This Document Contains Chapters 13 to 14 CHAPTER 13 MANAGING COMMUNICATION CHAPTER OUTLINE New Manager Self-Test: Are You Building a Personal Network? I. Communication Is the Manager’s Job A. What Is Communication? B. A Model of Communication II. Communicating Among People A. Open Communication Climate B. Communication Channels C. Communicating to Persuade and Influence Others D. Communicating with Candor New Manager Self-Test: Candor E. Asking Questions F. Listening G. Nonverbal Communication III. Organizational Communication A. Formal Communication Channels B. Personal Communication Channels IV. Workplace Communication A. Social Media B. Crisis Communication ANNOTATED LEARNING OUTCOMES After studying this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Explain why communication is essential for effective management, and describe the model of communication. Answer: Communication is defined as the process by which information is exchanged and understood by two or more people, usually with the intent to motivate or influence behavior. Communication means to share, not just to speak or to write. This distinction between sharing and proclaiming is crucial for successful management. Managers spend at least 80 percent of every working day in direct communication with others. The other 20 percent of a manager’s time is spent doing deskwork, most of which is also communication in the form of reading and writing. Communication is usually complex, with many opportunities to send or receive the wrong message. Two common elements in every communication are the sender and receiver. The sender wishes to convey an idea or seek information from others, or to express an emotion or thought. The receiver is the person to whom the message is sent. The communication process consists of four steps: • The sender encodes the idea by selecting symbols to represent the message, which is the tangible formulation of the idea that is sent to the receiver. • The message is sent through a channel, which is the communication carrier. • The receiver decodes or translates the symbols to interpret the meaning of the message. • Feedback occurs when the receiver responds to the sender’s communication with a return message. Without feedback, the communication is one way; with feedback, it is two way. 2. Describe how an open communication climate and choice of a communication channel influence the quality of communication. Answer: Open communication means sharing all types of information throughout the organization, across functional and hierarchical boundaries. In an open communication environment, people know where they stand and what rules they need to play by. Open communication helps people accept, understand, and commit to goals. People can see how their actions interact with and affect others in the organization. And when people have access to complete information, they are more likely to come up with creative solutions to problems and make decisions that are good for the company. Managers have a choice of many channels through which to communicate to other managers or employees. Channels differ in their capacity to convey information. One approach of selecting an effective communication channel is to interpret the emotions of the person who will be receiving the message and then select the channel that will result in the best outcome. The type and amount of information to be communicated also influences the selection of the communication channel. The channels available to managers can be classified into a hierarchy based on information richness. Channel richness is the amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication episode. The richest channel is face-to-face talk and the leanest channel includes bulletins and standard computer reports. 3. Understand how communicating with candor, asking questions, listening, and nonverbal communication affect communication between a manager and employee. Answer: To influence and persuade, managers also have to be frank and straightforward about what they want and need from others. Communicating with candor means being direct, honest, and clear about what employees need to do to meet objectives, while also expressing respect for others and not making people feel slighted, controlled, and exploited. Communicating with candor is a confident, positive approach that lets others know exactly where you stand and what you are asking of them. The appropriate use of a candid communication acknowledges the other person’s perspective and opinion, yet is very specific about what the manager wants and why. To have successful organizational conversations, managers need to learn to ask question. Most managers do 80 percent telling and 20 percent asking, while it should be the other way around. Asking questions can benefit both managers and employees in numerous ways, such as building trust and openness between them, building critical thinking skills, stimulating the mind and a chance to make a difference. Listening involves the skill of grasping both facts and feelings to interpret a message’s genuine meaning. Only then can the manager provide the appropriate response. Listening requires attention, energy, and skill. A good listener finds areas of interest, is flexible, works hard at listening, and uses thought speed to mentally summarize, weigh, and anticipate what the speaker says. The listener is responsible for message reception, which is a vital link in the communication process. Nonverbal communication refers to messages sent through human actions and behaviors rather than through words. Managers are watched and their behavior, appearance, actions, and attitudes are symbolic of what they value and expect of others. Major parts of the shared understanding from communication come from the nonverbal messages of facial expression, voice, mannerisms, posture, and dress. Nonverbal messages convey thoughts and feelings with greater force than do our most carefully selected words. When verbal and nonverbal messages are contradictory, the receiver will usually give more weight to the nonverbal than to the verbal message. 4. Explain the difference between formal and informal organizational communications. Answer: Formal communication channels are those that flow within the chain of command or task responsibility defined by the organization. Organization-wide communications typically flow in three directions: downward, upward, and horizontally. Downward communication is information sent from top management to subordinates in a downward direction. The major problem with downward communication is the distortion or loss of message content. Upward communication includes messages that flow from the lower to the higher levels in the organization’s hierarchy. Horizontal communication is the lateral or diagonal exchange of messages across peers or co-workers. The purpose of horizontal communication is not only to inform, but also to request support and coordinate activities. Informal or personal communication channels exist outside the formal channels and do not adhere to the organization’s formal structure. They coexist with formal channels but may skip hierarchical levels, cutting across vertical chains of command to connect virtually anyone in the organization. Three types of informal channels used in many organizations are personal networks, the grapevine, and written communication. 5. Appreciate the role of personal communication channels, including the grapevine, in enhancing organizational communication. Answer: Smart managers consciously develop personal communication networks and encourage others to do so. The value is that people who have more contacts have greater influence in the organization and get more accomplished. Smart managers also understand the company’s grapevine—the informal, person-to-person communication network of employees that is not officially sanctioned by the organization. The grapevine recognizes who’s connected to whom and which employees are key players in the informal spread of information. It links employees, at all the levels of an organization, in all directions. Grapevine rumors fill in information gap and clarify management decision. Its accuracy and relevance to the organization are its key aspects. Finally, written communication skills are becoming increasingly important in today’s collaborative workplace. Managers who are unable to communicate in writing will limit their opportunities for advancement. 6. Recognize the manager’s role in using social media to improve organizational communication. Answer: Social media is a group of internet-based applications that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content. It covers a broad number of applications including wikis, blogs, micro-blogs, content communication, social networking sites, and virtual social networks. It is reinventing how people in organizations communicate. The rapidly changing digital environment is bringing sweeping changes to workplace communication. Use of email, Twitter, and Facebook has increased dramatically just in the past few years. This significant increase in the use of social media signals a growing appetite among users for instant access and immediate sharing of information. Popular collaboration tools, such as podcasts, blogs, and wikis, are also opening up opportunities for organizations to interact with employees and customers and improve collaboration among teams. Managers can use new communication technologies in a wide variety of ways to manage employees, connect with existing customers, reach new customers, and enhance relationships with suppliers. 7. Explain strategies for managing communication during a crisis. Answer: A manager’s skill at communicating becomes even more crucial during time of rapid change, uncertainty, and crisis. The manager’s ability to communicate effectively will determine how effectively the organization survives the upheaval. Four primary skills or strategies for managers to follow when communicating in a crisis include: • Stay calm, listen hard. • Be visible. • Get the awful truth out. • Communicate a vision for the future. LECTURE OUTLINE NEW MANAGER SELF-TEST: ARE YOU BUILDING A PERSONAL NETWORK? When you create a personal network, you become well connected to get things done through a variety of relationships. Having sources of information and support helps a new manager gain career traction. People with active networks tend to be more effective managers and have broader impact on the organization. This exercise helps students determine how much effort they put into developing connections with other people. I. COMMUNICATION IS THE MANAGER’S JOB Exhibit 13.1 Managers spend at least 80 percent of every working day in direct communication with others. The other 20 percent of their time is spent doing deskwork, most of which is communication in the form of reading and writing. Managers have the crucial role of being communication champions. They gather information from inside and outside the organization and distribute it to others who need it. Managers’ communication is purpose-directed; it directs everyone’s attention toward the vision, values, and desired goals and influences people to achieve the goals. Managers facilitate strategic conversations by using open communication, actively listening to others, applying the practice of dialogue, and using feedback for learning and change. Strategic conversation refers to people talking across boundaries and hierarchical levels about the team or organization’s vision, critical strategic themes, and the values that help achieve important goals. Managers use many communication methods depending on the purposes of the communication and the audience. A. What Is Communication? 1. Communication is defined as the process by which information is exchanged and understood by two or more people, usually with the intent to motivate or influence behavior. 2. Surveys of mangers show that they consider communication as their most critical skill and one of their top responsibilities. However, most managers revealed they need to improve their communication effectiveness. Also, without feedback, managers can’t respond adequately to problems or opportunities; their plans and decisions may be out of alignment with employee perceptions and interests. B. A Model of Communication Exhibit 13.2 1. Communication is usually complex, with many opportunities to send or receive the wrong message. Communication is not just sending information, but sharing information in a planned way. A manager who has the ability to deliver rousing speech or write brilliant commentary, but who does not know how to listen, is not an effective communicator. Two common elements in every communication are the sender and receiver. The sender wishes to convey an idea or seek information from others, or to express an emotion or thought. The receiver is the person to whom the message is sent. The communication process consists of the following four steps. a. The sender encodes the idea by selecting symbols to represent the message, which is the tangible formulation of the idea that is sent to the receiver. b. The message is sent through a channel, which is the communication carrier. c. The receiver decodes or translates the symbols to interpret the meaning of the message. d. Feedback occurs when the receiver responds to the sender’s communication with a return message. It enables the sender to determine whether the receiver correctly interpreted the message. Without feedback, the communication is one-way; with feedback, it becomes two-way. Discussion Question #2: Describe the elements of the communication model in Exhibit 13.2. Give an example of each part of the model as it exists in the classroom during communication between teacher and students. NOTES____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ II. COMMUNICATING AMONG PEOPLE Communications can breakdown if the sender and receiver do not encode or decode language in the same way. Managers must understand how factors such as open communication climates, communication channels, the ability to persuade communicating with candor, asking questions, nonverbal behavior, and listening work to enhance or detract from communication. A. Open Communication Climate 1. Open communication means sharing all types of information throughout the organization, across functional and hierarchical boundaries. In an open communication environment, people know where they stand and what rules they need to play by. Open communication helps people accept, understand, and commit to goals. People can see how their actions interact with and affect others in the organization. And when people have access to complete information, they are more likely to come up with creative solutions to problems and make decisions that are good for the company. 2. Managers can build an open communication climate by breaking down conventional hierarchical and department boundaries that may be barriers to communication. Also, they can take care to communicate honestly with subordinates; keep people posted when things change in either a positive or negative direction; and help people see the financial impact of their decisions and actions. 3. To achieve the advantages of open communication, managers should use the type of communication network that maximizes employee performance and job satisfaction. Centralized and decentralized networks are two types that managers can make use of. a. In a centralized network, team members must communicate through one individual to solve problems or make decisions. This type of network can be effective for large teams because it limits the number of people involved in decision making. The result is a faster decision involving fewer people. b. In a decentralized network, individuals can communicate freely with other team members. Members process information equally among themselves until all agree on a decision. Decentralized communication is best for complex, difficult work environment where teams need a free flow of communication in all directions. B. Communication Channels Exhibits 13.3 and 13.4 1. The Hierarchy of Channel Richness. Managers have a choice of many channels through which to communicate. Research shows that channels differ in their capacity to convey information. Channels can be classified in a hierarchy based on information richness. Channel richness is the amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication episode. Channel richness is influenced by the following three characteristics: c. The ability of the channel to handle multiple cues simultaneously d. The ability of the channel to facilitate rapid, two-way feedback e. The ability of the channel to establish a personal focus for the communication. 2. Face-to-face communication is the richest medium because it permits direct experience, multiple information cues, immediate feedback, and personal focus. Telephone conversations are next in the richness hierarchy, and standard computer reports are the lowest in richness. 3. Electronic messaging, such as e-mail, instant messaging, and text messaging, is increasingly used for messages once handled via telephone. Because e-mail messages lack both visual and verbal cues and don’t allow for interaction and feedback, messages can sometimes be misunderstood. Managers often use this medium to avoid the emotional discomfort of a real-time conversation, hiding behind their computers to send rebukes or criticisms that they would never deliver in person. It is advisable for managers to never use e-mail in the following circumstances: a. When you are angry. b. When your message may be misunderstood. c. When you are cancelling or apologizing. d. When you are rebuking or criticizing. Discussion Question #5: What are the characteristics of an open communication climate? Describe the organizational benefits of managers cultivating an open communication climate. NOTES____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4. Selecting the Appropriate Channel. It is important for managers to understand that each communication channel has advantages and disadvantages, and that each can be used to communicate effectively if used appropriately. Channel selection depends upon the message being routine or nonroutine. a. Nonroutine messages typically are ambiguous, concern novel events, and have great potential for misunderstanding. They are often characterized by time pressure and surprise. Channels high in richness should be used for transmission of nonroutine messages. b. Routine messages convey information managers already agree on and understand, such as data or statistics. They simple and straight forward. They can be communicated through a channel low in richness. 5. The key is to select a channel to fit the message. The choice of a communication channel can also convey a symbolic meaning to the receiver. In a sense, the medium becomes the message. For example, face-to-face communication can signal that managers care about their employees. C. Communicating to Persuade and Influence Others 1. Communication is used not only to convey information, but also to persuade and influence people. For managers today the ability to persuade and influence others is even more critical than communication skills, although it is important. Key points for practicing the art of persuasion include the following: a. Establish credibility. b. Build goals on common ground. c. Connect emotionally. d. Use multiple media to send important messages. 2. To persuade and influence, managers must communicate frequently and easily with others. Yet, some people find interpersonal communication difficult. Communication apprehension is an individual’s level of fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication. With training and practice, managers can overcome their communication apprehension and become more effective communicators. D. Communicating with Candor 1. To influence and persuade, managers also have to be frank and straightforward about what they want and need from others. Communicating with candor means being direct, honest, and clear about what employees need to do to meet objectives, while also expressing respect for others and not making people feel slighted, controlled, and exploited. 2. Communicating with candor is a confident, positive approach that lets others know exactly where you stand and what you are asking of them. The appropriate use of a candid communication acknowledges the other person’s perspective and opinion, yet is very specific about what the manager wants and why. Some valuable techniques for communicating with candor include: e. Use “I statements” f. Stick to facts rather than judgments g. Be clear, specific, and direct in your request. 3. Communicating with candor is an important part of creating an open communication climate. When managers communicate with candor, they encourage others to do the same. In an organization where such communication is the norm, everything works faster and better. When everyone feels free to open up and speak frankly, more people get involved in the organization conversations leading to more ideas and faster learning. Candid communication leads to genuine ongoing conversations and limits common problems such as meaningless meetings, workplace incivility, and rancorous silence. NEW MANAGER SELF-TEST: CANDOR This exercise will help students understand and assess how he or she speaks to others during personal or work conversations. The score will reflect the level of candor with which he or she communicates. They may have a hard time giving straight forward opinions and feedback because they don’t want to hurt a person’s feelings nor do they don’t want others to dislike them. Hence, the sharing of honest observations is limited. E. Asking Questions 1. The traditional top-down, command-and-control approach to organizational communication is giving way to a more dynamic form of communication that is characterized by organizational conversations involving a give-and-take exchange of information. To have successful organizational conversations, managers need to learn to ask questions. Asking questions can benefit both managers and employees in numerous ways, including: a. Building trust and openness between them b. Building critical thinking skills c. Stimulating the mind and give a chance to make a difference. F. Listening Exhibit 13.5 1. Listening involves the skill of grasping both facts and feelings to interpret a message’s genuine meaning. Listening requires attention, energy, and skill. Good listening means shifting from thinking about self to empathizing with the other person and thus requires a high degree of emotional intelligence. Some organizations have created a culture that emphasizes active manager listening. G. Nonverbal Communication 1. Nonverbal communication refers to messages sent through human actions and behaviors rather than through words. It represents a major portion of the messages we send and receive and consists of items such as facial expression, voice, mannerisms, posture, and dress. Nonverbal messages convey thoughts and feelings with greater force than do our most carefully selected words. 2. Nonverbal communication occurs mostly face to face. One researcher found three sources of communication cues during face-to-face communication: the verbal, which are the actual spoken words; the vocal, which include the pitch, tone, and timbre of a person’s voice; and facial expressions. 3. When verbal and nonverbal messages conflict, the receiver will be confused and more apt to believe the nonverbal. Nonverbal messages and body langue often convey our real thoughts and feelings with greater force than do our most carefully selected words. Managers can learn to coordinate their verbal and nonverbal messages and be sensitive to what peers, subordinates, and supervisors are saying nonverbally. III. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION Exhibits 13.6 and 13.7 Organization-wide communications typically flow downward, upward, and horizontally. Managers are responsible for establishing formal communication in these three directions. They also use informal communication channels by mingling with employees. A. Formal Communication Channels 1. Formal communication channels are those that flow within the chain of command or task responsibility defined by the organization. Within organizations, communications flow mainly downward and upward; however, many organizations emphasize horizontal communication. Electronic communication such as e-mail and instant messaging have made it easier than ever for information to flow in all directions. a. Downward communication refers to messages and information sent from top managers to subordinates in a downward direction. Common methods of downward communication include speeches, videos, blogs, podcasts, and company intranets. The major problem with downward communication is information drop-off, the distortion or loss of message content. Information drop-off can be reduced by using the right communication channel, consistency between verbal and nonverbal messages, and active listening. Downward communication encompasses these topics: • Goals and strategies • Job instructions and rationale • Procedures and practices • Performance feedback • Indoctrination b. Upward communication includes messages that flow from the lower levels to the higher levels in the organization. Employees need to air grievances, report progress, and provide feedback to management. Mechanisms for upward communication include suggestion boxes, employee surveys, open-door policies, MIS reports, and face to face conversations between workers and managers. Barriers to accurate upward communication exist. Managers may resist hearing about employee problems, or employees might not trust managers to push information upward. Innovative companies look for ways to ensure that information gets to top managers without distortion. Information communicated upward includes: • Problems and exceptions • Suggestions for improvement • Performance reports • Grievances and disputes • Financial and accounting information Discussion Question #5: Some senior managers believe they should rely on written information and computer reports because these yield more accurate data than do face-to-face communications. Do you agree? Why or why not? NOTES____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ c. Horizontal communication is the lateral or diagonal exchange of messages across peers or co-workers. The purposes of horizontal communication are to inform, to request support, and to coordinate activities. Horizontal communication is particularly important in learning organizations, where teams of workers are continuously solving problems and searching for new ways of doing things. Horizontal communication includes: • Intradepartmental problem solving • Interdepartmental coordination • Change initiatives and improvements B. Personal Communication Channels 1. Personal communication channels exist outside the formally authorized channels. They coexist with formal channels but may skip hierarchical levels, cutting across vertical chains of command to connect virtually anyone in the organization. Three types of informal channels used in many organizations are personal networks, the grapevine, and written communication. 2. Developing Personal Communication Networks: Personal networking refers to the acquisition and cultivation of personal relationships that cross departmental, hierarchical, and organizational boundaries. Smart managers consciously develop personal communication networks and encourage others to do so. The value is that people who have more contacts have greater influence in the organization and get more accomplished. Tips from one networking expert include: • Build it before you need it. Managers should not wait until they need something to start building a network of personal relations. • Never eat lunch alone. Those who excel at networking are visible and connect with as many people as possible. • Make it win-win. Successful networking isn’t just about getting what you want; it’s also about making sure other people in the network get what they want. • Focus on diversity. The broader your base of contacts, the broader your range of influence. 3. The Grapevine a. The grapevine is an informal, person-to-person communication network of employees that is not officially sanctioned by the organization. The grapevine links employees, at all levels, in all directions. The grapevine will always exist in an organization and tends to be more active during times of change, excitement, anxiety, or sagging economic conditions. About 80 percent of grapevine communications pertain to organization-related topics, and 70 to 90 percent of the messages in the grapevine are accurate. Smart managers understand the company’s grapevine. They recognize who’s connected to whom and which employees are key players in the informal spread of information. 4. Written Communication a. Written communication skills are becoming increasingly important in today’s collaborative workplace. Managers who are unable to communicate in writing will limit their opportunities for advancement. Managers can improve their writing skills by following the four guidelines below. • Respect the reader. The reader’s time is valuable; don’t waste it with a rambling, confusing memo or email that has to be read several time to try to make sense of it. Pay attention to grammar and spelling—sloppy writing indicates that you think your time is more important than that of your readers. • Know your point and get to it. To write effectively, know what your central point is and write to support it. • Write clearly rather than impressively. The goal of good writing for business is to be understood the first time through. State your message as simply and as clearly as possible. • Get a second opinion. Ask someone you consider to be a good writer to read formal communications before you send them. In all cases, read and revise memos and e-mails a second and third time before you send them. IV. WORKPLACE COMMUNICATION A. Social Media 1. Social media is a group of Internet-based applications that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content. It covers a broad number of applications including wikis, blogs, micro-blogs (e.g., Twitter), content communication (e.g., YouTube), social networking sites (e.g., Facebook), and virtual social networks. It is reinventing how people in organizations communicate. 2. Social media has been used for only two or three years for most companies, largely for communicating with customers and enhancing employee collaboration. 3. Social networking, both through public sites and corporate networks, offer peer-to-peer-communication channels where employees interact in an online community, sharing personal and professional information and photos, producing and sharing all sorts of ideas and opinions. B. Crisis Communication 1. Recently, the sheer number and scope of crises has made communication a more demanding job for managers. Organizations face small crises every day such as charges of racial discrimination, a factory fire, or a flu epidemic. Acts of intention evil such as bombings and kidnappings continue to increase in frequency. Managers can develop four skills for communicating in a crisis. a. Stay calm, listen hard. Good crisis managers don’t allow themselves to be overwhelmed by the situation. b. Be visible. A manager’s job is to step out immediately, both to reassure employees and to respond to public concerns. c. Get the awful truth out. Getting the truth out quickly prevents rumors and misunderstandings. d. Communicate a vision for the future. People need to feel that they have something to work for and look forward to. CHAPTER 14 LEADING TEAMS CHAPTER OUTLINE New Manager Self-Test: How Do You Like to Work? I. The Value of Teams A. What Is a Team? B. Contributions of Teams C. Types of Teams II. The Dilemma of Teams III. Model of Team Effectiveness IV. Virtual Teams V. Team Characteristics A. Size B. Diversity C. Member Roles New Manager Self-Test: Are You a Contributing Team Member? VI. Team Processes A. Stages of Team Development B. Team Cohesiveness C. Team Norms VII. Managing Team Conflict A. Types of Conflict B. Balancing Conflict and Cooperation C. Causes of Conflict D. Styles to Handle Conflict E. Negotiation ANNOTATED LEARNING OUTCOMES After studying this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Identify the types of teams in organizations. Answer: Many types of teams can exist within organizations and can be classified in terms of those created as part of the organization’s formal structure and those created to increase employee participation. Formal teams are created by the organization as part of the formal organization structure. A vertical team is composed of a manager and subordinates in the formal chain of command. A horizontal team is composed of employees from about the same hierarchical level but from different areas of expertise. A third type of formal team is the special purpose team created to undertake a project. Self-directed teams are designed to increase the participation of lower level workers in decision making and the conduct of their jobs, with the goal of improving performance. 2. Explain contributions that teams make and how managers can make teams more effective. Answer: Teams provide distinct advantages in the areas of innovation, quality, speed, productivity, and employee satisfaction. These contributions of teams lead to stronger competitive advantage and higher overall organizational performance. Effective teams are built by managers who take specific actions to help people come together and perform well as a team. Work team effectiveness is based on three outcomes—positive output, personal satisfaction, and the capacity to learn and adapt. The factors that influence team effectiveness begin with the organizational context. This includes such matters as the overall leadership, strategy, environment, culture, and systems for controlling and rewarding employees. Within that context, managers define teams and motivate them. Good team leaders understand and manage stages of team development, cohesiveness, norms, and conflict to build an effective team. 3. Discuss some of the problems and challenges of teamwork. Answer: There are three primary reasons teams present a dilemma for most people. First, people have to give up their independence. When people become part of a team, their success depends on the team’s success; therefore, they are dependent on how well other people perform, not just on their own individual initiative and actions. Second, people have to put up with free riders. The term free rider refers to a team member who attains benefits from team membership but does not actively participate in and contribute to the team’s work. Third, teams are sometimes dysfunctional. Many teams have great success, but others experience significant failure. The ways in which teams are managed plays the most critical role in determining how well they function. 4. Identify ways in which team size and diversity of membership affect team performance. Answer: The ideal size of work teams is about seven, although variations from five to twelve seem to work best. These teams are large enough to take advantage of diverse skills, enable members to express good and bad feelings, and solve problems. They are small enough to permit members to feel like an intimate part of the group. In general, as a team increases in size, it becomes harder for each member to interact and influence others. Small teams (2 to 4) show more agreement, ask more questions, exchange more opinions, report more satisfaction, are informal, and make fewer demands. Large teams (12 or more) have more disagreements, face conflicts, have greater demands on leaders, have less participation and more turnover and absenteeism. In large teams, members have fewer opportunities to participate. 5. Identify roles within teams and the type of role you could play to help a team be effective. Answer: For a team to be successful it must maintain its members’ social well being and accomplish the team’s task. In successful teams, two types of roles emerge: task specialist and socioemotional. People who play the task specialist role help the team reach its goal. People who adopt a socioemotional role support team members’ emotional needs. Some team members may play a dual role and contribute to the task and meet members’ emotional needs. There is also a nonparticipator role for those who contribute little to either the task or the social needs of team members. A well balanced team will do best because it will satisfy team members and permit accomplishment of team tasks. 6. Explain the general stages of team development. Answer: Team development evolves over definitive stages that occur in sequence and may occur rapidly. The forming stage of development is a period of orientation and getting acquainted. Next is the storming stage, in which individual personalities emerge and conflict and disagreement develops over perceptions of the team’s mission. During the norming stage, conflict is resolved and team harmony emerges. This stage is typically of short duration. In the performing stage, the major emphasis is on problem solving and accomplishing the assigned task. The adjourning stage occurs in teams that have a limited task to perform and are disbanded afterward. 7. Explain the concepts of team cohesiveness and team norms and their relationship to team performance. Answer: Team cohesiveness is defined as the extent to which team members are attracted to the team and motivated to remain in it. Normally, high cohesiveness is considered an attractive feature of teams. A team norm is a standard of conduct that is shared by team members and guides their behavior. Norms identify key values, clarify role expectations, and facilitate team survival. Cohesive teams are able to attain their goals and enforce their norms, which can lead to either very high or very low productivity. The degree of productivity depends on the relationship between management and the working team. 8. Understand the causes of conflict within and among teams, and how to reduce conflict. Answer: Conflict refers to antagonistic interaction in which one party attempts to block the intentions or goals of another. Too much conflict can be destructive and interfere with the exchange of ideas and information. Several factors can cause conflict such as scarce resources, jurisdictional ambiguities, communication breakdown, personality clashes, power and status differences, and goal differences. Techniques for confronting and resolving conflicts include superordinate goals, which require the cooperation of all to achieve: bargaining/negotiation; mediation; providing well defined tasks; and facilitating communication. 9. Describe the different characteristics and consequences of task conflict versus relationship conflict. Answer: Task conflict refers to disagreements among people about the goals to be achieved or the content of the tasks to be performed. Relationship conflict refers to interpersonal incompatibility that creates tension and personal animosity among people. In general, research suggests that task conflict can be beneficial because it leads to better decision making and problem solving. On the other hand, relationship conflict is typically associated with negative consequences for team effectiveness. LECTURE OUTLINE NEW MANAGER SELF-TEST: HOW DO YOU LIKE TO WORK? A person’s approach to a job or schoolwork may indicate whether she or he thrives on a team. An important part of a new manager’s job is to be both part of a team and to work alone. Teamwork can be both frustrating and motivating. This exercise helps students understand the extent to which they prefer to work alone and/or in a team. I. THE VALUE OF TEAMS Much work in organizations is interdependent, which means that individuals and departments rely on other individuals and departments for information or resources to accomplish their work. When tasks are highly interdependent, a team can be the best approach to ensuring the level of coordination, information sharing, and exchange of materials necessary for successful task accomplishment. A. What Is a Team? 1. A team is a unit of two or more people who interact and coordinate their work to accomplish a common goal to which they are committed and hold themselves mutually accountable. This definition has four components: two or more people are required; people in a team have regular interaction; members of a team share a performance goal, and people in a team share that goal and hold themselves mutually accountable for performance. 2. Although a team is a group of people, the two terms are not interchangeable. An employer can put together a group of people and never build a team. The team concept implies a sense of shared mission and collective responsibility. B. Contributions of Teams Exhibit 14.1, Exhibit 14.2 Effective teams can provide many advantages in organizations. a. Creativity and innovation: Because teams include people with diverse skills, strengths, experiences, and perspectives, they contribute to a higher level of creativity and innovation in the organization. b. Improved quality: One criterion for organizational effectiveness is whether products and services meet customer requirements for quality. c. Speed of response: Tightly integrated teams can maneuver incredibly fast. In addition, teams can speed product development, respond more quickly to changing customer needs, and solve cross-departmental problems more quickly. d. Higher productivity and lower costs: Social facilitation refers to the tendency for the presence of others to enhance one’s performance. Simply being around others has an energizing effect. In addition, the blend of perspectives enables creative ideas to percolate. e. Enhanced motivation and satisfaction: People have needs for belongingness and affiliation. Working in teams can meet these needs and create greater camaraderie across the organization. Teams also reduce boredom, increase people’s feelings of dignity and self-worth, and give people a chance to develop new skills, leading to higher motivation and commitment to the organization. C. TYPES OF TEAMS Exhibit 14.3 1. Functional Teams A functional team is composed of a manager and subordinates in the formal chain of command. The team is also called a command team and may include three or four levels within a single functional department. A financial analysis department, a quality control department, and an accounting department are all command teams. 2. Cross-Functional Teams A cross-functional team is composed of employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different areas of expertise. The most common horizontal teams are cross-functional teams and committees. A cross-functional team, or task force, is a group of employees from different departments formed to deal with a specific task, existing only until the task is completed. 3. Special purpose teams, also called project teams, are created outside the formal organization structure to undertake a project of special importance or creativity. Companies use special-purpose teams to speed up development of a special project. These fast-cycle teams are given the freedom and resources to complete projects. 4. Self Managed Teams Employee involvement through teams increases the participation of lower level workers in decision making about their jobs, with the goal of improving performance. Employee involvement started out with techniques such as information sharing with employees or asking employees for suggestions about improving the work. Self managed teams consist of five to 20 multiskilled workers who rotate jobs and produce an entire product or service or at least one complete aspect or portion of a product or service. The team works with minimum supervision, perhaps electing one of its own as supervisor, who may change each year. The most effective self-managed teams are those that are fully empowered. Self-managed teams typically include the following elements: • The combined skills are sufficient to perform a major organizational task. • The team has access to the resources necessary to perform the complete task. • The team is given decision-making authority to complete the task. • The team assumes managerial duties such as work scheduling, ordering materials, and hiring new members. II. THE DILEMMA OF TEAMS Exhibit 14.4 1. There are three primary reasons teams present a dilemma for most people. a. We have to give up our independence. When people become part of a team, their success depends on the team’s success; therefore, they are dependent on how well other people perform, not just on their own individual initiative and actions. b. We have to put up with free riders. The term free rider refers to a team member who attains benefits from team membership but does not actively participate in and contribute to the team’s work. c. Teams are sometimes dysfunctional. Many teams have great success, but others experience significant failure. The ways in which teams are managed plays the most critical role in determining how well they function. Five common dysfunctions of teams are lack of trust, fear of conflict, lack of commitment, avoidance of accountability, and inattention to results. III. MODEL OF TEAM EFFECTIVENESS Exhibit 14.5 1. Work team effectiveness is based on three outcomes: productive output—the quality and quantity of task outputs as defined by team goals; personal satisfaction—the team’s ability to meet the personal needs of its members to maintain their membership and commitment; and capacity to adapt and learn—the ability of teams to bring greater knowledge and skills to job tasks and enhance the potential of the organization to respond to new threats or opportunities. 2. The factors that influence team effectiveness begin with the organizational context in which the team operates—the structure, strategy, environment, culture, and reward systems. Managers define teams within that context. Important team characteristics are the type of team, the team structure, and the team composition. These team characteristics influence processes internal to the team, which affect output and satisfaction. Good team leaders understand and manage stages of team development, cohesiveness, norms, and conflict to establish an effective team. Discussion Question #1: Have you experienced any of the five contributions of teams shown in Exhibit 14.2 with a team you have participated in? Describe your experience and why you think that the team was able to make that specific contribution. NOTES____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ IV. VIRTUAL TEAMS Exhibit 14.6 1. A virtual team is made up of geographically or organizationally dispersed members linked through advanced information and telecommunications technologies. Though some virtual teams include only organizational members, they may also include contingent workers, members of partner organizations, customers, suppliers, and consultants. Members use e-mail, voice mail, videoconferencing, Internet and intranet technologies, and collaboration software although they may meet face-to face. 2. Many virtual teams are also global teams. Global teams are work teams made up of members of different nationalities whose activities span multiple countries. Global teams can present enormous challenges for team leaders, who have to bridge gaps of time, distance, and culture. Members of global teams may speak different languages, use different technologies, and have different beliefs about authority, time orientation, and decision making. Culture differences can significantly affect team-working relationships. 3. For a global team to be effective, all team members have to be willing to deviate somewhat from their own values and norms and establish norms for the team. Carefully selecting team members, building trust, and sharing information are also critical to success. Virtual teams are highly flexible and dynamic. Team leadership is typically shared or altered depending on the area of expertise needed at each stage of the project. Team membership may change quickly, depending on the tasks. 4. One advantage of a virtual team is the ability to assemble the best group to complete a complex project, solve a problem, or exploit a strategic opportunity. The success of virtual teams depends on using technology to build relationships, shaping culture through technology, and monitoring progress and rewarding members. The diverse mix of people can fuel creativity and innovation. Organizations can save employees time and cut travel expenses when people meet in virtual rather than physical space. 5. Some critical areas managers should focus on in leading virtual teams include: a. using technology to build relationships; b. shaping culture through technology; and c. monitoring progress and rewarding members. Discussion Question #9: Discuss how the dilemmas of teamwork might be intensified in a virtual team. What dilemmas do you feel when you have to do class assignments as part of a team? Discuss. NOTES____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Discussion Question #4: Imagine yourself as a potential member of a team responsible for designing a new package for a breakfast cereal. Do you think interpersonal skills would be equally important if the team is organized face to face versus a virtual team? Why or why not? Might different types of interpersonal skills be required for the two types of teams? Be specific. NOTES____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ V. TEAM CHARACTERISTICS The next issue of concern for managers is designing the team for greater effectiveness. One factor is team characteristics, which affect team dynamics and performance. Characteristics of concern include team size, diversity, and member roles. A. Size 1. Numerous studies have found that smaller teams perform better than larger teams, although most researchers also say it’s impossible to specify an optimal team size. Teams need to be large enough to incorporate the diverse skills needed to complete a task, enable members to express good and bad feelings, and aggressively solve problems. However, they should also be small enough to permit each member to feel like an intimate part of the team and to communicate effectively and efficiently. In general, as a team increases in size, it becomes harder for each member to interact and influence others. B. Diversity 1. Research shows that diverse teams are more innovative. In addition, diversity may contribute to a healthy level of conflict that leads to better decision making. Recent research also shows that both functional diversity and gender diversity can have a positive impact on work team performance. 2. Racial, national and ethnic diversity can also be good for teams, but in the short term these differences might hinder team interaction and performance. Teams of racially and culturally diverse members tend to have more difficulty learning to work well together, but with effective leadership, problems fade. C. Member Roles 1. For a team to be successful, it must maintain its members’ social well being and accomplish its task. The requirements for task performance and social satisfaction are met by the emergence of two types of roles: task specialist and socioemotional. 2. People who play the task specialist role help the team reach its goal and often have the following behaviors: a. Initiate ideas b. Give opinions c. Seek information d. Summarize e. Energize 3. Employees who adopt a socioemotional role support team members’ emotional needs and tend to do the following: a. Encourage b. Harmonize c. Reduce tension d. Follow e. Compromise Discussion Question #7: Think of your favorite sports team, or observe a sports team at your university. Can you identify which members seem to play task specialist roles and who might play a socioemotional role? What behaviors did you observe for each type of role? NOTES____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ NEW MANAGER SELF-TEST: ARE YOU A CONTRIBUTING TEAM MEMBER? This exercise helps students identify their contributions as a team member, which are important to the success of any type of formal team and especially to self-managed teams. VI. TEAM PROCESSES Exhibit 14.7 A. Stages of Team Development 1. Forming a. The forming stage of development is a period of orientation and getting acquainted. Uncertainty is high at this stage, and members usually accept whatever power or authority is offered by either formal or informal leaders. The team leader should provide time for members to get acquainted with one another and encourage them to engage in informal social discussions. 2. Storming a. During the storming stage, individual personalities emerge and conflict and disagreement create a general lack of unity. People may disagree over their perceptions of the team’s mission, members may jockey for position, or coalitions and subgroups based on common interests may form. The leader should encourage participation by each team member. 3. Norming a. During the norming stage, conflict is resolved, team harmony and unity develop, and team norms and values evolve. Consensus develops about who has the power, who is the leader, and members’ roles. Members come to accept and understand one another. Leaders should emphasize unity within the team and help clarify team norms and values. 4. Performing a. During the performing stage, the major emphasis is on problem solving and accomplishing the team task. Members are committed to the team’s mission. They are coordinated with one another and handle disagreements in a mature way. They confront and resolve problems in the interest of task accomplishment. The leader should concentrate on managing high task performance. 5. Adjourning a. The adjourning stage occurs in teams that have a limited task to perform and are disbanded upon task completion. The emphasis is on wrapping up and gearing down. Task performance is no longer a high priority. The leader may wish to disband the team with a ritual or ceremony, perhaps giving out plaques and awards to signify closure and completeness. 6. The five stages of team development typically occur in sequence. In teams under time pressure or that exist for a short period of time, the stages may occur rapidly. The stages may be accelerated for virtual teams. Discussion Question #3: Suppose that you are the leader of a team that has just been created to develop a new registration process at your college or university. How can you use an understanding of the stages of team development to improve your team’s effectiveness? NOTES____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ B. Team Cohesiveness. Team cohesiveness concerns the extent to which members are attracted to the team and motivated to remain in the team. High cohesiveness is normally considered a positive feature of teams. 1. Determinants of team cohesiveness a. Team interaction. The greater the contact among members, the more cohesive the team will be. b. Shared goals. Agreeing on purpose and direction binds the team together. c. Personal attraction to the team. Members have similar attitudes and values and enjoy being together. d. Presence of competition. This causes the group to want to win. e. Team success. Success is a favorable evaluation of the team by outsiders. 2. Consequences of Team Cohesiveness a. Morale is higher in cohesive teams because of increased communication among members, and member participation in team decisions and activities. High cohesiveness has almost good effects on the satisfaction and moral of team members. b. Productivity tends to be more uniform. Productivity depends on the relationship between management and the team; cohesive teams attain their goals and enforce norms that can result in very high or very low productivity. Discussion Question #8: Some people argue that the presence of an outside threat correlates with a high degree of team cohesion. Would you agree or disagree? Explain your answer. NOTES____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ C. Team Norms Exhibit 14.8 1. A team norm is a standard of conduct that is shared by team members and guides their behavior. Norms are informal and valuable because they define boundaries of acceptable behavior. They make life easier for team members by providing a frame of reference for right and wrong. Norms identify key values, clarify role expectations, and facilitate team survival. 2. Norms begin to develop in the first interactions among members of a new team. Other influences on team norms include critical events in the team’s history, as well as behaviors, attitudes, and norms that members bring them from outside the team. Norms that apply to daily behavior, employee output, and performance evolve, letting everyone know what is acceptable and directing actions towards acceptable performance. Four common ways in which norms to develop for controlling and directing behavior include: a. Critical events. Critical events establish precedent and lead to the creation of a norm. One critical event occurred when an employee at a forest products plant was injured. This led to the norm that team members regularly monitor one another. b. Primacy. Primacy means that the first behaviors that occur in a team often set team expectations. The team leader at a company raised an issue and then “led” team members until he got the solution he wanted. This became a pattern of unproductive behavior. c. Carryover behaviors. Carryover behaviors bring norms into the team from outside. An example is the strong norm against smoking in many teams, which is a carryover behavior developed outside the team. d. Explicit statements. With explicit statements, team leaders or members establish norms. This can be a highly effective way for leaders to influence or change team norms. NOTES____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ VII. MANAGING TEAM CONFLICT Conflict refers to antagonistic interaction in which one party attempts to block the intentions or goals of another. Of all the skills required for effective team management, none is more important than handling the conflicts that inevitably rise among team members. When people work together in teams, some conflict is inevitable; conflict can arise among team members or between teams. Competition, which is rivalry among individuals or teams, can have a healthy impact because it energizes people toward higher performance. A. Types of Conflict 1. Task conflict refers to disagreements among people about the goals to be achieved or the content of the tasks to be performed. Relationship conflict refers to interpersonal incompatibility that creates tension and personal animosity among people. 2. In general, research suggests that task conflict can be beneficial because it leads to better decision making and problem solving. On the other hand, relationship conflict is typically associated with negative consequences for team effectiveness. B. Balancing Conflict and Cooperation Exhibit 14.9 1. A healthy level of conflict helps to prevent groupthink, which is the tendency for people to be so committed to a cohesive team that they are reluctant to express contrary opinions. However, conflict that is too strong and focused on personal rather than work issues, or not managed appropriately can be damaging to the team’s morale. Too much conflict can be destructive, tear relationships apart, and interfere with the healthy exchange of ideas and information. 2. Team leaders have to find the right balance between conflict and cooperation. Too little conflict decreases team performance because there are no mixed opinions. Too much conflict prevents the team from cooperative efforts and decreases employee satisfaction and commitment, hurting team performance. C. Causes of Conflict 1. Scarce resources. Resources include money, information, and supplies. When employees or teams must compete for scarce resources, conflict will occur. 2. Goal differences. Conflict often occurs because people are pursuing conflicting goals; goal differences are natural in organizations. Individual salespeople’s targets may put them in conflict with one another or with the sales manager. 3. Communication breakdown. Faulty communications result in misunderstandings among teams. Poor communication results in misperceptions and misunderstandings of other people and teams. In some cases, information is intentionally withheld, which can jeopardize trust and lead to long-lasting conflict. 4. Trust issues. If team members believe they are being left out of important communication interactions, conflict can arise due to perceived lack of trust. D. Styles to Handle Conflict Exhibit 14.10 1. Teams as well as individuals develop specific styles for dealing with conflict, based on the desire to satisfy their own concern versus the other party’s concern. The major dimensions are the extent to which an individual is assertive versus cooperative in their approach to conflict. The following are styles to handle conflict: a. Dominating style. Reflects assertiveness to get one’s own way. It should be used when quick, decisive action is vital on important issues or unpopular actions such as during emergencies or urgent cost cutting. b. Avoiding style. Reflects neither assertiveness nor cooperativeness. It should be used when the issue is trivial, there is no chance to win, a delay is needed, and a disruption would be very costly. c. Compromising style. Reflects a moderate amount of both assertiveness and cooperativeness. It should be used when goals on both sides are equally important, opponents have equal power and want to split the difference, and each side needs a temporary or expedient solution. d. Accommodating style. Reflects a high degree of cooperativeness. It should be used when people realize they are wrong, an issue is more important to others than to oneself, and one is building social credits for use in later discussions. Maintaining harmony is important. e. Collaborating style. Reflects a high degree of assertiveness and cooperativeness. It should be used when both parties need to win, both sets of concerns are too important to be compromised, and insights from different people need to be merged. Commitment of both sides is needed for a consensus. E. Negotiation 1. Types of negotiation. Negotiation means that the parties engage in give-and-take discussions and consider various alternatives to reach a joint decision that is acceptable to both parties. a. Integrative negotiation is based on a win-win assumption, in that all parties want to come up with a creative solution that can benefit both sides of the conflict. People look at the issues from multiple angles, consider trade-offs, and try to “expand the pie” rather than divide it. b. Distributive negotiation assumes the size of the “pie” is fixed and each party attempts to get as much of it as they can. This win-lose approach is competitive and adversarial rather than collaborative, and does not typically lead to positive long-term relationships. 2. Rules for reaching a win-win solution a. Separate the people from the problem. Stay focused on the problem and don’t attack each other. b. Focus on interests, not current demands. Demands are what the parties want; interests are why they want those things. c. Listen and ask questions. Smart negotiators want to learn the other side’s constraints so that they can help overcome them. d. Insist that results be based on objective standards. Successful negotiation focuses on objective criteria rather than subjective judgments. Discussion Question #5: If you were the leader of a special-purpose team developing a new computer game and conflicts arose related to power and status differences among team members, what would you do? How might you use the various conflict resolution techniques described in the chapter? NOTES____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Discussion Question #10: One company had 40 percent of its workers and 20 percent of its managers resign during the first year after reorganizing into teams. What might account for this dramatic turnover? How might managers ensure a smooth transition to teams? NOTES____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Instructor Manual for Understanding Management Dorothy Marcic, Richard L. Daft 9781285421230, 9781305313347
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