Chapter 6 Attitudes Based on Low Effort CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter focuses on the processes by which marketers can change consumers’ attitudes when MAO is low and hence the effort consumers expend to process information is low. The chapter first examines unconscious influences on consumers’ attitudes, including thin-slice judgments and body feedback. The chapter then examines the cognitive bases of attitudes and how marketing communications can be designed to enhance consumers’ attitudes. When attitudes of low MAO consumers are based on cognitive processing, the message should affect their beliefs. These beliefs may be formed by simple inferences, attributions, or rules of thumb (heuristics). Marketers can also affect the salience, strength, or favorability of consumers’ beliefs, when attitudes are based on simple beliefs. Characteristics of the source (source credibility), characteristics of the message (category- and schema-consistent information, a large number of message arguments, and simple messages), and characteristics of the context (the extent of repetition) each influence one or more of the dimensions of beliefs. According to the mere exposure effect, when MAO is low, consumers’ attitudes toward an offering become more favorable as they become more familiar with it. Classical conditioning predicts that consumers’ attitudes toward an offering (the conditioned stimulus, or CS) are enhanced when it is repeatedly paired with a stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus, or UCS) that evokes a positive emotional response (the unconditioned response). This effect is most likely to occur when a CS-UCS link is novel, when the consumer is aware of the link, when the UCS and CS fit together, and when the CS precedes the UCS. Furthermore, if consumers like a particular ad (Aad), these feelings may be transferred over to the brand (Ab) (dual-mediation hypothesis). Additionally, attitudes toward an offering can also be affected by consumers’ mood and their tendency to evaluate the offering in a mood-congruent direction. Finally, attitudes based on affective processes can be made more favorable when consumers’ MAO and effort are low. Characteristics of the source (attractiveness, likeability, celebrity), characteristics of the message (pleasant pictures, pleasant music, humor, sex, emotional content), and characteristics of the context (program or editorial context) can each influence affectively based attitudes. CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, students will be able to 1. Outline some issues marketers face in trying to change consumers’ attitudes when processing effort is low. 2. Explain the role of unconscious influences on attitudes and behavior in low-effort situations. 3. Discuss how consumers form beliefs based on low processing effort and explain how marketers can influence those beliefs. 4. Describe how consumers form attitudes through affective reactions when cognitive effort is low. 5. Highlight how marketers can use the communication source, message, and context to influence consumers’ feelings and attitudes when processing effort is low. CHAPTER OUTLINE I. High-Effort Versus Low-Effort Routes to Persuasion A. High Effort (Central Route) 1. Consumers have motivation, ability, and the opportunity (MAO) to process information. B. Low Effort (Peripheral Route) 1. Consumers do not have the MAO to process information. 2. Judgments may be more influenced by peripheral cues. II. Unconscious Influences on Attitudes When Consumer Effort Is Low A. Thin-Sliced Judgments 1. Assessments consumers make after brief observations despite minimal information input. 2. These assessments can influence consumers’ decisions to buy and their satisfaction with the sale. B. Body Feedback 1. Body feedback such as nodding or shaking one’s head can lead to more positive or negative evaluations of an object. C. Marketing Implications 1. Although marketers may apply unconscious influences on consumers, this should be used with care because of the complex interactions with conscious influences. III. Cognitive Bases of Attitudes When Effort Is Low A. Consumers may acquire simple beliefs by forming simple inferences, through attributions or explanations for an endorsement, or by forming heuristics. 1. With the frequency heuristic, consumers form a belief based on the number of supporting arguments or amount of repetition. 2. The truth effect states that consumers are more likely to have stronger beliefs simply because of the repetition of the message. IV. How Cognitive Attitudes Are Influenced A. Communication Source 1. Credible sources serve as peripheral cues for making a simplified judgment. a) “Statements from experts can be trusted.” b) “Products endorsed by an expert must be good.” 2. Little cognitive effort is required. 3. To be seen as more credible, endorsers are used that do not advertise many other products. B. The Message 1. Category- and Schema-Consistent Information a) Consumers form inferential beliefs from a message. (1). Based on brand name (2). Based on price (3). Based on color b) Considerable attention should be devoted to immediate associations consumers have for easily processed information. 2. Many Message Arguments a) With the frequency heuristic, consumers count the number of arguments rather than processing information 3. Simple Messages a) Marketers communicate differences from competitors with simple key points. 4. Involving Messages a) Enhancing consumers’ involvement with the message ensures that the information is received. b) Self-referencing strategies develop positive attitudes and intentions. 5. Marketing Implications a) Marketers can increase self-referencing by: (1). Directly telling consumers to use self-reference (2). Using the second person (3). Asking rhetorical questions (4). Showing visuals of situations easy for consumers to relate to b) Mystery ad (also called the “wait-and-bait” ad) (1). Identity of brand not revealed until end of ad (2). Heightens curiosity and situational involvement (3). Particularly effective in generating category-based processing and storing brand associations in memory c) Use of avatars by online marketers to induce more arousal and involvement. d) Scratch-and-sniff ads e) Interactive ads C. Message Context and Repetition 1. The context of a message can affect the strength and salience of beliefs to the consumer. 2. Message repetition: a) Helps consumers acquire basic knowledge b) Aids in learning and recalling information (incidental learning) c) Enhances brand awareness d) Can make claims more believable (the truth effect), especially when ads are spaced out over time. V. Affective Bases of Attitudes When Consumer Effort Is Low A. The Mere Exposure Effect 1. We prefer familiar objects to unfamiliar ones. 2. Consumers’ attitudes toward an offering change over time—objects become more liked as they become more familiar. 3. Mostly demonstrated in controlled laboratory experiments. 4. Can help an unknown brand compete with other unknown brands if performance is similar and consumers expend little processing effort? 5. When consumers can easily process stimulus information, they are more likely to prefer the brand and believe the ad claims. 6. Marketing Implications a) Since consumers’ attitudes may become more favorable with time, even when consumers initially dislike new offerings, marketers may be able to enhance consumers’ liking for a new offering by repeatedly exposing consumers to the offering itself or the messages about it. b) Repetition is critical when MAO is low, but watch out for ad “wear out.” B. Classical and Evaluative Conditioning 1. A way of affecting consumers’ attitudes without invoking much processing effort. Evaluative conditioning is a case of cc. It produces an affective response by pairing a neutral conditioned stimulus with an emotionally charged unconditioned stimulus. 2. A stimulus is called unconditioned (UCS) because it automatically elicits an involuntary or unconditioned response (UCR). 3. A conditioned stimulus (CS) does not automatically elicit an involuntary response. 4. Repeatedly pairing the conditioned stimulus (CS) with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) automatically elicits the involuntary unconditioned response (UCR). 5. When the response is made in the presence of the conditioned stimulus by itself, the response is said to be a conditioned response (CR). 6. Marketing Implications a) By repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., happy scenes) with a conditioned stimulus (e.g., a brand name), it may be possible to invoke the same emotional response (now the conditioned response) to the brand name. C. Attitude Toward the Ad 1. When consumers like an ad a great deal, they may transfer their positive feelings from the ad to the brand. a) Attitudes toward ads may be the best indicator of advertising effectiveness. 2. Dual-mediation hypothesis a) Consumers can have a favorable attitude toward an ad either because they find it believable or because they feel good about it. b) These responses, in turn, may positively affect consumers’ intentions to purchase. 3. Marketing Implications a) By providing ads that are pleasing or likable to consumers, marketers may be able to make consumers’ brand attitudes more favorable. b) This approach is more effective when strong attitudes have not already been formed, as when brands are new or not well known. D. Mood 1. A stimulus can create a positive or negative mood, which can affect consumers’ reactions to any other stimulus. 2. Putting consumers in a good mood through the use of physical surroundings and employee behavior can cause consumers to evaluate stores and store merchandise more favorably. 3. Consumers in a good mood tend to ignore negative brand information. 4. Consumers in a positive mood are more likely to like a brand extension that is moderately similar to the parent product than consumers not in a good mood. 5. Marketing Implications a) Retailers can use physical surroundings and the behavior of store employees to put consumers in good moods and thus positively influence their attitudes. VI. How Affective Attitudes Are Influenced A. Communication Source 1. Attractive Sources a) When consumers’ motivation to process an advertised message is low, attractive sources will enhance the favorability of consumers’ brand attitudes. 2. Likable Sources a) May serve as unconditioned stimuli, create a positive mood that affects consumers’ evaluations of the ad or brand, and make consumers feel more positive about the endorsed products 3. Celebrity Sources a) Combine physical attractiveness and likeability to account for one-third of television advertising B. The Message 1. Pleasant Pictures a) Can affect ad and brand attitudes when they are processed peripherally 2. Music a) Can create different emotional responses and convey different product meanings 3. Humor a) Can be used to attract consumers’ attention and increase liking of the ad and the brand b) Most effective when tied or related to the offering, otherwise consumers may pay attention to the humor and not the brand. c) Marketing Implications (1). Humor works best on TV and radio (2). Humor is more effective with some audiences than others; for example, young, more educated males respond the most positively to humor. (3). While humor is universal, specifics of humor are culturally specific. 4. Sex a) Sex as a communication technique appears in two major forms (1). Sexual suggestiveness involves situations that portray or imply sexual themes or romance (2). Nudity or partial nudity is the other technique used in ads. b) Marketing Implications (1). Sex in marketing can be effective because it attracts consumers’ attention, and it can evoke an emotional response which in turn can affect consumers’ moods. (2). However, sexual messages may create negative feelings such as embarrassment or disgust in some consumers. (3). Men and women vary in their responsiveness to sexual marketing messages. (4). The sexual content of a marketing message should be consistent with the product/service being advertised. (5). Consumer reaction to sexual marketing communications varies across cultures. 5. Emotional Content a) The goal of transformational advertising is to associate the experience of using the product with a unique set of psychological characteristics thereby increasing emotional involvement. b) Dramas attempt to get the consumer to empathize with the characters and become involved emotionally. 6. Message Context a) The program or editorial context in which a message appears affects consumers’ evaluation. b) Programs influence consumers to transfer their feelings about the program to the ad (excitation transfer hypothesis). c) A program that is too distracting can inhibit processing and ad recall. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION Possible answers are as follows. 1. How can unconscious influences affect consumer attitudes and behavior in low effort situations? Answer: Much processing in low effort situations occurs below conscious awareness. Thin-slice judgments and body feedback are two ways in which consumers process information unconsciously. 2. What role do source, message, context, and repetition play in influencing consumers’ cognitive attitudes in low-effort situations? Answer: The communication source characteristics are important in influencing consumer beliefs in low-effort processing situations. The message itself also influences attitudes. Messages should attempt to provide consistent information to consumer schema. In low-processing situations, simple messages should be used. Repetition increases recall through incidental learning, which is effortless processing. Repetition may also enhance brand awareness and memory. This is why in ads it is very likely to hear or see the brand name at least four to seven times to help increase retention of the brand in the consumer’s mind. 3. What is the mere exposure effect, and why is it important to consumers’ affective reactions? Answer: The mere exposure effect is the concept that familiarity leads to liking of an object. It is important to our affective reactions, as we tend to prefer familiar objects to unfamiliar ones. Research has shown that mere exposure allows consumers to more easily process information to which they have been exposed. 4. How do classical conditioning and evaluative conditioning apply to consumers’ attitudes when processing effort is low? Answer: Successful classical conditioning links the conditioned stimulus to a response. This works best in low effort processing situations where the linkage becomes assumed over time rather than cognitively paired. Pairing the product with certain unconditioned stimuli such as beautiful scenery or a catchy jingle can automatically elicit an emotional response such as joy or warmth. Taco Bell helps condition consumers to eat at their establishments by utilizing a Chihuahua as part of a very effective ad campaign. 5. Explain the dual-mediation hypothesis. What are the implications for affecting consumers’ brand attitude? Answer: The dual-mediation hypothesis explains how attitudes toward the ad (Aad) can influence attitudes toward the brand (Ab) and purchase intentions (Ib). In short, if a marketer can positively influence your attitude toward the ad (Aad), then these positive feelings can transfer to the brand (“I like the ad so I like the product”), positively impact brand beliefs and increase the likelihood of purchase. The dual-mediation hypothesis holds best for products that are less well known to the consumer and for products that require far less cognitive processing effort (products with a simple belief schema). 6. In low-effort situations, what characteristics of the message influence consumers’ affective response? Answer: The characteristics of the message that influence consumers’ affective response include the credibility, attractiveness, and likeability of the source, as well as message content factors such as the use of pleasant pictures, music, humor, sex, emotional content, and message context. 7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of featuring celebrities in advertising messages? Answer: Typically, celebrities often rank high on attractiveness, likeability and credibility. When the celebrity directly relates to the product being advertised (match-up hypothesis), celebrity sources can be very effective at affecting consumer attitudes. However, there is a danger for the advertiser to link their product to a celebrity whose credibility or likeability changes. Public scandal has affected numerous celebrities’ ability to promote products. CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE The Old Spice Man Spices Up Brand Marketing When Isaiah Mustafa appeared in a 2010 Super Bowl commercial with a towel wrapped around his waist and a bottle of Old Spice body wash in one hand, he kicked off a long-running viral marketing campaign that has rejuvenated the brand’s sales. Mustafa, a former NFL wide receiver, smiled into the camera and addressed women viewers, saying he was “the man your man could smell like” if they used Old Spice. The combination of his wryly funny lines, winning delivery, and buff physique made the commercial an instant YouTube hit. Suddenly Old Spice, a pre-World War II brand that zoomed to prominence in the 1960s and 1970s, was an overnight social media sensation, with Facebook fans, Twitter comments, and consumer-generated spoof videos stirring up conversation around the world. The Old Spice Man campaign, created by ad agency Wieden & Kennedy for brand owner Procter & Gamble, had successfully added a relevancy and an affective appeal that was attracting and entertaining a younger audience than the brand’s traditional customer base—and boosting sales significantly. As soon as the first Isaiah Mustafa ad went viral, the agency followed up with a second commercial in the same humorous vein, again featuring the bare-chested Old Spice Man. Again, public response was so enthusiastic that the campaign geared up for a new and unprecedented social-media blitz. This time, Old Spice invited users of Twitter, Reddit, and Digg—including celebrities and athletes such as Ellen DeGeneres, Demi Moore, and Apolo Ohno—to submit questions for the Old Spice Man to answer. As hundreds of questions poured in, consumers voted for the ones they wanted to see answered. Next, in a marathon three-day studio session, the agency scripted and Mustafa starred in 186 brief YouTube videos responding to individual questioners in typical wry style. When Kevin Rose of Digg.com tweeted that he wasn’t feeling well, the Old Spice Man answered with a “get well” video that Rose immediately mentioned to his more than one million Twitter followers. The concentrated barrage of targeted, personalized tweets and entertaining videos stirred up enormous positive word of mouth among consumers. Just as important, Old Spice was the subject of many stories on television and radio, in the blogosphere, in newspapers and magazines, and seemingly everywhere on the Internet where news commentators posted articles, podcasts, or videos. All the media coverage (which the brand did not pay for) fueled even more consumer interest in Old Spice. Within days of the Old Spice Man’s answer videos appearing online, the brand’s Facebook page collected more than 600,000 “likes” and the online videos were viewed more than 7 million times. Procter & Gamble supported the social-media campaign with discount coupons and other promotional efforts that reinforced brand awareness and offered an incentive to buy and try Old Spice products right away. Old Spice sales quickly skyrocketed and the brand captured the market leader position, despite competition from Unilever’s Axe, Beiersdorf’s Nivea, and Henkel’s Right Guard brands. A year later, Procter & Gamble launched a new chapter in the Old Spice Man story. This time, Fabio—the model and star of many romance novel covers—appeared in online videos challenging Isaiah Mustafa for the title of Old Spice Man. This tongue-in-cheek “mano a mano” competition consisted of 39 back-and-forth videos that drew millions of viewers and tens of thousands of social media comments. Consumers clicked to vote for the Old Spice Man they preferred, and after several days of hectic and humorous exchanges, Mustafa and Fabio appeared in one final video announcing that Mustafa had retained his title. The big winner was, of course, Old Spice, which gained even more brand awareness and enjoyed higher sales. Now Procter & Gamble is taking the Old Spice Man campaign on the road to universities and cities where consumers can try branded products and have their photos taken in poses reminiscent of the original Old Spice Man commercial. Case Questions 1. How is Old Spice using evaluative conditioning to influence consumers’ affective attitudes? Identify the conditioned stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, and conditioned response in this situation. Answer: Old Spice uses evaluative conditioning through the barrage of short Old Spice Man web-spots that feature the Old Spice Man, but are not directly about the products. The conditioned stimulus is Old Spice (the brand), the unconditioned stimulus is the Old Spice Man, the unconditioned response is liking Mustafa/finding him humorous, and the conditioned response it liking Old Spice as well 2. What role does the dual-mediation hypothesis play in the Old Spice Man’s marketing success? Answer: The success of the Old Spice Man campaign had to do with how funny Mustafa was and the interaction consumers felt they had with him when he responded to 186 of their tweets, posts, etc. Thus, consumers had a good feeling about the Old Spice Man, which elevated their positive affect toward the brand itself. 3. What aspects of the communication source are involved in influencing affective attitudes toward Old Spice? Answer: Mustafa himself was attractive and likable; the commercials used humor effectively and toyed with some sexy ideas, but were not overtly sexual. Additionally, the message context (i.e. on the web) contributed to consumers feeling a more personal connection with the campaign and allowed them to watch as few or as many videos as they wanted to, anytime, anywhere. 4. Do you think consumers will maintain a positive attitude toward Old Spice if the Old Spice Man campaign suspends messages for more than one or two months? Explain your answer. Answer: The positive attitude toward the brand is likely to remain for a while because many consumers saw a lot of ads over time and formed positive feelings. However, the longer the campaign is suspended the weaker positive attitude may become in individuals who formed their attitudes via peripheral processing and didn’t really elaborate on why they liked Old Spice and how it satisfied their needs. SUGGESTED EXERCISES AND TEACHER GUIDELINES 1. Watch at least four hours of commercial television. Prepare a chart that lists all the techniques discussed in this chapter across the top as columns (attractive source, likable source, visuals, humor, music, sex, emotion, simple message, repetition, and so on). For each ad, tally which techniques are used. Also briefly assess the effectiveness of each ad in terms of creating positive Aad and Ab, attitudes about the ad and the brand. After collecting this information for all ads viewed during the four hours, answer the following questions: (a) Which techniques are used most frequently. (b) In your judgment, which ads tend to be the most effective in influencing attitudes toward the ad and the brand? Why. (c) In your judgment, which ads tend to be the least effective? Why? Answer: When discussing this exercise in class, ask students to consider not only the shows that they watched, but also the time of day that the shows were on. How does time of day, even on the same network, influence the likelihood of seeing an ad for a particular product? Also, inquire as to the degree to which prior brand attitudes may have affected their current evaluations of the ads. I find that students do not realize that prior brand attitudes do affect their evaluations of current ads. I point this out to students and they seem to be surprised that advertising does influence them. Many of the students convey to me that they thought advertising influenced others but not them. Chart of Techniques Used in TV Ads: Summary: (a) Most Frequently Used Techniques: Visuals: Common in all ads for capturing attention. Repetition: Frequently used to reinforce message. Music: Often used to enhance emotional connection. (b) Most Effective Ads: Ads 1 and 4: Effective due to use of multiple techniques including attractive sources, emotion, and repetition, which likely create positive attitudes toward the ad and brand. (c) Least Effective Ads: Ads 2 and 5: Less effective due to limited use of engaging techniques like humor and emotion, which may result in weaker attitudes toward the ad and brand. 2. Collect five magazines that are directed at different target audiences. Prepare a chart that lists all the techniques discussed in this chapter across the top as columns (attractive source, likable source, visuals, humor, music, sex, emotion, simple message, repetition, and so on). Down the side of the chart, generate a running list of the different product and service categories that appear in the ads. For each ad in each magazine, make a tally of the type of product advertised and the type(s) of techniques used. Then answer the following questions: (a) Which techniques are used most frequently? (b) Do certain techniques tend to be used more often for certain product or service categories? (c) Do the magazines in general use certain techniques more often for certain target audiences? Answer: Similarly, have students carefully consider the target markets of each of these magazines. Would they have similar opinions regarding ads placed in magazines that they do not read frequently or at all? Ask students, if a high-end item is advertised in a magazine they have brought in, what does that tell them about the magazines demographics. Summary: (a) Most Frequently Used Techniques: Visuals: Commonly used across most ads. Repetition: Frequently used, particularly for electronics and food categories. (b) Techniques by Product Category: Fashion: Uses attractive sources, emotion, and humor more frequently. Electronics: Focuses on visuals and repetition. Health & Wellness: Emphasizes emotion and humor. (c) Magazine Techniques by Target Audience: Cosmetics/Travel Magazines: More use of attractive sources and emotion. Electronics/Financial Services: Higher use of repetition and simple messaging. SUGGESTED INTERNET EXERCISES WITH SAMPLE ANSWERS NEWMAN’S OWN FOOD PRODUCTS Most consumers are unwilling to exert much effort processing the main concept underlying salad dressing, spaghetti sauce, or salsa. So how could a small marketer gain a toehold in the extremely competitive, mature markets for these and other foods? If the marketer is Paul Newman, actor, race car driver, and eclectic celebrity, this task might be easier than it seems. Mr. Newman founded the eponymous company in 1982, with a promise to offer high-quality food products at reasonable prices and to donate all profits to charity. At the company’s website (www.newmansown.com), what devices are used to create or reinforce positive attitudes among consumers? Instructor Notes The first device the visitor notices at the website for Newman’s Own is its sly use of humor. The opening page features the same smiling image of the company founder which appears on its products’ labels—except that online, Mr. Newman’s right eye winks at the visitor. The site’s slogan also creates gentle humor at the company’s own expense: “Shameless Exploitation in Pursuit of the Common Good.” These unexpected, amusing stimuli draw the consumer into the site almost automatically. Newman’s pleasant appearance, likeability, and celebrity status also create a positive communication source, despite the absence of any “match-up” effect with his products. All of the links the visitor expects at a food products company’s website—food information, recipes, cookbook offers—are present, alongside links concerning grants to non-profit organizations under the auspices of Newman’s Own; promotional tie-ins (for example, rebates on purchases of the classic movie Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid on video or DVD); and a wealth of information about the children’s camps and other charities supported by profits from Newman’s Own. All of these stimuli create an involving message, and increase the consumer’s motivation to process actively the information about the company and its products. The page features images of the company’s product line, which may increase positive attitudes because of the mere exposure effect. Also, the links and many headlines are in red, which is the color of many Newman’s Own products as well as a color associated with activity and fun. Wit and humor abound also on the What’s New page. For example, the headline “Newman’s Fiddles with Creamy Caesar Dressing While the Market Burns for New Products,” will elicit a giggle, and perhaps a positive mood, again facilitating low-effort processing. Additional Uses This exercise also relates to concepts in the following: • Chapter 4, Memory and Knowledge (positioning away from the prototype for salad dressings, spaghetti sauces, and other categories of Newman’s Own foods) • Chapter 7, Problem Recognition and Information Search (Paul Newman’s face on the label as a retrieval cue) • Chapter 9, Judgment and Decision Making Based on Low Effort (affect tactic based on liking for Paul Newman or admiration for the company’s charitable activities) • Chapter 14, Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles (profile of a Newman’s Own consumer) Discussion Idea In what ways might the reputation of Newman’s Own result in incorrect simple inferences about the product, thus producing negative attitudes? Possible answers might include: • Believing that the company does not donate its profits to charity (incorrectly assuming that a company without profits cannot survive, indicating a misunderstanding of how non-profit organizations operate) • Inferring that a product bearing a celebrity’s name and image must be more expensive (incorrectly assuming that the company must compensate Newman for his endorsement) ADDITIONAL DISCUSSION QUESTIONS WITH SAMPLE ANSWERS These discussion questions can be used as in-class activities or as thought questions that the students consider while reading the chapter or to test their understanding of the material after the reading and lecture are complete. 1. Explain the peripheral route to persuasion and discuss ways marketers can influence low-effort consumer attitudes. Answer: When consumers’ motivation, ability, and opportunity (MAO) are low, they are not likely to devote much effort to attitude formation and change. Instead, they are likely to form beliefs based on simple inferences, attributions, and heuristics. This low-effort processing results in marketers using the peripheral route to persuasion (aspects other than key message arguments). Marketers can influence low-effort consumers’ attitudes either cognitively or affectively. When designing cognitively based messages, marketers should consider the credibility of the communication source, the content of the message, and the context of the message. The source should serve as a positive peripheral cue, and the context should include repetition. The message should incorporate category- and schema-consistent information, many supporting arguments, and involving, yet simple, messages. When designing affectively based messages, marketers should select communication sources that are attractive and likable or celebrities. They should create messages that include pleasant pictures, music, humor, sex, or emotional content, and an appropriate context. 2. Discuss the mere exposure effect and provide examples of how marketers can enhance consumer liking for an object. Answer: According to the mere exposure effect, familiarity with an object leads to liking an object. While the effect’s validity has been questioned, it has been applied by the advertising industry. One of advertising’s goals is to create tactics that increase consumer exposure to products and messages. The mere exposure effect is in use when product or brand information is repeated within an ad, when a commercial is repeated numerous times throughout a television broadcast or radio program, and when a product is advertised through multiple channels simultaneously (television, radio, print media, the Internet, etc.). ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS 1. Give an example of how the mere exposure effect could be used to influence consumers’ affective response to the brand you are considering. Answer: Example: Repeatedly showing a brand of sneakers in ads increases consumer preference due to familiarity. 2. Knowing that marketers can influence cognitively based attitudes when consumer effort is low, explain how you could use characteristics of the source, message, and context to influence consumers’ brand perceptions of the brand you are considering. Answer: Source: Use a well-known spokesperson. Message: Highlight key benefits simply. Context: Place ads in high-traffic areas for maximum visibility. 3. The mere exposure effect and classical conditioning are both ways marketers can influence the affective bases of attitudes when consumer effort is low. Describe how you could use both of these approaches to complement each other in a marketing effort for the brand you are considering. Answer: Mere Exposure: Increase familiarity through frequent ads. Classical Conditioning: Pair the brand with positive imagery to create favorable emotions. Together, they enhance both familiarity and positive feelings. 4. Describe in what circumstances classical conditioning is most likely to be successful. Develop a list of reasons why it is difficult to use classical conditioning in marketing and advertising. Answer: Success: When paired with consistently positive stimuli. Challenges: Requires consistent pairing, and effectiveness can be diminished by competing stimuli or if the positive association doesn’t fit the product. 5. Explain what is meant by “attitude toward the ad.” Outline its key components and explain why it is important to advertising and marketing. Answer: Definition: Overall evaluation of an ad, impacting brand perception. Importance: Positive ad attitudes lead to favorable brand attitudes and increased purchase intent. 6. Explain the dual-mediation hypothesis and explain why it is important to marketing and advertising. Answer: Explanation: Positive ad attitudes can directly enhance brand attitudes and indirectly through improved cognitive processing. Importance: Shows the dual impact of effective ads on brand perception. 7. Explain why consumers often process messages using heuristics. Describe some common types of heuristics that consumers might employ. Offer examples of situations in which these heuristics could be used. Answer: Why: Simplifies decision-making with low effort. Examples: Brand Loyalty: Prefer known brands. Price: Higher price suggests better quality. Endorsement: Trust products endorsed by celebrities. 8. Explain how source attractiveness can influence consumer attitudes and include a description of factors that might mediate this process. Provide several examples of marketing communications that illustrate this process. Answer: Influence: Enhances positive attitudes through likability and credibility. Examples: Ads with celebrities or relatable influencers boost engagement and favorability. 9. Discuss how humor in advertising impacts upon consumer attitudes. Provide examples of marketing communications that effectively use this technique. Answer: Impact: Increases recall and positive brand perception. Examples: Geico: Humorous scenarios. Old Spice: Comedic ads that enhance brand appeal. EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES AND CLASSROOM EXAMPLES Students who learn more readily through visual and tactile stimuli will benefit from the introduction of physical examples into the classroom. 1. “Celebrity Spotlight” Exercise Ask students to write down the names of their five favorite celebrities and then identify branded products or services for which those celebrities would make good spokespersons. For example, would Andre Agassi’s fiery temper make him a good match (no pun intended!) with Tabasco? Would Rosie O’Donnell’s knowledge of old television shows and theme songs make her a candidate for Nickelodeon? Discuss the pairings, why or why not they make strategic sense, and the celebrity’s potential role in building brand equity. 2. “From the Ridiculous to the Sublime” Exercise Ask for student reactions to a variety of hypothetical brand extensions, ranging from the weird to the wonderful (e.g., Mrs. Field’s carburetors, Chanel facial tissues, Disney children’s hospitals, Nikon film, H&R Block travel agency, Sony toaster, Outward Bound hotels, and Dial deodorant). After discussing why they reacted as they did (explaining the notion of affect transfer in the process), give them an opportunity to try their hand at developing an extension concept. Separate the class into groups of four or five students and give them 15 minutes to come up with an extension of a brand of their choice. After each group has described its idea and explained why they believe it would be successful, ask students to vote for a favorite (it is up to the instructor whether to allow students to vote for their own group’s idea). Give the winning group a small prize (a bag of candy, for example). 3. Consider visiting the local grocery store to find examples of marketing efforts that call attention to how companies are making efforts to build categories, schemas, or scripts for their products. Examples of these efforts might include: (a) coupons that may be designed to induce trial, but may actually serve as a classical conditioning tool, teaching customers to react to the promotion; (b) advertisements that include characteristics designed to influence affectively based attitudes when consumer effort is low (e.g., using source, message, or context characteristics). Use these and other examples to stimulate discussion about how marketers are or are not using principles of consumer behavior to support their marketing efforts. CLASSROOM GROUP ACTIVITY Influencing Attitudes When Consumer Effort Is Low: 20 Minutes I. Start Up A. Purpose of the activity 1. This activity will give students an opportunity to consider factors related to attitude formation and schemas in a brief classroom exercise. B. What the instructor will do 1. The instructor will divide people into small groups, assign them a product for consideration, and be available to coach and help the groups as needed. C. What the participants will do 1. The participants will work in small groups to brainstorm ideas for applying concepts from the chapter to specific brands. After a period of small-group discussion, they will make reports to the large group. D. Rules for this experience 1. Groups are to work separately from each other. Individuals should rely on their knowledge from the book and may refer to their notes and the book as necessary. II. Experience A. Group up. 1. Have students form groups of no more than five. This exercise will work in groups of any size; however, room restrictions that do not allow for moving furniture may make group work more difficult. B. Assign brands. 1. Each group should be assigned a single brand for a low-involvement good (i.e., frequently purchased consumer nondurable) on which to focus. a) Consider using local brands including both products and services. b) In addition, international brands like the following could be used: Exxon, McDonald’s, Coca-Cola, Heinz, Glade, Hungry Jack. c) Consider bringing samples of the brands to the class for students to study and review in their groups (e.g., a box of crackers, a candy bar, a cola can). C. Specific actions for groups 1. The groups are responsible for creating a combination of methods for generating attitudes toward the brand in a competitive environment, given that consumers are likely to expend low levels of effort (involvement) developing attitudes toward these brands. 2. Questions to be answered by small groups a) Identify factors that may help or hinder consumers’ likelihood to actively develop attitudes toward the brand. b) By what specific means could you influence consumer attitudes toward this brand? c) How might consumers’ attitudes toward the brand be otherwise influenced in a competitive marketplace, and how can you address these sources of influence? 3. Large-group discussions a) First, have groups present their ideas about the first question, and then proceed to discuss each of the subsequent questions. b) If there are many groups, share the discussion among all groups, though not all groups may answer all of the questions. III. Debrief and Unveil Concepts A. Discuss the activity itself. 1. The purpose of this discussion is to allow students to express what they felt about the experience itself. 2. Ask students to describe their experiences of “doing” the activity. a) Likes and dislikes about what just happened b) How they felt during the experience c) What is realistic, unrealistic about the exercise? d) What will be different when they do this for their own brand? B. Discuss the content of the experience. 1. The purpose of this discussion is to ensure that students “take away” important learning points. 2. Ask students to describe the important points the experience teaches. 3. Use the chalkboard to record student responses. a) Write down their ideas as they are presented. b) Concentrate on the principles being discussed rather than the examples being used. c) Help them to see the interrelationships between their responses IV. Execute A. Apply what has been learned. 1. Lead a discussion on how the concepts can be applied in organizations. a) What barriers may be faced in applying the concepts from the exercise? b) What can be done to help others understand the concepts when you use them at work? B. Transfer and use the knowledge. 1. Encourage students to make a record in their notes about how they will use the ideas in the workplace. 2. Even if they do not have a specific job, how will they remember to use what they have learned? Hollie Shaw, “Old Spice Guy Beats Fabio in ‘Mano a Mano’ Contest,” Advertising Age, July 28, 2011, www.adage.com; Craig Reiss, “Businesses Can Learn from the Old Spice Man Viral Marketing Campaign,” Entrepreneur, July 18, 2010, www.entrepreneur.com; Gary Vaynerchuk, “Old Spice Man Marketing, Redux,” Fast Company, March 10, 2011, www.fastcompany.com; Jack Neff, “Old Spice Is Killing It on YouTube Again, But Sales Are Down Double-Digits,” Advertising Age, August 4, 2011, www.adage.com; and Sebastian Joseph, “Old Spice Man Tour to Visit a City Near You,” Marketing Week (UK), October 7, 2011, www.marketingweek.co.uk. Solution Manual for Consumer Behavior Wayne D. Hoyer, Deborah J. MacInnis, Rik Pieters 9780357721292, 9781305507272, 9781133435211
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