CH-4 Memory and Knowledge – Consumer Behavior : Book Guide

Chapter 4 Memory and Knowledge CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter considers how memory and knowledge influence consumer behavior. The chapter describes memory and knowledge content (stored knowledge) and knowledge structure (the way information is organized in our minds). Prior knowledge is essential for two levels of consumer understanding: categorization and comprehension. Categorization is a process of labeling things that consumers perceive, and relating them to both other objects in the environment and their past experience. Items that are categorized, such as brands, are linked with other items in schemas and scripts. Schemas and scripts are part of the consumers’ knowledge of their world. Understanding how this knowledge is structured can help marketers create new knowledge about existing brands, create new brands, and link either new or existing brands to other knowledge that consumers may have about the world. Key concepts include: Memory • Sensory • Working • Long-term • Explicit vs. implicit Knowledge • Content (schemas and scripts) • Structure (associative networks, categories) • Flexibility Retrieval • Failures and errors • Enhancing retrieval Memory is discussed as both sensory and working, as well as both short term and long term. Memory is explicit or implicit. The role of memory is key to understand along with consumer knowledge. Knowledge is organized into categories in which objects in the same category are similar to one another and are distinct from items in other categories. Within a category, items are graded so that some are more representative or prototypical of that category than others. In addition, categories may be hierarchically organized so that some items are considered basic as compared to others that are subordinate or superordinate. Understanding the structure of knowledge helps marketers to position, develop, and design all elements of the marketing mix. While marketers intend to make it easy for consumers to understand their messages accurately (objective comprehension), factors like motivation, ability (age, expertise), and opportunity (repetition) can interfere and lead to misunderstanding. What is more, consumers may have difficulty understanding the explicit messages in marketing communications because they use other cues (words, visuals, price, atmospherics, packaging, product attributes) to form unintended inferences. Thus, what is understood is not always that which was intended. Finally, knowing that this confusion can occur, marketers must take extra precautions in order to not mislead consumers. CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, students will be able to 1. Distinguish among sensory, working, long-term, implicit, and explicit memory, and explain why marketers must be aware of these different types of memory. 2. Describe how schemas and scripts affect consumers’ knowledge content. 3. Explain how and why the content and structure of knowledge, including associative networks, categories, and prototypicality, are relevant to marketers. 4. Discuss what memory retrieval is, how it works, and how marketers try to affect it. CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Overview of Memory and Knowledge A. Knowing has to do with prior knowledge—both what we have encountered and how it relates to other knowledge. II. What Is Memory? A. Memory is the persistence of learning over time, via the storage and retrieval of information, which can occur consciously or unconsciously. 1. Knowledge content is the information we already have in memory. 2. The set of associations linked to a concept is a schema. B. Sensory Memory is the ability to temporarily store input from all our five senses. C. Working memory is the portion of memory where we encode incoming information and keep it available for future use. D. Long-term memory (LTM) is that part of memory where information is permanently stored for later use. The two major types of long-term memory are episodic and semantic memory. 1. Episodic, or autobiographical, memory represents knowledge about ourselves and what has happened to us in our past,-including emotions and sensations tied to past experiences. 2. These memories tend to be primarily sensory, involving visual images, sounds, smells, tastes, and tactile sensations. E. Explicit Memory, Implicit Memory, and Processing Fluency 1. Memory may be explicit or implicit. 2. There is explicit memory when consumers are consciously aware that they remember something. 3. There is implicit memory when consumers are not consciously aware that they remember something. 4. Implicit memory makes it easier to process information that we have encountered before. F. How Memory Is Enhanced 1. Many of the factors that affect attention also affect memory and, ultimately, recognition and recall. 2. Chunking is a way to group items together to enhance recall. 3. Rehearsal means that we actively and consciously interact with the material that we are trying to remember, perhaps by silently repeating or actively thinking about the information and its meaning. 4. Recirculation explains why repetition affects memory. 5. Elaboration involves the transfer information into long-term memory by processed it at deeper levels of meaning III. Knowledge Content, Structure, and Flexibility A. Knowledge content reflects the information we have already learned and stored in memory about brands, companies, stores, people, how to shop, and so on. Knowledge structure describes how we organize knowledge in memory. B. Knowledge Content: Schemas and Scripts: Knowledge content takes the form of schemas or scripts. Scripts are a form of procedural knowledge: knowledge about “how” to do things with the objects and people. 1. Schemas are the set of associations linked to an object or person. a) Types of associations, including attributes, benefits, users, uses, usage situations b) Favorability c) Uniqueness d) Salience or the ease with which they come to mind 2. Long-term memory is structured as a series of associative networks. Spreading of activation to other parts or the network is important. 3. Priming: the increased sensitivity to certain concepts and associations due to prior experience based on implicit memory. It occurs when a concept is activated by a stimulus. C. Specific Schemas: Brand Image and Personality 1. Brand image: type of schema that captures what a brand stands for. a) Example: McDonalds: family-friendly, fast, favorable 2. Brand Personality: The way the consumer would describe a brand if it were a person (e.g., rugged). D. Scripts: Knowledge of a sequence of actions involved in performing an activity. 1. A script is a type of schema that represents knowledge of a sequence of events. a) Examples include how to order dinner in a restaurant, how to get gas at a gas station, and how to place an order with Ticketmaster. b) Scripts help consumers make determinations quickly and help marketers understand how consumers buy an offering. E. Marketing Implications 1. Creating Brand Images and Personalities a) With a new product, the marketer has to create schema, image, and or personality. b) Important so consumers understand the offering. 2. Creating Brand Extensions: Use of a brand name of a product with a well-developed image on a product in a different category. a) A transfer of associations takes place from the original brand schema to the new branded product. b) This process may reverse. 3. Maintaining Brand Images and Personalities a) Marketers must maintain and develop the brand image. b) The key is to be synergistic with marketing communication. 4. Changing Brand Images and Personalities: When a brand becomes stale or irrelevant, the marketer must change the brand to have more positive associations. 5. Protecting Brand Images and Personalities: Brand images are threatened during crisis or harm. A company should respond in a responsible manner. F. Knowledge Structure: Categories 1. Objects are arranged in taxonomic categories: orderly classifications of objects with similar objects in the same category. 2. Graded Structure and Prototypically a) Things within the same taxonomic category share similar features that are different from the features shared by objects in other categories. b) Category members vary in how well they represent a category, according to the principle of graded structure. c) When an item is the best representative example of others in its category, it is called a prototype. d) It shares the most features with others in its category and the fewest with members of different categories. e) It is frequently encountered in the environment. f) In categories where there is no prototype, a first or “pioneer” brand may serve a similar function. 3. Hierarchical Structure a) At the superordinate level, objects share some characteristics but differ on others (colas and water). b) At the basic level, objects share more characteristics (teas and coffees). c) At the subordinate level, objects share most characteristics yet still differ (coffee and decaf). 4. Correlated Associations a) Objects that have attributes that correlate in similar ways may be grouped together (e.g., size and gas mileage is usually negatively correlated in cars). b) Illusory correlations occur when consumers are confronted with ambiguous information and mistakenly infer that the presence an attribute of a product means that other attributes are also present. c) Consumers develop conjunctive probability assessments of two attributes or events occurring simultaneously. Their assessments are influenced by prior expectations. 5. Marketing Implications a) A brand can develop its identity by being positioned as being either similar to or different from a prototype. G. Knowledge Flexibility 1. Goal-Derived Categories a) Come items serve the same goals, and thus are seen as fitting into the same category (diet foods, vacation spots). b) Goal categories can also be graded and hierarchical in structure. 2. Construal Level a) According to construal level theory, we can think about a product or action in terms of high-level or low-level construal. b) In other words, consumers can think of objects and outcomes as abstract (high-level construal) or as concrete (low-level construal) 3. Marketing Implications a) Offerings can be positioned as being relevant to consumers’ goals as a marketing objective. b) The design of retail stores and websites can also apply goal-derived category structures in planning. E. Why Consumers Differ in Knowledge Content and Structure 1. Culture may influence associations not found in other cultures (certain spokespeople with certain products). 2. Relevant category members vary across cultures (what are breakfast foods, for example). 3. Attribute correlations may differ (size of store correlation with quality of product may be different). 4. Prior experience affects consumers’ ability to process information 5. Experts and nonexperts may categorize differently. 6. Experts may distinguish category membership more finely than nonexperts. III. Memory and Retrieval A. Retrieval Failures: Decay, Interference, and Serial-position effects 1. Decay: memory strengths deteriorates over time 2. Interference: strength of a memory deteriorates over time because of the presence of other memories that compete against it 3. Serial-Position Effects a) Primacy: May remember the first ad because no other ads yet compete in the memory b) Recency: Evidence of being last is less strong, but first or last is better than middle B. Retrieval Errors: Memory is not always accurate and is subject to confusion, selection, and distortion. C. Enhancing Retrieval D. Characteristics of the Stimulus 1. What the Stimulus Is Linked To 2. How a Stimulus is Processed in Working Memory 3. Consumer Characteristics Affecting Retrieval QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION Possible answers are as follows. 1. How are sensory, working, and long-term memory linked? Answer: Sensory memory is the ability to temporarily store input from all of our five senses. Working memory is the portion of memory where we encode information and keep it available for future use. Each are a precursor to long term memory, which is the part of memory where information is permanently stored for later use. Two types of LTR are semantic and episodic memory. Again, if the information is not encoded, it is difficult for that information to transfer to long term memory. 2. What techniques can enhance the storage of information in long-term memory? Answer: Ways to enhance information storage of LTR include chunking (larger bits of information that chunk smaller bits), rehearsal (jingles, sounds, and slogans), recirculation (different ads with the same message), and elaboration strategies (novel stimuli). 3. What is a schema and how can the associations in a schema be described? Answer: A schema is basically the set of all associations that we link to a particular concept. We can generally categorize schema associations into types of associations, degree of favorability, uniqueness, and salience. Types of associations refer to category structures based on attributes, benefits, uses, etc. Favorability indicates a positive/negative attitude attached to each association. Uniqueness specifies the extent to which the association is related to other concepts. Salience describes the ease with which the association comes to mind when the concept is activated. 4. Why are some links in a semantic or associative network weak, whereas others are strong? Answer: A semantic network is a set of concepts connected by links; Some ties are weak in a network. Strong links are firmly established in memory because they have been chinked, elaborated, or rehearsed. Weak links are not as likely to activate each other as strong links are. A strong link for example is that your last football game experience was expensive, which triggers thoughts about waiting in line for a subpar dinner. A weak link example here is you recall a ride you got to the game. The stronger link (the expense) activates other memories more than the weak link (your ride). 5. What are taxonomic categories and how do consumers use them to structure knowledge in memory? Answer: Taxonomic categories are ways in which consumers classify a group of objects in memory in an orderly, often hierarchical way, based on their similarity to one another. Consumers use them to structure knowledge by first thinking about a basic group—what type of beverage is it? Then, more specifically, is it diet or not? Then, what flavor is it? What brand is it? This helps us have an orderly classification of objects with similar objects in the same category. 6. What is a category prototype, and what affects prototypicality? Answer: A category prototype is the best example of a product category. Prototypicality is affected by the amount of shared associations with members of its own category and consumers’ collective product category schema. 7. What does it mean when consumers organize knowledge according to goal-derived categories? Answer: When consumers organize knowledge according to goal-derived categories, this implies that consumers group products together that lead to the same types of behavior. Products that might not seem to be similar on the surface may be grouped together by a consumer. When a consumer is trying to reach that particular goal (losing weight; traveling overseas), these products may be evoked. 8. How do high-level (abstract) and low-level (concrete) associations differ, and what does this mean for knowledge structure? Answer: Abstract associations are not easy to “see”-for example, honor or grace is a high-level, abstract association one may have with a brand. Concrete associations are easier to understand and depict, because they are able to be “seen”. For instance, yellow or round are concrete, descriptive associations that are simple to show and comprehend. Consumers must be motivated and able to elaborate abstract associations in order for them to transfer to long term memory. 9. Which three elements affect retrieval failures? Answer: Retrieval failures are impacted by: 1. Decay-when memory weakens over time 2. Interference-when other memories distract memory 3. Serial-Position Effects-being stuck in the middle, it is easier to remember first or last elements in a sequence 10. How can consumers’ ability to retrieve information in memory be enhanced? Answer: By having a relaxing and or positive mood, a consumer can retrieve information easier. We are more likely to recall information that is consistent with our mood. Secondly, by having more expertise with the topic, one can have easier retrieval of related information. Experts have more complex category structures in memory with a greater number of higher and lower level categories and more detail in each category. CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE Nostalgia Marketing Brings Memories Back Many different marketers, from cat-food manufacturers to insurance firms, are evoking positive memories of the past to capture the imagination of consumers through nostalgia marketing. Whether they’re bringing back old jingles, slogans, images, logos, characters, or brands, marketers want to jolt consumers’ memories. Feeling pressured by today’s fast-paced, high-tech world, many consumers are receptive to familiar ads and products they associate with their younger days and bygone times they remember fondly. Meow Mix cat food, owned by Del Monte Foods, recently resumed the use of its decades-old advertising jingle, after a 16-year hiatus. The jingle is a series of “meows” set to a simple tune that plays as viewers watch cats “mouth” the words during the commercials. “The Meow Mix Jingle brings back a sense of nostalgia and is a classic advertising spot that many people can even recite by memory,” explained the brand’s marketing director. The jingle is so memorable that 50 percent of consumers surveyed before the new ads aired said they had heard the jingle during the previous 18 months, even though it had not been used for more than a decade. Comic-strip characters from the 1960s are helping MetLife appeal to consumers who smile when they see Charlie Brown, Snoopy and other Peanuts characters in the insurance company’s ads and social media posts. Before debuting a new commercial during the Super Bowl, MetLife used its Facebook to post “comments” by Peanuts characters. After the game, MetLife posted additional character scenes online to keep the buzz going. Why use nostalgia for Snoopy to market life insurance? “It definitely takes people back, and we wanted to start a dialogue,” says a company executive. Volkswagen, Audi, and other car companies frequently play on nostalgia for old rock songs to reach target audiences: One VW commercial recently featured a 1960s James Brown hit, while an Audi ad featured a 1980s song by Echo and the Bunnymen. H&M has marketed its men’s clothing with hit songs from the past such as the Animals’ Please Don’t Let Me Be Misunderstood. Nostalgia for childhood snacks has helped Cadbury market its Wispa chocolate bar and Nestle market its Kit Kat bars. The long-running TV program Mad Men, which focused on characters rising in the advertising industry of the 1950s and 1960s, provided numerous opportunities for advertisers to evoke nostalgia for the period. For example, Unilever created retro-look commercials to air in Europe during the program’s fourth season. During the U.K. premiere of Mad Men’s fifth season, Sky Atlantic ran well-known British TV commercials from the 1960s for Fairy Liquid, Tetley Tea, and other brands, heightening viewer anticipation for a nostalgic look back at ads they hadn’t seen for many years. When the U.S. magazine Newsweek put Mad Men on its cover, it suggested that advertisers submit ads with a 1965 look. That issue included a Spam ad with flower-power colors and fonts; a Dunkin’ Donuts ad with 1960s images of the donut shop; a Hush Puppies shoe ad based on the company’s actual 1960s ads; a new Mercedes-Benz sports car advertised in 1960s style; and a reprint of a 1960s Johnnie Walker Red liquor ad. Media coverage of the issue and its special ads increased sales and boosted traffic to websites where the ads were posted, adding a 21st-century angle to the 20th-century nostalgic appeal. Case Questions 1. Using the concepts in this chapter, explain why Meow Mix would return to its old advertising jingle 16 years after the company stopped using it. Answer: Consumers had semantic and episodic memories of the jingle that simultaneously reminded them of their past, the funny commercials, and what the product actually is. The brand already had a schema in the minds of most Americans as evidenced by the survey in which customers thought they’d heard the jingle during the time it was off the air, so reusing the tune would immediately elicit positive brand affect. 2. What role do episodic and semantic memory play in the use of nostalgia marketing? Answer: Semantic memory aids consumer recall of general knowledge of the brand (i.e. what product category it belongs to). However, semantic memory is the key to the success of nostalgic marketing because this type of memory associates old ads and their products with fond memories, they take consumers “back in time” and remind them of good times they had during the time period the commercial originally aired. 3. How is MetLife’s use of Peanuts comic strip characters in its ads likely to affect consumers’ schemas? Would you have these characters posting on Facebook as part of the campaign? Why or why not? Answer: A transfer of associations may take place from the Peanut’s schema, which has been embraced by most of the American population as funny and family friendly, to MetLife making the company more lovable and trustworthy. Yes, I would have the characters post to Facebook because it keeps them and the brand relevant to this generation and develops more positive associations. No, I would not have the characters post to Facebook because it conflicts with the Peanut’s identity and their nostalgic place in the minds of most Americans. SUGGESTED INTERNET EXERCISE WITH SAMPLE ANSWERS L.L. BEAN AND COLDWATER CREEK Among the most popular shopping destinations on the Internet are clothing e-tailers. L.L. Bean (www.llbean.com) and Coldwater Creek (www.coldwatercreek.com), two very popular catalog retailers, have enjoyed considerable success selling their products online. Visit each site and click through to examine the women’s apparel selections. Contrast the ways in which the sites organize information about women’s apparel offerings. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each site’s organization? Which kinds of consumer categorization does each site reflect? Instructor Notes At L.L. Bean’s site, a list of product categories appears on the home page, including women’s items. Some women’s products are grouped together into comprehensive categories, for example, skirts and dresses. This format forces a consumer looking for a dress to sort through information about skirts as well. While this strategy exposes the consumer to a wider variety of products, it may inconvenience or frustrate some consumers. Within some product categories, the site further subdivides individual items by fabric (skirts and dresses), style (sweaters), or both (pants and shorts). A consumer searching for a particular item, for example a blue denim skirt in size twelve, can locate products more easily with this taxonomy. However, this site’s format precludes comparison across different subcategories. Also, to find its price, the consumer must click on the thumbnail photo of the product, which complicates searching. The Coldwater Creek site is organized differently. Within the women’s apparel link, consumers can search for products by product type, color, size range, or any combinations thereof by using handy pull-down menus. By selecting skirt, blue, and misses, for example, a consumer could quickly display a page that would include all of Coldwater Creek’s blue skirts available in misses’ sizes, including, but not limited to, blue denim skirts. The site provides no product listings by fabric. On the other hand, a consumer searching for red clothing in size eight could specify the color and size for “all” product categories, allowing convenient comparison of all of the site’s dresses, skirts, sweaters, and other clothing in that color and size range. The site includes each item’s price with its thumbnail photo, which simplifies price comparison as well. Within its women’s apparel categories, both L.L. Bean and Coldwater Creek reflect typical hierarchical taxonomies. However, Coldwater Creek’s site does present a few products in goal-derived categories, for example “gifts” and “entertaining.” No items at L.L. Bean’s site are organized in goal-derived categories. Additional Uses This exercise also relates to concepts in the following chapters: • Chapter 3, Frosm Exposure to Comprehension (exposure to nonfocal stimuli within product categories) • Chapter 7, Problem Recognition and Information Search (diagnosticity of clothing attributes, consideration sets, kinds of information acquired in an external search) Discussion Idea In which product categories would L.L. Bean have the greatest number of prototypes? Likely answers might include: • Camping equipment • Hiking gear • Hunting clothing and accessories • Outdoor footwear • Denim clothing ADDITIONAL DISCUSSION QUESTIONS WITH SAMPLE ANSWERS These discussion questions can be used as in-class activities or as thought questions that the students consider while reading the chapter or to test their understanding of the material after the reading and lecture are complete. 1. Discuss the interrelationships between prior knowledge, categorization, and comprehension. Answer: Categorization is the technique consumers use to identify, label, and classify something new. Comprehension is the process of understanding the object that has been categorized. Prior knowledge is essential to categorization because it allows consumers to place new information about a product, brand, ad, etc., into a framework. In other words, they can label the new object based on its similarity to what they already know. Prior knowledge is essential to comprehension because it helps consumers to assign higher-order meaning to the information they have gathered. 2. Describe three dimensions marketers can utilize to understand consumer schema about their firm’s brands and explain the importance of this understanding to marketing strategy. Answer: First, marketers can examine the salience of their brands. It is important to know the contexts in which a brand is likely to be “top of mind” for consumers and to decide if these contexts align with the firm’s positioning goals. Second, marketers can assess which of a brand’s associations are favorable and which are unfavorable. Doing so allows the firm to build its marketing strategies to enhance favorability. Third, marketers can determine the degree of uniqueness of their brands. If the ways that a brand is unique are positive (“the only cold remedy to let you sleep through the night”), the firm can capitalize on this differentiating feature when positioning against the competition. 3. Describe how brand extensions can be a useful means of introducing a new product into the market as compared to building a new brand “from scratch.” Answer: The value of introducing a product as a brand extension as compared to building a brand “from scratch” lies in the firm having the opportunity to transfer the existing brand’s associations onto the new product. Firms position their brands in many ways: Walmart represents low prices; Volvo represents safety; 3M represents innovation. If Volvo, for example, were to begin manufacturing and selling tires (a brand extension), the company would have the edge over it’s “from scratch” competitor who is representing his tires as a safe alternative. Consumers already have created associative links between Volvo and safety in their minds. Not only is there value in customers understanding a product’s positioning as soon as it enters the marketplace, there also is the opportunity to build on the brand’s favorable associations. If the firm effectively connects the brand’s attributes, benefits, etc., to the characteristics of the brand extension, consumers are likely to evaluate the extension favorably. The unknown brand would not be able to capitalize on these favorable associations. Favorable associations lead to a reduced risk of trial for the brand extensions when compared to the built “from scratch” brand. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS 1. Identify prototype brands in the following categories and explain why you believe they are prototypes: beer, soft drinks, candy, tennis shoes, and computers. Answer: Beer: Budweiser Classic and widely recognized. Soft Drinks: Coca-Cola Iconic and standard reference. Candy: Snickers Popular and representative. Tennis Shoes: Nike Air Max Known for style and performance. Computers: Apple MacBook Innovative and widely recognized. 2. Using the same categories listed in question one, identify the categories in which consumers are likely to place each type of product. Relate these categories to superordinate, basic, and subordinate categories, as appropriate. Answer: Beer: Superordinate Beverages; Basic Alcoholic Beverages; Subordinate Lager. Soft Drinks: Superordinate Beverages; Basic Non-Alcoholic Beverages; Subordinate Cola. Candy: Superordinate Snacks; Basic Confectionery; Subordinate Chocolate Bars. Tennis Shoes: Superordinate Footwear; Basic Athletic Shoes; Subordinate Running Shoes. Computers: Superordinate Electronics; Basic Personal Computers; Subordinate Laptops. 3. In your small group, outline a script for the following situations: using a vending machine; getting a haircut; getting help with using software (from the manufacturer); flying on an airplane; eating lunch at McDonald’s. Answer: Vending Machine: Insert money/card, select item, retrieve product. Haircut: Discuss style, cut hair, review and adjust, pay. Software Help: Visit support site, search FAQs, contact support if needed. Flying: Check-in, pass security, board, follow instructions. McDonald’s Lunch: Order, pay, wait for food, collect and eat. 4. Describe how brand extensions can be a useful means of introducing a new product into the market as compared to building a new brand “from scratch.” Answer: Advantage: Utilizes existing brand trust to introduce new products, saving time and marketing costs. Disadvantage: New brand requires building from scratch, which is costlier and time-consuming. 5. Explain why is it useful for you as a marketer to understand how people categorize information. Discuss how knowing this can help you in the ongoing management of your own brand or organization. Answer: Usefulness: Helps position products effectively, align marketing strategies, and leverage consumer perceptions. 6. Describe three methods for studying the schema consumers hold about your brand. Consider the pros and cons of each method. Answer: Surveys: Pros: Quick, broad data collection. Cons: Lacks depth. Focus Groups: Pros: In-depth insights. Cons: May not be representative. Social Media Analysis: Pros: Real-time, spontaneous feedback. Cons: May be skewed and labor-intensive. EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES AND CLASSROOM EXAMPLES Students who learn more readily through visual and tactile stimuli will benefit from the introduction of physical examples into the classroom. 1. “Foods of a Feather” Exercise Bring in a wide assortment of products that compete at varying levels of intensity and directness. Have a student volunteer separate the products into competitive groups, label, and explain the groupings. After the first student has finished, ask a second student to perform the same task. Talk about the differences; then open the floor to a general discussion about the various ways in which the products could be grouped. The products should exhibit significant variety. An illustrative assortment might include different brands of light, bottled draft, ice, dry, non-alcoholic, imported, micro-brewed, and regular beer; hard liquor; white and red wine; diet, caffeine-free, caffeinated, cola and non-cola forms of soda; flavored and non-flavored bottled water; fruit and sports drinks; vending machine items; and even oranges and apples. 2. “Dreamboat or Dud?” Exercise* Make copies of the personal ads from the Sunday newspaper. Highlight several of the more interesting ads and tell students to draw a picture—literally or figuratively—of the individual who wrote the ad. Discuss their “pictures” in class, noting the number and nature of the inferences made, and highlighting the pieces of information in the ad that were key to those inferences. 3. Consider visiting the local grocery store to find examples of marketing efforts that call attention to how companies are making efforts to build categories, schemas, or scripts for their products. Examples of these efforts might include: (1) point-of-purchase displays that distinguish the brand within the category or associate it with other categories (e.g., football-beer promotion); (2) unique packages that help establish the brand image (such as with fragrances); (3) soda cans from other countries and in foreign languages; (4) special promotional tools (coupons). Use these and other examples to stimulate discussion about how marketers are or are not using principles of consumer behavior to support their marketing efforts. 4. Ask students to design/illustrate their taxonomic structure for a broad product category, paying close attention to the different levels of the hierarchical structure as described in the text. Additionally, students could be asked to design a personal schema for a number of concepts such as education, specific retailers, television shows, or even sports teams. The importance of marketing and consumer behavior implications could be illustrated by students sharing their individual schemas. IN-CLASS EXERCISE Maximizing Attention Given to a Marketing Stimulus Your task is to either: 1. Suggest ways to increase the amount of attention received by a marketing stimulus (e.g., print ad, TV ad, web ad or banner, billboard, product package, sign, product placement, or sponsorship) or 2. Come up with a new stimulus that you expect would maximize the attention given. In coming up ideas, you may want to consider: • The specific goal of the stimulus (e.g., a need to draw attention to new information or the need for a product to stand out in the retail setting so that it will be more likely to be chosen) • The target audience that you are trying to reach and o Issues especially relevant to that target market o Common habits and lifestyle choices that may affect opportunities for exposure • Aspects of the message to which it may be most important to draw attention • The extent of involvement that the consumer group would likely have with this product category or brand and implications for willingness to process information • The extent to which ad avoidance and/or habituation may be significant factors—and, if significant, how to address these • The complexity of any message and implications for comprehension—i.e., is a message difficult to understand? If so, what can be done to increase the likelihood that it will be correctly understood? Please prepare a brief talk to the rest of the class discussing your conclusions. The presentation should not exceed 2.5 minutes in length. CLASSROOM GROUP ACTIVITIES Assessing and Changing Brand Schemas: 20 Minutes I. Start Up A. Purpose of the activity 1. This activity will give students an opportunity to consider factors related to categorization and schemas in a brief classroom exercise. B. What the instructor will do 1. The instructor will divide people into small groups, assign them a product for consideration, and be available to coach and help the groups as needed. C. What the participants will do 1. The participants will work in small groups to brainstorm ideas for applying concepts from the chapter to specific brands. After a period of small-group discussion, they will make reports to the large group. D. Rules for this experience 1. Groups are to work separately from each other. Individuals should rely on their knowledge from the book and may refer to their notes and the book as necessary. II. Experience A. Group up. 1. Have students form groups of no more than five. This exercise will work in groups of any size; however, room restrictions that do not allow for moving furniture may make group work more difficult. B. Assign brands. 1. Each group should be assigned a single brand on which to focus. a) Consider using local brands, including both products and services. b) In addition, international brands like the following could be used: Exxon, Disney, United Airlines, McDonald’s, Coca-Cola, Honda, and Sony. c) Consider bringing samples of the brands to the class for students to study and review in their groups (e.g., a box of crackers, a candy bar, a cola can). C. Specify actions for groups. 1. The groups are responsible for discussing elements of the schemas related to the brand they are considering. Brainstorm words or ideas that come to mind when you think of your brand. 2. Questions to be answered by small groups a) Identify positive and negative elements in each of the schemas. To what extent might these factors influence whether a consumer acquires this brand? b) By what means could your brand intentionally alter the contents of the schema(s) in consumers’ minds. How might the brand unintentionally affect the schema(s) in the minds of the consumer? 3. Large-group discussions a) First, have groups present their ideas about the first question, and then proceed to discuss each of the subsequent questions. b) If there are many groups, share the discussion among all groups, though not all groups may answer all of the questions. III. Debrief and Unveil Concepts A. Discuss the activity itself. 1. The purpose of this discussion is to allow students to express what they felt about the experience itself. 2. Ask students to describe their experiences of “doing” the activity. a) Likes and dislikes about what just happened b) How they felt during the experience c) What is realistic, unrealistic about the exercise? d) What will be different when they do this for their own brand? B. Discuss the content of the experience. 1. The purpose of this discussion is to ensure that students “take away” important learning points. 2. Ask students to describe the important points the experience teaches. a) The importance of understanding how brands and their associated ideas are categorized by consumers over time b) How to manage a brand to influence the categorical associations held about the brand 3. Use the chalkboard to record student responses. a) Write down their ideas as they are presented. b) Concentrate on the principles being discussed rather than the examples being used. c) Help them to see the interrelationships between their responses. IV. Execute A. Apply what has been learned. 1. Lead a discussion on how the concepts can be applied in organizations. a) What barriers may be faced in applying the concepts from the exercise? b) What can be done to help others understand the concepts when you use them at work? B. Transfer and use the knowledge. 1. Encourage students to make a record in their notes about how they will use the ideas in the workplace. 2. Even if they don’t have a specific job, how will they remember to use what they have learned? Retail Atmospherics and Display: 15–20 Minutes I. Start Up A. Purpose of the activity 1. This activity will give students an opportunity to consider factors related to designing a retail setting. B. What the instructor will do 1. The instructor will divide people into small groups and assign them a different type of retail setting (fast-food restaurant, high-end department store, baseball stadium). C. What the participants will do 1. The participants will work in small groups to brainstorm ideas for compiling a list of ideas that accentuate the consumer interaction with the retail outlet. Factors such as design, lighting, flooring, décor, traffic flow, retail employee/ customer interaction, and music could all be considered, among others. 2. Students will then present their ideas to the rest of the class. Hans Baumgartner, Mita Sujan, and James R. Bettman, “Autobiographical Memories, Affect, and Consumer Information Processing,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 1, no. 1, 1992, pp. 53–82. Tanya Irwin, “Infectious Meow Mix Jingle Returns,” Media Post, March 13, 2012, www.mediapost.com; Joanne Ostrow, “Pop Culture Nostalgia Rules in Super Bowl Ads,” Denver Post, February 6, 2012, www.denverpost.com; Matthew Sturdevant, “MetLife’s Cartoon Ads are the Latest in Nostalgia Marketing,” Hartford Courant, February 7, 2012, www.courant.com; Florence Waters, “Mad Men Gets Sixties’ Commercial Breaks,” Telegraph (UK), March 27, 2012, www.telegraph.co.uk; and Laura Slattery, “Everybody’s Looking for a Piece of This Mad World,” Irish Times, March 22, 2012, www.irishtimes.com. Solution Manual for Consumer Behavior Wayne D. Hoyer, Deborah J. MacInnis, Rik Pieters 9780357721292, 9781305507272, 9781133435211