Performance: 1. Track Frequent Issues: The frequency column helps identify the most common defects across exam sections and questions. For example, if "Misinterpretation of Concepts" occurs frequently in a specific section, more focus can be given to clarifying that concept. 2. Identify Weaknesses by Section: By categorizing defects by exam section, it becomes easier to see which areas require further review or improvement, whether it's theory-based questions, calculations, or case studies. 3. Targeted Practice: Use the check sheet data to tailor study sessions, focusing on areas like calculation errors or specific concepts that were misunderstood. 4. Feedback Loop: Share the check sheet results with students so they can see where their mistakes are concentrated, and provide targeted feedback to help them prepare more effectively for future exams. 5. Curriculum Adjustment: Instructors can use the results to adjust future teaching, spending more time on topics or question types where students consistently struggle. This method ensures a systematic approach to exam improvement by focusing on recurring issues and refining both teaching and studying methods. 7. Develop a histogram for the following data (see the data in Problem 8’s solution). Develop two separate histograms for hours of overtime and days absent. How do the data appear to be distributed? log 30/log 2 = 4.95 5 classes. For hours of overtime, the smallest value is 0 and the largest value is 460. 460/5 = 92. For convenience, we will use the following classes: 0-99, 100-199, 200-299, 300-399, 400-499. The following histogram results: The hours of overtime data are right-skewed. Although there are five classes, it makes the most sense to use six classes for the days absent data. Here is the histogram for days absent. This is close to a uniform distribution – except there were no employees with 4 or 5 absences. 8. Using the data in Problem 7, develop a scatter plot of hours of overtime versus days absent. Do the data overtime hours and days absent appear to be correlated? Following are the spreadsheet and the Excel output for the scatter plot and correlation: As can be seen from this data, 78% of the variation in days absent is explained by overtime. It appears that people are more likely to be absent as they work more overtime. If the company desires to decrease absenteeism, it should review how it is assigning overtime. 9. Develop a histogram using the following data: 4.7, 4.7, 5.0, 5.6, 5.6, 5.6, 5.9, 5.9, 5.9, 5.9, 6.2, 6.2, 6.2, 6.2, 6.2, 6.2, 6.5, 6.5, 6.5, 6.5, 6.5, 6.5, 6.8, 6.8, 9.8, 9.8, 9.8, 9.8, 6.8, 6.8, 6.8, 6.8, 6.8, 6.8, 6.8, 6.8, 6.8, 6.8, 6.8, 7.1, 7.1, 7.1, 7.1, 7.1, 7.1, 7.1, 7.1, 7.1, 7.1, 7.1, 7.1, 7.1, 7.4, 7.4, 7.4, 7.4, 7.4, 7.4, 7.4, 7.4, 7.7, 7.7, 7.7, 7.7, 7.7, 7.7, 7.7, 7.7, 7.7, 7.7, 7.7, 7.7, 7.7, 7.7, 7.7, 7.7, 7.7, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0, 8.3, 8.3, 8.3, 8.3, 8.3, 8.3, 8.6, 8.6, 8.6, 8.6, 8.6, 8.6, 8.9, 8.9, 8.9, 9.2, 9.2, 9.8. There are 101 data points. log101/log2 = 6.7 7 The largest value is 9.8, the smallest value is 4.6. (9.8 – 4.6)/7 = .74 .8; Therefore, use the following classes in the frequency histogram below. The data appear approximately normal. 10. If you have sixty data points, use the log formula to determine how many classes you should use in your histogram. log 60/log 2 = 5.9 6 classes. Remember, it is common practice to round upwards. 11. Use the logarithmic formula in the chapter to determine how may classes you should use in your histogram for the following numbers of data: 35 200 600 log 35/log 2 = 5.13 6 log 200/log 2 = 7.6 8 log 600/log 2 = 9.2 10 12. Think about the following questions, and develop fishbone diagrams for each of them: What is the major service problem in your university? What is the major thing that interferes with your study? What is the major problem with your school newspaper? What is the major social problem in society? Answers will vary. Generally, the fishbone diagram should appear as follows: Fishbone Diagrams (Cause-and-Effect) a. Major Service Problem at University: • Problem: Slow administrative processes • Causes: • Inefficient communication • Lack of staff training • Overloaded systems • Poor technology infrastructure b. Major Interference with Study: • Problem: Distractions during study time • Causes: • Social media usage • Noisy environment • Poor time management • Personal stress c. Major Problem with School Newspaper: • Problem: Lack of engagement from readers • Causes: • Outdated content • Inconsistent publication schedule • Poor layout/design • Lack of promotion d. Major Social Problem in Society: • Problem: Income inequality • Causes: • Unemployment • Lack of education access • Wage gaps • Social policies These fishbone diagrams help identify root causes of common problems for further action. 13. For the following data, develop a Pareto analysis. The letters A, B, C, D, E, and F are problems that occur in a process. Which cause should you focus on first? If you eliminate causes A and B, defect will be reduced by 60%. 14. For the following data, develop a Pareto chart. The letters V, X, Y, and Z are problems that occur in a process. Which cause should you address first if the fixes for the problems are $1.00, $1.20, $.90, and $2.00 successively? Data shows 22 Vs at 24%, 25 Xs at 27%, 31 Ys at 34%, and 14 Zs at 15%. You would normally address the process problem with the highest incidence. This would be problem Y. In this case, it is also the least expensive fix. With problem percentages close, as with problem V and X, you might next consider the lower investment, i.e., fixing problem V for $1.00 before fixing problem X for $1.20, understanding diminishing marginal returns. 15. Either alone or as a team, draw a fishbone diagram about the following topics: What are the causes of poor grades? Why do college students drink too much? Why do I not have enough money? What are the causes of poor response times on the Internet? Answers will vary. See Problem 12 for format. Fishbone Diagrams (Cause-and-Effect) a. Causes of Poor Grades: • Categories: • Study Habits: Lack of revision, procrastination, ineffective study methods • External Factors: Part-time job, family issues, health problems • Instruction: Ineffective teaching, unclear guidelines, insufficient feedback • Motivation: Lack of interest, low engagement, poor goal-setting b. Why College Students Drink Too Much: • Categories: • Social Pressure: Peer influence, social gatherings, fitting in • Stress Relief: Academic stress, personal problems, coping mechanism • Cultural Norms: Drinking culture, media influence, traditions • Accessibility: Easy access to alcohol, lack of restrictions c. Why I Don’t Have Enough Money: • Categories: • Income: Low wages, irregular income, unemployment • Expenses: High rent, utility bills, food and transportation costs • Spending Habits: Impulse buying, poor budgeting, unnecessary purchases • Unexpected Costs: Medical expenses, car repairs, emergencies d. Causes of Poor Internet Response Times: • Categories: • Network Issues: Congestion, outdated hardware, weak Wi-Fi signals • Service Provider: Slow speeds, bandwidth throttling, maintenance downtime • External Factors: Weather conditions, physical obstructions, long-distance servers • User Equipment: Outdated devices, software issues, multiple devices on network These diagrams help visualize and categorize the root causes for these issues. 16. Quality is Personal by Roberts and Sergesketter is a popular book. In it they recommend using the basic tools of quality in our personal lives. Develop a check sheet to keep track of personal defects you have in your life (such as sleeping too late, being too grumpy, and so on). Use this check sheet for two weeks to track these personal defects. After two weeks, perform a Pareto analysis to determine where you have the greatest need for improvement. Next, use the fishbone diagram to identify the underlying causes of the personal defects. After making changes, use a control chart to track your defects. Answers will vary. Personal Defects Check Sheet Steps to Follow: 1. Track for Two Weeks: Use this check sheet to log daily occurrences of personal defects like sleeping too late or procrastination. 2. Perform Pareto Analysis: After two weeks, analyze the frequency of each defect. Focus on the most common ones, which likely have the biggest impact. 3. Fishbone Diagram: For each of the top defects identified in the Pareto analysis, create a fishbone diagram to explore potential root causes (e.g., lack of routine, external stress). 4. Make Changes: Implement changes based on the root causes identified. 5. Control Chart: Use a control chart to track the occurrence of these personal defects over time and observe improvements after implementing changes. This structured approach helps identify the most impactful areas for improvement and monitor progress. 17. For the following data, draw a scatter diagram to see if time lost because of injuries and overtime hours are related? What do you conclude? They appear to be positively correlated. 18. Develop a process map for the registration process at your university. Analyze the number of value-added and nonvalue-added steps. Answers will vary for this question. Below is an example of a process map for registration at a large public university. Process Map for University Registration 1. Pre-Registration Preparation • 1.1. Review Course Catalog • 1.2. Check Registration Dates • 1.3. Ensure Academic Advising Completed 2. Registration Process • 2.1. Access Registration Portal • 2.2. Log In with Student Credentials • 2.3. Select Courses • 2.3.1. Search for Courses • 2.3.2. Add Courses to Cart • 2.4. Review Course Schedule • 2.5. Confirm Course Selection • 2.6. Submit Registration 3. Post-Registration Activities • 3.1. Receive Confirmation Email • 3.2. Pay Tuition Fees • 3.3. Print Schedule • 3.4. Attend Orientation/First Class Value-Added Steps • 1.2. Check Registration Dates: Ensures timely registration. • 2.3. Select Courses: Directly impacts the student’s schedule and academic path. • 2.6. Submit Registration: Finalizes the course selection and enrollment. • 3.1. Receive Confirmation Email: Provides verification and assurance of successful registration. Non-Value-Added Steps • 1.1. Review Course Catalog: Although necessary, doesn’t directly add value to the registration but informs course choices. • 2.1. Access Registration Portal: Part of the administrative process but not directly adding value. • 2.4. Review Course Schedule: Necessary but doesn't add value beyond confirming choices. • 3.3. Print Schedule: For personal record-keeping; does not affect the registration process. Analysis • Value-Added Steps: Essential for completing the registration and impacting the student’s academic schedule directly. Total: 4 steps. • Non-Value-Added Steps: Supportive but do not impact the registration outcome directly. Total: 4 steps. Reducing or optimizing non-value-added steps can streamline the registration process, making it more efficient for students. 19. Develop a process map for receiving financial aid at your university. Analyze the process and develop a proposal for improvement. Answers will vary for this question. Below is an example of a process map of the process of receiving financial assistance at a large public university. Process Map for Receiving Financial Aid 1. Application Preparation • 1.1. Gather Required Documents (e.g., tax returns, income statements) • 1.2. Complete FAFSA/CSS Profile • 1.3. Submit Application to University 2. Application Review • 2.1. University Financial Aid Office Receives Application • 2.2. Verify Application Details • 2.3. Assess Eligibility • 2.4. Request Additional Information (if needed) 3. Award Notification • 3.1. Prepare Financial Aid Package • 3.2. Send Award Notification to Student • 3.3. Review and Accept/Reject Award 4. Disbursement • 4.1. Process Acceptance of Award • 4.2. Disburse Funds to Student’s Account • 4.3. Confirm Fund Transfer 5. Post-Disbursement • 5.1. Monitor Fund Usage • 5.2. Report Changes in Financial Situation • 5.3. Reapply if Necessary Analysis & Proposal for Improvement Current Process: • Lengthy due to document gathering, verification, and additional requests. • Communication with students can be slow and unclear. Proposal for Improvement: 1. Streamline Document Submission: Implement an online portal for direct upload of documents to reduce processing time. 2. Automate Eligibility Assessments: Use software to automatically assess eligibility based on submitted data to speed up the review process. 3. Enhance Communication: Introduce automated notifications and status updates to keep students informed throughout the process. 4. Simplify Acceptance: Provide an easy online interface for students to review and accept or reject financial aid offers. These improvements aim to reduce processing times, enhance communication, and simplify the overall experience for students. 20. With a team of students, develop an affinity diagram relating to the following statement, “What are issues relating to finding a job in the current economy?” What did you find? Answers will vary. Below is an example of an affinity diagram that relates to finding a job in the current economy. Affinity Diagram: Issues Relating to Finding a Job in the Current Economy Categories and Related Issues: 1. Job Market Conditions • High Competition: Many applicants for each position. • Limited Job Openings: Fewer positions available. • Economic Uncertainty: Fluctuations affecting hiring. 2. Skills and Qualifications • Skills Gap: Mismatch between job requirements and applicants' skills. • Experience Requirements: Need for prior experience which is hard to gain. • Advanced Qualifications: Preference for higher degrees or certifications. 3. Application Process • Complex Applications: Lengthy and complicated application procedures. • Automated Screening: Use of applicant tracking systems (ATS) filtering out resumes. • Lack of Feedback: Limited or no feedback from employers after applications. 4. Networking and Connections • Networking Barriers: Difficulty in accessing professional networks. • Referral Challenges: Importance of referrals not always accessible. • Remote Job Search: Increased reliance on online networking and virtual connections. 5. Economic and Social Factors • Regional Disparities: Jobs concentrated in specific locations. • Economic Downturns: General economic conditions impacting job availability. • Job Market Saturation: Over-saturation in certain industries or fields. 6. Personal and Professional Factors • Job Search Fatigue: Psychological strain from prolonged job hunting. • Relocation Constraints: Limitations on willingness or ability to relocate. • Work-Life Balance: Concerns about work hours, flexibility, and job fit. Findings: • High Competition and Limited Job Openings are significant issues, indicating a challenging job market with intense competition for available roles. • Skills Gap and Experience Requirements highlight the need for better alignment between job seekers' skills and employer expectations. • Application Complexity and Automated Screening reveal barriers in the application process, suggesting improvements in resume handling and feedback mechanisms. • Networking and Connections are crucial, but challenges in accessing professional networks and securing referrals persist. • Economic and Regional Factors impact job availability, with economic fluctuations and job concentration in specific areas affecting opportunities. • Personal Factors such as job search fatigue and relocation constraints also play a role, impacting job seekers' effectiveness and willingness. The affinity diagram provides a structured overview of various issues affecting job searching in the current economy, offering insights into areas for potential improvement and focus. 21. Form a team and develop an affinity diagram for the following problem statement: What are issues associated with completing a university or college degree in a reasonable amount of time? This is an issue that affects many students. Use the format in Problem 20. Affinity Diagram: Issues Associated with Completing a University or College Degree in a Reasonable Amount of Time Categories and Related Issues: 1. Academic Challenges • Course Availability: Limited or non-offered courses needed for graduation. • Difficulty Levels: High difficulty of required courses. • Academic Advising: Insufficient or unclear academic guidance. 2. Financial Constraints • Tuition Costs: High cost of tuition and associated fees. • Financial Aid: Insufficient or delayed financial aid. • Employment Needs: Need to work part-time/full-time, affecting study time. 3. Personal Factors • Time Management: Poor time management and organization skills. • Health Issues: Physical or mental health challenges impacting study. • Family Responsibilities: Responsibilities such as caregiving or household duties. 4. Administrative and Institutional Issues • Bureaucratic Processes: Complex administrative procedures for registration and approvals. • Transfer Credits: Issues with transferring credits between institutions. • Scheduling Conflicts: Conflicts between course schedules and personal commitments. 5. Academic Preparedness • High School Preparation: Inadequate preparation from high school. • Study Skills: Lack of effective study habits and academic skills. • Learning Support: Limited access to tutoring or academic support services. 6. Motivation and Engagement • Lack of Motivation: Decreased motivation or interest in the chosen field. • Engagement: Low engagement with course material and extracurricular activities. • Career Clarity: Uncertainty about career goals and their impact on academic decisions. Findings: • Course Availability and Difficulty Levels: Limited course offerings and challenging courses can delay graduation. • Financial Constraints: High costs and financial aid issues are major barriers, affecting students’ ability to complete their degrees on time. • Personal Factors: Time management, health issues, and family responsibilities significantly impact students' ability to focus on their studies. • Administrative Issues: Complicated administrative processes and credit transfer problems can create delays. • Academic Preparedness: Gaps in high school education and study skills contribute to difficulties in completing degree requirements. • Motivation and Engagement: Low motivation and unclear career goals can lead to disengagement and delays in degree completion. This affinity diagram helps categorize and understand the various factors affecting students' ability to complete their degrees within a reasonable timeframe, providing a foundation for addressing these issues effectively. 22. Using the affinity diagram from Problem 21, develop an interrelationship digraph for the job search. What did you generalize from the interrelationship digraph? Answers will vary. One approach, based on Problem 20’s affinity diagram above, is shown below. Interrelationship Digraph for Completing a Degree in a Reasonable Time Diagram Elements: 1. Academic Challenges • Course Availability • Difficulty Levels • Academic Advising 2. Financial Constraints • Tuition Costs • Financial Aid • Employment Needs 3. Personal Factors • Time Management • Health Issues • Family Responsibilities 4. Administrative and Institutional Issues • Bureaucratic Processes • Transfer Credits • Scheduling Conflicts 5. Academic Preparedness • High School Preparation • Study Skills • Learning Support 6. Motivation and Engagement • Lack of Motivation • Engagement • Career Clarity Generalizations from the Interrelationship Digraph: • Financial Constraints and Personal Factors strongly influence Academic Challenges and Academic Preparedness. High tuition costs and financial aid issues can exacerbate academic difficulties, while personal responsibilities impact time management and study skills. • Administrative and Institutional Issues interact with Academic Challenges by affecting course availability and scheduling, which can delay progress. • Motivation and Engagement is central, as it impacts all other factors. Lack of motivation affects academic performance, financial management, and the ability to overcome personal and administrative hurdles. • Academic Preparedness and Motivation and Engagement are closely linked, with inadequate high school preparation affecting both preparedness and motivation. The digraph highlights the complex interplay between financial, personal, and institutional factors, emphasizing the central role of motivation and preparedness in successfully completing a degree on time. 23. Develop a tree diagram for building a home. A tree diagram could be developed for either decisions or tasks. Student solutions could include a lot of detail or be brief. Some samples follow. Decision Tree for Building a House 24. Develop a tree diagram for writing a major research paper. Now, take the steps you identified for this project and develop an activity network diagram. An example of a tree diagram flowing from bottom to top, with activity network diagram node letters and arrows added: Complete the analysis for the prioritization matrix information in the text by finding the final rankings: For this problem, the smaller result is the best. Final Priority Vector by Machine Machine 1 .3(1) + .2(3) + .5(4) = 2.9 Machine 2 .3(2) + .2(2) + .5(2) = 2.0 Machine 3 .3(3) + .2(4) + .5(1) = 2.2 Machine 4 .3(4) + .2(1) + .5(3) = 2.9 Machine 2 is the best overall choice given the subjective ratings and parameters in this problem. 26. Develop a process decision chart for completing your college degree. One of many potential solutions is presented below. Solution Manual for Managing Quality: Integrating the Supply Chain Thomas S. Foster 9780133798258