CH-3-4 Perception, Attribution, and Diversity – Organizational Behaviour: Understanding and Managing Life at Work: Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 3 to 4 CHAPTER 3 PERCEPTION, ATTRIBUTION, AND DIVERSITY SAMPLE ANSWERS TO DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Discuss how differences in the experiences of students and professors might affect their perceptions of students’ written work and class comments. Answer: As an example, we can look at business experience. Consider two professors of organizational behaviour: one has extensive business experience and one does not. These two professors might have very different expectations of students’ written work and class comments based on their own degree of “real world” experience. Similarly, students themselves may vary in the business experience they possess, and thus differ in their perception about what constitutes an adequate exam response or class comment. Consequently, the business experience of a particular student and his or her professor might affect the extent to which their perceptions of the students’ performance are in agreement. In general, professors are older and more educated than their students and so they might possess standards which prompt perceptual disagreement with students. 2. Using implicit personality theory, explain how physical attractiveness influences job-related outcomes in employment interviews and performance appraisals? Answer: The text defines implicit personality theories as theories that people have about which personality characteristics go together. Thus, the trait of physical attractiveness is likely to be associated with other positive personality characteristics that make up a person’s theory. Theories about physical attractiveness usually include positive perceptions of a person’s social competence, qualifications, and potential job success. Thus, in general, physically attractive people will be perceived as having other positive characteristics. As a result, they are more likely to be rated favourably in a job interview, to be hired, and paid more. In addition, physically attractive persons tend to receive higher performance appraisal ratings and are more likely to be promoted. The use of a structured interview guide and a behaviourally anchored rating scale can help to reduce perceptual bias in the employment interview and performance appraisals and increase the accuracy of ratings. 3. Discuss the occupational stereotypes that you hold about computer programmers, the clergy, truck drivers, bartenders, and bankers. How do you think these stereotypes have developed? Has an occupational stereotype ever caused you to commit a socially embarrassing error when meeting someone for the first time? Answer: Computer programmers are often stereotyped as computer nerds, bartenders as heavy drinkers, and bankers as excessively conservative. (All of these occupations are stereotyped as male domains.) Such stereotypes probably develop through a variety of mechanisms. In some cases, there may be a “grain of truth” in the stereotype (example, most truck drivers are males) that sets the stage for the elaboration of the stereotype (all truck drivers are “macho”). In other cases a trivial aspect of the occupation (such as, bankers dress conservatively) is extended to apply to the personal qualities of its members (for example, bankers must be conservative). Finally, occupational stereotypes are often reinforced by media portrayals and children’s schoolbooks. Many people have embarrassingly mistaken a female executive or professor for a secretary. 4. Use Bruner’s perceptual model (Exhibit 3-3) and social identity theory to explain why performance appraisals and interviewers’ judgments are frequently inaccurate. Answer: Both performance evaluators and interviewers should be open to cues contained in a target person, since they are required to make an explicit judgment about the person. In each case, however, there is a strong tendency to search out familiar cues, categorize the target, and process additional information in a biased manner to maintain and justify an initial categorization. For example, an interviewer might learn early in the interview that a job candidate is looking for a new job because he does not wish to accept a geographical transfer from his present employer. The interviewer may categorize the candidate as “disloyal” and “the type who puts his family before the organization” and proceed to perceive all other interview cues in a way that supports this judgment. Based on social identity theory, evaluators will categorize a person and then perceive them as embodying the most typical attributes of that category. Further, because social categories are relational and comparative, the evaluator might perceive the person being evaluated in a more positive or negative light compared to him/herself and others. As a result, the evaluation is likely to be inaccurate to the extent that it is based on how the person is categorized and how that categorization compares to others in the mind of the evaluator. Such evaluations might also be subject to stereotyping and discrimination. 5. Discuss how perceptions of organizational support can influence employees’ attitudes and behaviour. What can organizations do to develop positive perceptions of organizational support? Answer: Perceived organizational support (POS) refers to employees’ general belief that their organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being. According to social support theory, employees who have strong perceptions of organizational support feel an obligation to care about the organization’s welfare and to help the organization achieve its objectives. They feel a greater sense of purpose and meaning and a strong sense of belonging to the organization. As a result, employees feel obligated to reciprocate the organization’s care and support and this leads to more positive attitudes and behaviour. In fact, POS is related to job satisfaction, organizational commitment, a positive mood, performance, reduced strains, and lower absenteeism and turnover. The main factors that contribute to POS are perceived supervisor support, fairness, organizational rewards, and job conditions. Supportive human resource practices that demonstrate an investment in employees and recognition of employee contributions are also associated with greater POS. Thus, to develop perceptions of organizational support, organizations should ensure that they have fair procedures in place to reward and recognize employees’ accomplishments and performance. There should also be favourable job conditions and supervisors should be highly supportive. Supportive human resource practices include participation in decision-making, opportunities for growth and development, and a fair reward and recognition system. 6. Suppose an employee does a particularly poor job on an assigned project. Discuss the attribution process that this person’s manager will use to form judgments about this poor performance. Be sure to discuss how the manager will use consistency, consensus, and distinctiveness cues. Answer: The manager’s goal is to determine whether an employee is lazy or poorly motivated (dispositional attribution) or whether some situational factor, such as poor equipment or weak support damaged performance. If the person has failed in other projects (low distinctiveness), exhibited poor performance for a long time (high consistency), and done poorly when others have done well (low consensus) a dispositional attribution is likely. If the person has usually performed various tasks well and has done so for a long time (thus the current behaviour is highly distinctive and not consistent) and if other workers also have trouble with this project (high consensus) a situational attribution is likely. Failure on the project is a function of the task and not the worker. 7. A study of small business failures found that owners generally cited factors such as economic depression or strong competition as causes. However, creditors of these failed businesses were much more likely to cite ineffective management. What attribution bias is indicated by these findings? Why do you think the difference in attribution occurs? Answer: This is an actor-observer effect, and the business owners are actors while the creditors are observers. The business owners explain their behaviour is due to the situation while the creditors imply faulty disposition. A self-serving bias may also be at work in both parties, since the bankers are rejecting responsibility for giving credit to a bad risk and the business owners are rejecting responsibility for misusing the loan. These biases obviously help protect the egos of both parties, although they probably apply more strongly to the business owners than to the creditors. However, one cannot rule out honest differences in information here. The creditors are accustomed to dealing with successful businesses, otherwise they themselves would fail. This makes failure unusual — a condition that begs for a special explanation. On the other hand, the owner of the failed business was intimately involved in the venture, itself, and may know that the three fast food restaurants that moved in on opposite corners just didn’t give his or her small restaurant any slack to survive. 8. Discuss the factors that make it difficult for employment interviewers to form accurate perceptions of interviewees. Explain why a gender or racial stereotype might be more likely to affect a hiring decision than a performance appraisal decision. How can interviews and performance appraisals be designed to improve the accuracy of perceptions? Answer: The interview is of short duration and does not allow the interviewer to actually see the candidate in typical working conditions. In addition, the interviewer may not have experience seeing applicants succeed and fail on the job in question. Thus, it may be difficult for the interviewer to decide just what questions and answers are relevant. The candidate is also motivated to put his or her “best foot forward,” and may misrepresent himself or herself. Finally, the interviewer’s desire to “sell” the organization to the candidate may interfere with questioning tactics and objectivity. When a person has had a period of interaction with another, stereotypes about that individual are less likely to occur than if it is a first encounter. Since hiring interviews are more than likely with someone unfamiliar with the interviewee, and since performance appraisals are usually conducted by someone familiar with the individual, stereotypes are more likely to affect a hiring decision than a performance appraisal. Interviews can be designed to improve the accuracy of perceptions when they are structured. Interview structure involves four dimensions: evaluation standardization (the extent to which the interviewer uses standardized and numeric scoring procedures); question sophistication (the extent to which the interviewer uses job-related behavioural questions and situational questions); question consistency (the extent to which the interviewer asks the same questions in the same order of every candidate); and rapport building (the extent to which the interviewer does not ask personal questions that are unrelated to the job). Further, interviews are more likely to be structured when the interviewer has had formal interview training and focuses on selection rather than recruitment during the interview. Performance appraisals can be designed to improve the accuracy of perceptions by using rating scales with more specific behavioural labels or what is known as a behaviourally anchored rating scale. The assumption is that giving specific examples of effective and ineffective performance will facilitate the rater’s perceptual processes and recall. Frame-of-reference training can also be provided to raters to ensure that they use a common frame of reference when rating individuals. 9. What are the implications of social identity theory for diversity in organizations? Describe some of the things that an organization can do to remove the barriers to workplace diversity. List some of the advantages gained by organizations that effectively manage a diverse workforce. Answer: If people categorize others into social categories and then perceive them as embodying the most typical attributes of that category, stereotypes are likely to persist. Further, to the extent that people view members of other social categories negatively, diversity can lead to conflict and discrimination. It is therefore important to remove such stereotypes from the workplace and the barriers to workplace diversity. To remove the barriers to workplace diversity, the text suggests a number of strategies including: 1. Select enough minority members to elevate them beyond token status. 2. Encourage teamwork and cooperation that brings minority and majority members together. 3. Ensure that those making career decisions about employees have accurate information about them. 4. Provide training to make employees aware of stereotypes. Some of the most common activities included in diversity programs are listed in Exhibit 3.7 (page 98). The competitive advantages to valuing and managing a diverse workforce are presented in Exhibit 3.5 (page 92) of the text and include a cost argument; resource-acquisition argument; marketing argument; creativity argument; problem-solving argument; and system flexibility argument. In general, a company that effectively manages a diverse workforce is more likely to reflect society as a whole and will thus be more able to meet and exceed its needs. Diversity management can be a source of competitive advantage and can make organizations more effective in global and international business. 10. Explain stereotype threat effects and provide some examples of how they might occur in organizations and the consequences. What can organizations do to prevent stereotype threat effects? Answer: Stereotype threat occurs when members of a social group (e.g., visible minorities, women) feel they might be judged or treated according to a stereotype and that their behaviour or performance will confirm the stereotype. The existence of a stereotype threat can undermine a person’s performance and research has found evidence for stereotype threat effects for ethnicity/race stereotypes and gender-based stereotypes. It can occur in organizations when stereotyped group members take employment tests and their performance may be undermined when they encounter cues of a salient negative stereotype in the testing environment (e.g., ethnic minorities have inferior intellectual abilities). Organizations can prevent stereotype threat effects by ensuring that testing and work environments are nonthreatening to all individuals. Stereotype-activating cues such as asking individuals their race/gender prior to taking a test should be removed. Thus, individuals should not be asked for demographic information prior to taking a test. 11. Review the Ethical Focus feature, What’s in a name? You’re Hired…or Not!, and use Bruner’s model of the perceptual process to explain why job applicants with ethnic-sounding names are less likely to receive callbacks. What perceptual biases might explain the lower callbacks received for resumes with ethnic-sounding names? What should organizations do to avoid name discrimination? What should job applicants do? Answer: Bruner’s model of the perceptual process helps us understand how ethnic sounding names result in fewer callbacks. According to Bruner’s perceptual model, when we encounter an unfamiliar target we are very open to the cues contained in the target and the situation surrounding it. However, once familiar cues are encountered, we attempt to categorize the target. We then become very selective about which cues we perceive, searching out cues that strengthen our categorization of the target. Cue selectivity refers to the perceiver choosing only certain cues out of all the available cues to perceive. Thus, when an ethical sounding name is encountered, the perceiver starts to categorize the target and forms a perception of the applicant based on this cue or piece of information (ethnic applicant). In this case, the perceiver sees the applicant as an ethnic person who is not from Canada and might not speak English very well. This initial perception then influences the search for additional information and the tendency to be selective in searching for cues that are consistent with the initial perception (perceptual consistency) and to ignore information that is not consistent with the initial categorization (such as information about education and work experience). Unfortunately, the initial perception is often negative and leads to other negative perceptions such as language and communication problems. As a result, the final perception is negative and the applicant with an ethnic sounding name is less likely to receive a callback. Some possible perceptual biases at work include primacy effects, reliance on central traits (ethnic person), implicit personality theories (ethnic persons do not speak English very well and have communication problems), and stereotypes. To avoid this kind of name discrimination, organizations should not look at the name of an applicant until after they have been evaluated. This will avoid the tendency to rate the applicant negatively because of their name and the resulting initial categorization and perception. Job applicants might just list their first name and surname initial on their resume. SAMPLE ANSWERS TO INTEGRATIVE DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Describe how the principles of operant learning theory and social cognitive theory can be used to manage workplace diversity and reduce the effects of workplace stereotypes. How can the organizational learning practices described in Chapter 2 be used for managing diversity? Answer: Managing diversity involves changing people’s attitudes and behaviour. Operant learning theory can be used to reinforce behaviour that supports diversity such as improved interactions and communication among members of diverse groups, or rewards for hiring, promoting, and training members of minority groups. Social cognitive theory suggests that managers can act as models for valuing diversity by exhibiting appropriate behaviours. Some organizational learning practices that can be used for managing diversity include organizational behavioural modification and basic awareness and skills training programs as well as training programs that illustrate the value of diversity and increase awareness of stereotypes. 2. Consider how the four basic types of managerial activities described in Chapter 1 (i.e., routine communication, traditional management, networking, and human resource management) can influence employees’ perceptions of trust and perceived organizational support (POS). How should managers perform each of these activities in order to improve employees’ perceptions of trust and POS? Answer: Trust refers to a willingness to be vulnerable and to take risks with respect to the actions of another party. Trust perceptions toward management are based on perceptions of ability, benevolence, and integrity. The four basic types of managerial activities can influence perceptions of trust to the extent that they influence employee perceptions of ability, benevolence, and integrity. For example, routine communications and traditional management might influence perceptions of a manager’s ability (perceptions regarding competence and skills). Networking might influence perceptions of integrity (perceptions that management adheres to and behaves according to a set of values and principles) as a function of those individuals and groups that a manager interacts and socializes with. Human resource management is most likely to influence perceptions of benevolence (the extent that employees perceive management as caring and concerned for their interests). This might explain why managers who are successful in terms of unit effectiveness and employee satisfaction and commitment devote more time and effort to human resource management and less to networking. Thus, manager’s who wish to improve employees’ perceptions of trust should develop their skills in communication and traditional management activities; network with individuals and groups with an acceptable set of values and principles; and adopt human resource practices that show concern for employees’ interests and needs. Perceived organizational support refers to employees’ general belief that their organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being. The main factors that contribute to POS are perceived supervisor support, fairness, organizational rewards, and job conditions. Supportive human resource practices that demonstrate an investment in employees and recognition of employee contributions are also associated with greater POS. In terms of the managerial activities, human resource management is most likely to contribute to POS especially if it involves rewarding and recognizing employee performance and accomplishments, participation in decision-making, and training and developing employees. As indicated above, managers who are successful in terms of unit effectiveness and employee satisfaction and commitment devote more time and effort to human resource management and less to networking. Their effect on unit effectiveness and employee satisfaction and commitment is probably due in part to the positive effect that human resource management activities have on POS. SAMPLE ANSWER TO ON-THE-JOB CHALLENGE QUESTION 1: AUSTRALIA’S JOBS BONUS INITIATIVE What do you think about the Australian government’s Jobs Bonus initiative? Do perceptions have anything to do with this initiative? Do you think this will help or hurt older workers and the perception and stereotype of them? Is this something that Canadian governments should consider doing? What are the implications for employees and organizations? Answer: As indicated in the text, there are two views regarding the Job Bonus initiative. On the one hand, it can be seen as a positive move to encourage organizations to hire older workers. On the other hand, it can be seen as a negative initiative because it suggests that older workers are not as good as younger workers and so you have to pay organizations or provide them with a bonus to hire them. Thus, the bonus reinforces the stereotype that older workers are inferior to younger workers. This should generate some interesting debate among students. You might have students discuss this in groups and then form a view on whether or not the initiative is a good idea or not. Alternatively, you can assign groups a position either in favour or against the initiative and ask them to defend it. Clearly, the initiative is meant to try and break down the negative stereotypes about older workers and the perception that they will not do as good a job as young workers. If students believe that the initiative will hurt older workers, ask them why and to suggest an alternative program. Of course, if the program results in organizations hiring older workers then it is hard to argue against it. After all, employment equity laws and programs are meant to ensure that members of protected groups are being hired. When c considering whether such a policy should be implemented in Canada, you might want to inform your students that a recent survey found that 71.5 of small and medium-sized employers across Canada indicated that it is not likely that job openings will be filled by someone older than 65 now or in the future (see Canadian HR Reporter, January 24, 2013, page 1 and 10). This is not a good sign given that many older workers are planning to remain employed rather than retire. In the long-run, such an initiative might result in more older workers being hired and a change in perceptions as more and more organizations begin to see the value in having older workers who bring years of experience and knowledge with them and help to create a more diverse workforce. Proving incentives and targets to hire protected groups is nothing new and the Job Bonus initiative is an interesting example geared towards the hiring of older workers. SAMPLE ANSWER TO ON-THE-JOB CHALLENGE QUESTION 2: CITIZENS MEDICAL CENTRE’S NEW HIRING POLICY What do you think about Citizens Medical Centre’s new hiring policy? Do perceptions, attributions, and stereotypes have anything to do with the hiring policy? What do you think is the reason for such a policy and do you believe it is in the best interests of the hospital and its patients? Is this something that other organizations should consider doing? What are the implications? Answer: This is likely to generate a considerable amount of debate among students as many will have rather strong views about this hiring policy. Some will see it for what it is – blatant discrimination while others will see it as something that an organization has a right to do. At issue here is the fact that society tends to have negative perceptions of people who are overweight and the tendency to attribute being overweight to dispositions rather than situational factors. Clearly, there exists a stereotype of overweight people that is very negative (e.g., they are lazy and do not take care of themselves). If we remove this stereotype and the dispositional attribution, then overweight people will be perceived very differently and more favourably. The policy takes the position that the best person for a job can’t possibly be somebody who is overweight. There is of course no real evidence for this and it is based on a stereotype. The hospital’s position is based on the appearance of an employee and what they consider to be appropriate and the belief that overweight employees are more likely to be absent. One gets the impression that the reason for the hospital’s policy is to reduce health care costs because as stated by the CEO, “excessive weight has all kinds of encumbrances for the hospital and its health plan.”. The main sticking point is that the laws in Texas do not prohibit weight discrimination in hiring even though they do prohibit discrimination based on race, age, or religion. To put this in context, ask students if it would be acceptable for the organization to not hire job applicants of a certain race, age, or religion. They will certainly say that doing so would be wrong; if so, then isn’t it also wrong to turn away applicants because of their weight? When you put it in this context, those students who might not have seen the policy as discriminatory might begin to change their mind. Of course, what matters most is whether or not an individual is qualified to perform the job. Hiring the most qualified job applicants is what is in the best interest of the hospital’s patients regardless of their weight. The organization can provide work-life balance programs to help all employees improve their health and well-being. Thus, students should come to see that such a hiring policy is based on negative perceptions and stereotyping and it is a form of discrimination. EXTRA ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Give an example of a behaviour that is described dispositionally by one observer and situationally by another. Answer: • Dispositional Attribution: Suppose someone cuts in line at a store. An observer who attributes this behavior dispositionally might think, “That person is rude and inconsiderate.” • Situational Attribution: Another observer might think, “That person must be in a hurry or dealing with an emergency, which is why they cut in line.” 2. Discuss the factors that might lead performance raters to exhibit leniency and harshness. Consider past experiences and current organizational factors. Answer: • Leniency: Raters might exhibit leniency if they have a positive relationship with the employee, fear conflict, or are influenced by their own past experiences of being treated leniently. Organizational culture that promotes harmony and avoids conflict can also contribute. • Harshness: Raters might show harshness due to past negative experiences with similar behaviors, personal stress, or a highly competitive organizational environment where only top performers are valued. High standards or pressure to maintain strict performance metrics can also drive harsh evaluations. 3. Give an example of the fundamental attribution error and discuss how an actor might have a different viewpoint from an observer who makes the attribution. Answer: • Example: Imagine a colleague who is late to a meeting. An observer might think, “She’s always disorganized and irresponsible.” • Actor’s Viewpoint: The colleague might view the situation differently, thinking, “I was late because of unexpected traffic, not because of poor time management.” • Explanation: The observer is committing the fundamental attribution error by attributing the behavior to the person's internal characteristics, while the actor recognizes external factors influencing their behavior. 4. Discuss conditions under which stereotypes are most and least likely to affect the perception of a target person. Answer: • Most Likely to Affect Perception: Stereotypes are most likely to affect perception when individuals are unfamiliar with the target person and rely on generalizations. For instance, if a hiring manager holds stereotypes about age and job performance, these stereotypes may color their perception of older candidates. • Least Likely to Affect Perception: Stereotypes are less likely to affect perception when there is extensive personal interaction or detailed knowledge about the target person, which can counteract generalized assumptions. 5. You are a job candidate with average qualifications. Explain how the contrast effect might help you land a job. Explain how stereotype threat might result in a female candidate not getting a job. Answer: • Contrast Effect: If you’re a job candidate with average qualifications and you interview after a series of highly unqualified candidates, your average qualifications may appear more impressive in comparison, increasing your chances of landing the job. • Stereotype Threat: A female candidate may experience stereotype threat if she believes that her gender could influence the hiring decision. This anxiety might affect her performance during the interview, potentially leading to a lower chance of being hired compared to a male candidate. 6. Explain how consensus cues contribute to a formation of situational versus dispositional attributions. Answer: • Consensus Cues: Consensus refers to how others behave in the same situation. If many people behave similarly in a situation, high consensus leads to situational attribution. For example, if everyone in a company is consistently late due to unreliable public transport, the lateness is attributed to the situation rather than individual disposition. • Conversely, if only one person behaves differently while others do not, low consensus leads to dispositional attribution. For instance, if only one employee frequently misses deadlines while others consistently meet them, the behavior is attributed to the individual's poor work ethic rather than external factors. 7. Describe a situation where you either had a high or low level of trust toward a manager and or an organization. Explain what factors influenced your perception of trust and how it affected your job attitudes and behaviour. Answer: • High Trust Example: I had high trust toward a manager who consistently communicated openly, supported team members, and showed fairness in decision-making. This high trust fostered positive job attitudes, such as high job satisfaction and commitment, and motivated me to put in extra effort. • Low Trust Example: Conversely, if I had low trust toward an organization due to frequent policy changes, lack of transparency, and perceived favoritism, it led to negative job attitudes, such as low morale and decreased motivation, affecting overall job performance and engagement. 8. Describe a situation where you either had a high or low perceived organizational support. Explain what factors influenced your perceptions of support and how it affected your job attitudes and behaviour. Answer: • High Perceived Support Example: I experienced high perceived organizational support in a company where my contributions were regularly acknowledged, and I received support for professional development. This positive perception increased my job satisfaction, engagement, and loyalty to the organization. • Low Perceived Support Example: In contrast, if an organization failed to provide adequate resources or recognition for my work, and did not address my concerns or career development needs, my perception of support was low. This affected my job attitudes negatively, leading to reduced job satisfaction and increased turnover intentions. TEACHING NOTES FOR BELIEFS ABOUT OLDER WORKERS EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE Complete the Beliefs about Older Workers exercise in Chapter 3 of the text (page 112). This exercise is designed to assess the attitudes people have about older workers. To score beliefs about older workers, subtract responses to each of the following items from 6: 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 13, 16, 17, 22, and 25. For example, if you put 2 for item 1, give yourself a 4 (6 minus 2). Then simply add up the resulting responses to all 27 items. The total score should fall somewhere between 27 and 135. Low scores indicate an overall negative belief about older workers, while high scores indicate positive beliefs. Thus, the higher one’s score, the more favourable are their attitudes toward older workers. Research on older workers has generally found that a negative stereotype of older workers exists in organizations. The danger of this is that it can lead to negative attitudes and discriminatory behaviour toward older workers. A study of 179 employees from three organizations obtained scores that ranged from 54 to 118. The average score was 90 which indicated somewhat positive beliefs about older workers. As reported in other studies, older workers had more positive beliefs about older workers than younger workers. However, younger workers who had more interactions with older workers were found to have more positive beliefs about older workers. To facilitate discussion, you might have students write their score, age, and how often they come in contact with older workers (daily, several times a week, once a week, or monthly) on pieces of paper. Working in groups and using calculators, the class can compute the class average. Based on the distribution of age and contact with older workers in the class, create two age groups (young and older) and two contact with older worker groups (low and high) and calculate the average of these groups. Also, a distribution of the scores might be posted on the board. Source: Hassell, B. L., & Perrewe, P. L. (1995). An examination of beliefs about older workers: Do stereotypes still exist? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 16, 457–468. With respect to the questions in the text, consider the following: 1. Have students get some idea of what their score is and how it compares to other students in their group or the class. Answer: • Activity: Have students complete a survey or assessment related to their perceptions of older workers. After collecting the scores, provide them with a summary of average scores for the group or class. • Discussion: Ask students to reflect on their scores in relation to the group average. Encourage them to consider how their scores align with or differ from their peers and what factors might contribute to these differences. 2. Students should now try to understand their score and their beliefs about older workers. One way to begin is to consider any age differences. Ask students to consider why younger people might have more biased perceptions of older workers. Answer: • Activity: Prompt students to analyze their scores and reflect on their beliefs about older workers. Guide them to explore whether their perceptions are influenced by age-related stereotypes or personal experiences. • Discussion: Lead a discussion on why younger individuals might hold more biased perceptions of older workers. Factors might include limited exposure to older people or societal stereotypes about aging and productivity. 3. Students should try to understand how their contact with older people might influence their perceptions. In this respect, they should consider the amount of contact they have with older people (number of people and frequency) and if those students with more contact have less biased and more positive perceptions. Answer: • Activity: Have students evaluate their personal contact with older people, including the number of interactions and frequency. Ask them to think about how this contact has shaped their perceptions. • Discussion: Explore whether students who have more frequent and positive interactions with older individuals tend to have less biased and more favorable views. Encourage them to share experiences that have influenced their beliefs. 4. Students should consider other reasons for their beliefs about older workers and why their beliefs are more negative or positive than others in the class. They should also think about the implications of their beliefs in terms of how they treat and interact with older people. Answer: • Activity: Facilitate a discussion on the various reasons behind students' beliefs about older workers. Encourage them to consider personal experiences, societal influences, and cultural factors. • Discussion: Compare why some students might have more positive or negative beliefs than others. Examine the implications of these beliefs on their behavior and interactions with older people. 5. Ask students to think of ways to develop more positive beliefs about older workers. Perhaps spending more time and interacting with older people they know; doing volunteer work with older people; going out of their way to get to know older people, and so on. Answer: • Activity: Encourage students to brainstorm and share ideas for developing more positive beliefs about older workers. Suggest activities such as: • Increased Interaction: Spending more time with older individuals they know. • Volunteering: Participating in volunteer work with older people. • Community Engagement: Seeking opportunities to engage with older community members. • Discussion: Discuss how these activities might help students challenge stereotypes and develop a more nuanced and positive understanding of older workers. The following questions can also be used with this exercise: 1. What is your score on the Beliefs about Older Workers exercise? What does your score say about you? How does it compare to the average score of employees in the three organizations studied and your class? Answer: • Score Reflection: To assess your score on the Beliefs about Older Workers exercise, you would need to review the specific results from the assessment. This score reflects your personal beliefs and attitudes toward older workers. • Comparison: Compare your score to the average scores from employees in the three organizations studied and your class. For example, if your score is higher than the average, it might indicate more negative or biased beliefs about older workers, whereas a lower score might reflect more positive or neutral attitudes. 2. Discuss how your score might influence your perceptions of: a) older people in general. b) older students. c) older people at work Answer: 2. Influence of Your Score on Perceptions: • Older People in General: A higher score might lead to more generalized negative perceptions of older individuals, seeing them as less capable or adaptable. A lower score could indicate more positive views, seeing older people as experienced and valuable. • Older Students: If your score is high, you might perceive older students as less capable or struggling more than younger students. A lower score would suggest you view older students as equally capable and engaged in their studies. • Older People at Work: A high score might result in biases against older colleagues, assuming they are less innovative or less productive. A lower score could indicate a recognition of their skills and contributions regardless of age. 3. Compare and contrast someone with a low score versus someone with a high score in terms of: a) Their perceptions of older people at work b) Their behaviour towards older people at work c) Their age and frequency of contact with older people. Answer: • Perceptions of Older People at Work: • Low Score: Individuals with a low score tend to have a more positive view of older workers, valuing their experience and skills. • High Score: Those with a high score may hold more negative stereotypes, perceiving older workers as less adaptable or less effective. • Behavior Towards Older People at Work: • Low Score: They are likely to interact with older colleagues with respect and seek to include them in team activities, valuing their input. • High Score: They might be less inclusive or may underestimate the contributions of older colleagues, potentially leading to less collaborative interactions. • Age and Frequency of Contact: • Low Score: Individuals with a lower score might have more frequent and positive interactions with older people, contributing to their more favorable views. • High Score: Those with a higher score may have less frequent or less positive contact with older individuals, reinforcing negative stereotypes. 4. Discuss how perceptions of older persons in the workplace could influence their work-life and career. Answer: Influence on Work-Life and Career: • Work-Life: Negative perceptions can affect the work environment, leading to age-related discrimination and reduced job satisfaction for older workers. • Career: Stereotypes may limit career advancement opportunities for older workers, as they might be unfairly judged as less capable or less likely to fit into future roles. 5. What can organizations do to improve the way older workers are treated in the workplace. Answer: Improving Treatment of Older Workers: • Training and Awareness: Organizations can implement training programs to raise awareness about age-related biases and promote inclusivity. • Policies and Practices: Establishing clear anti-discrimination policies and practices that support equal opportunities for all employees, regardless of age. • Mentorship Programs: Creating mentorship programs where older and younger workers can collaborate and learn from each other. • Career Development: Providing opportunities for continuous learning and career development tailored to older workers’ needs and aspirations. • Promoting Positive Role Models: Highlighting successful older employees and their contributions to challenge stereotypes and demonstrate the value of age diversity in the workplace. TEACHING NOTES FOR THE NEW CEO CASE INCIDENT 1. Discuss the role of perceptions in people’s reactions to the hiring of John Rafferty. Use Bruner’s model of the perceptual process and social identity theory to explain people’s perceptions and reactions? Answer: As indicated in the case, some people’s perceptions of John Rafferty are based on his ability to see rather than his many years of leadership experience. The negative reactions to his appointment stem from a perception that as a sighted person he is not an appropriate choice for CEO of the CNIB. Bruner’s model of the perceptual process emphasizes the concept of cues or bits and pieces of information contained in the target and the situation that we use (or ignore) informing our perceptions of the target. According to Bruner’s perceptual model, when we encounter an unfamiliar target we are very open to the cues contained in the target and the situation surrounding it. However, once familiar cues are encountered, we attempt to categorize the target. At this point, we are very selective about which cues we perceive, searching out cues that strengthen our categorization of the target. This cue selectivity refers to the perceiver choosing only certain cues out of all the available cues to perceive. Such selectivity is efficient, though efficiency can both aid and hinder our perceptual accuracy. As for perceptions of John Rafferty, the main cue used by some perceivers is his ability to see and this becomes the basis for perceiving him as a bad choice for CEO. The selectivity involved is clearly evident in that those opposed to his appointment focus exclusively on his sightedness. Once categorized as “sighted” the perception of him becomes constant (the tendency to perceive the target in the same way over time or across situations) and consistent (the tendency to select, ignore, and distort cues in such a manner that they fit together to form a homogeneous image of the target). According to social identity theory, people form perceptions of themselves based on their characteristics and memberships in social categories. Once a category is chosen, we tend to see members of that category as embodying the most typical attributes of that category, or what are called “prototypes.” Further, people tend to perceive members of their own social categories in more positive and favourable ways than those who are different and belong to other categories. As for the case, it is clear that people are being categorized as “sighted” versus “blind.” John Rafferty has been categorized as a “sighted” person and is perceived less positively then a blind person. 2. Do you think CNIB should have hired John Rafferty as the organization’s new president and CEO or should they have hired an individual who is blind or visually impaired? Explain your answer. Answer: Students are likely to have differing opinions about this as reflected in the case. Some are likely to focus on the fact that he has 13 years of national and international experience as a senior executive and has been in a number of leadership positions and this makes him a good choice for CEO. Others are likely to share the view of those who believe that the job of CEO should go to a blind person in support of the view that “How can CNIB lobby corporations to hire the blind when it will not do so itself?” Another interesting way to look at this is to ask, “If the CNIB is not a diverse employer and hence not willing to hire sighted persons, then how can they expect other organizations to embrace diversity and hire blind persons?” Students should understand the role of perceptions here as well as the implications for diversity and what it means to embrace and support diversity. Deciding whether CNIB should hire John Rafferty or an individual who is blind or visually impaired depends on several factors: • John Rafferty: If Rafferty has extensive experience in leadership and a track record of advancing organizational goals, his appointment could bring valuable expertise and a fresh perspective to CNIB. • Blind or Visually Impaired Candidate: Hiring someone who is blind or visually impaired might ensure the organization is led by someone with direct personal experience of the challenges faced by its primary beneficiaries, potentially enhancing credibility and empathy. Ultimately, the decision should balance leadership skills, experience, and the ability to champion the mission of CNIB, while also considering the symbolic and practical benefits of representation. 3. Does this incident have anything to do with equity and diversity? Explain your answer. Answer: Students might not see this as being about equity or diversity at first but they should understand that just as equity and diversity involves recruiting and hiring persons with disabilities it also works the other way – just because a person does not have a disability is not a reason not to hire him/her. If the CNIB wants to lobby corporations to hire blind persons and to embrace diversity then they too must be equitable in its hiring practices and consider both blind and sighted applicants for all jobs at the CNIB including the top job. Yes, this incident is related to equity and diversity. Here's how: • Equity: Equity involves ensuring fair treatment and opportunities for all individuals, particularly those from marginalized groups. Hiring a leader who is blind or visually impaired might address issues of representation and inclusion, reflecting a commitment to equity by ensuring that leadership aligns with the experiences of the organization’s primary stakeholders. • Diversity: Diversity encompasses a range of differences, including disabilities. A diverse leadership team, which includes individuals with various backgrounds and experiences, can offer diverse perspectives and foster a more inclusive organizational culture. The decision between hiring John Rafferty or a candidate who is blind or visually impaired reflects the organization's commitment to diversity and equity. It highlights whether the organization values representation and the direct lived experiences of its constituents alongside leadership skills and experience. NOTE: John Rafferty joined the CNIB in 2009 and remains the organization’s eighth president and CEO. To learn more about John Rafferty, go http://www.cnib.ca/en/about/who/team/president/Pages/default.aspx TEACHING NOTES FOR CTV NEWSNET CASE STUDY NOTE: YOU CAN WATCH THE ACTUAL INCIDENT AND AVERY HAINES DISCUSSING IT AT: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3NQa9wdnQTk YOU MIGHT WANT TO SHOW THIS TO THE CLASS EITHER BEFORE OR AFTER YOU DISCUSS THE CASE. YOU CAN SHOW IT BEFORE IF YOU WANT TO USE IT TO SET THE STAGE FOR CLASS DISCUSSION OR YOU CAN SHOW IT AFTER DISCUSSING THE CASE AS A WAY TO CONCLUDE THE CLASS AND SEE HOW STUDENTS FEEL AFTER ACTUALLY VIEWING THE INCIDENT AND HEARING AVERY HAINES TALK ABOUT IT. 1. What are people’s perceptions of Avery Haines? Be sure to refer to the perceptions of Henry Kowalski, her co-workers, and CTV Newsnet viewers. Answer: It is interesting to consider the perceptions that different people have of Avery Haines. Henry Kowalski has no doubt about her integrity and perceives the apparent slurs as part of a self-deprecating joke made to her co-workers. When he hired Haines he was impressed with her qualifications – she had won awards and was well liked and respected by her peers and superiors and was a popular radio personality. During her interview he found her relaxed, animated, composed, and personable. Once on the job, Haines gained the support and affection of all her co-workers. Both her personality and work ethic impressed them. Kowalski believed he had made a good decision in hiring Haines and that she would be a great asset to CTV Newsnet. Viewers’ perceptions, however, were not as positive following the airing of the “technical error.” Viewers were horrified and angry and believed that Haines’s remarks represented her real views which were of a bigot and racist. Clearly, the perceptions of Haines held by the viewers were very negative and a stark contrast to the very positive perceptions her co-workers and Henry Kowalski held of her. 2. Why do viewers have different perceptions of Avery Haines than do her co-workers? Use Bruner’s model of the perceptual process to explain people’s perceptions of Avery Haines. Answer: According to Bruner’s model of the perceptual process, when people encounter an unfamiliar target they search for cues and once familiar cues are encountered, they attempt to categorize the target. They then become very selective about searching out cues that strengthen the categorization of the target. In addition, they will perceive the target in the same way over time or across situations, and they will select, ignore, and distort cues in such a manner that they fit together to form a homogeneous image of the target. Haines’ co-workers have already formed a perception of her based on her personality and strong work ethic. Soon after being hired she gained their support and affection. Following Bruner’s model, they have already formed a perception of her that is constant and consistent. Her self-deprecating comments do not change their perception of her and in fact are part and parcel of someone who is just poking fun of themselves. The viewers, however, have not formed as strong a perception as her co-workers and they are not aware of her personality or work ethic. In fact, prior to the incident, not many Canadians had even heard of Avery Haines. As a result, the self-deprecating comments are used as cues by viewers who perceive her remarks as her real views and categorize her accordingly. This of course also leads to a negative perception of CTV Newsnet. 3. Use attribution theory to explain how co-workers and viewers responded to Haines’s inappropriate comments. Why did her co-workers and the public react so differently? Answer: Attribution is the process by which causes or motives are assigned to explain people’s behaviour. Dispositional attributions are explanations for behaviour based on an actor’s personality or intellect. Situational attributions are explanations for behaviour based on an actor’s external situation or environment. Haines’s co-workers view her self-depreciating humour within the context of having flubbed her lines and poking fun of herself. They know that she is not a bigot and they make a situational attribution for her comments. Viewers, however, are not aware of the context and only know what Haines said and make a dispositional attribution. Given that her comments are so atypical of what one hears on air from journalists, viewers can only conclude that the comments represent her real views and make a dispositional attribution. Her co-workers, however, not only know that her comments do not represent her views but they also know the context in which they were made and that it was a result of the situation and so they make a situational attribution. As indicated in the case, her co-workers understood the self-deprecating context in which the remarks were made and that they are “so typical of the gallows humour among journalists.” Her co-workers know the person and the context and understand that she was just making fun of herself. 4. Do you think the public’s reaction to Haines’s comments was reasonable? Discuss the possibility that the public response may be due to biases in person perception and attribution. Answer: Students are likely to have different views on this with some believing that her comments were so offensive that the public was right to be angry and horrified. Others will see it for what it is, self-deprecating humour and poking fun at oneself. One way to flesh out the reactions is to change some of the components of the perceptual process. For example, ask students how they would react if a similar situation happened to them or perhaps a co-worker. Would that change their answer to this question? What if the comments were made by a journalist who is much better known by Canadians than Haines was at the time? Would that change public reactions? In terms of person perception biases, it is possible that the public has not had enough time to get to know Haines and their perception of her reflects a primacy effect and the use of implicit personality theories such that her comments lead viewers to perceive her as a bigot. As for attribution biases, it would seem that viewers are making the fundamental attribution error by overemphasizing dispositional explanations for Haines’s comments at the expense of situational explanations. Of course, for some viewers (and students) there might not be any situation for which such comments are acceptable. At any rate, given that the public might know very much about Avery Haines combined with the tendency to commit the fundamental attribution error, it is not surprising that they reacted the way they did and formed a negative perception of her and made a dispositional attribution. 5. Haines was deeply disturbed that the public would assume that the bigotry inherent in her remarks represented her real views. Use the material in the chapter on perceptions and attributions to explain why the public believed that her remarks represented her real views. What does this case tell us about perceptions and attributions? Answer: As already indicated, the public’s response is in part due to the fact that they do not know Avery Haines as well as her co-workers do and many were still forming perceptions of her. Further, the public did not have the benefit of knowing the context in which the remarks were made. These factors combined with the fundamental attribution error help to explain the public’s reaction to her comments. Haines herself knows that she is not a bigot and that she was just making fun of herself in an attempt make light of an embarrassing situation and to ease tension. She can’t understand why the public would not understand this. This case demonstrates the important role that perceptions and attributions play in a real situation that had major consequences for the persons involved and the organization. Clearly, the public does not perceive what Avery perceives and they do not know what she knows about herself and the situation. Perception and attributions help to explain public reaction and the subsequent consequences. 6. What do you think Avery Haines should do? What should Henry Kowalski do? Should Avery Haines be fired? Explain your answers. Answer: As indicated at the end of the case, it was essential to apologize on air as soon as possible and this was in fact what Haines did and what most students will suggest. She made an on air apology 90 minutes after the incident in which she stated that her remarks did not reflect her opinions nor those of the network. However, students are likely to disagree on what Henry Kowalski should do and whether or not Haines should be fired. Some might believe that an apology is good enough while others will feel that her comments were so unacceptable that Kowalski should fire her. It might be interesting to separate what Haines really did from the technical error that was made by her co-workers. Independent of the technical error, Haines really did nothing wrong – she poked fun at herself for messing up her lines; it was for her co-workers not for public consumption. It was her co-workers who went ahead and accidently aired the flubbed lines and politically incorrect comments. Should she be fired because of this technical error? Clearly, if her co-workers had not made this error and had aired the correct report then this would not even be an issue. So why then should she be fired? In actual fact, the technical error put CTV’s reputation on the line. Two days after the incident, Henry Kowalski fired Avery Haines. In a press release on January 17, 2000, Kowalski was quoted as saying: “The nature of her comments did not leave CTV News with any alternative. Ms. Haines had shown considerable journalistic talent in her short term with us and we regret that this action was necessary. However, her remarks were disrespectful and unprofessional and cannot be excused.” It might be interesting to ask students what they think of this outcome and if they agree. After all, just two months after beginning her broadcasting career, Avery Haines was out of a job, her reputation and future career uncertain, and her face splashed all over the Canadian media. However, soon after she was fired she was hired as a news anchor with City Pulse, City TV in Toronto. Three months later, Henry Kowalski announced that he was leaving CTV, Inc. Additional Sources: Russell, C. (2001). CTV Newsnet (B & C). Richard Ivey School of Business, The University of Western Ontario. CHAPTER 4 VALUES, ATTITUDES, AND WORK BEHAVIOUR SAMPLE ANSWERS TO DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are some of the conditions under which a person’s attitudes might not predict his or her work behaviour? Answer: An attitude is a relatively stable evaluative tendency to respond consistently toward school or work. A common attitude is a sense of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with school or work. Behaviours are inconsistent with attitudes due to social pressure or circumstantial constraints. A worker who really loves her job may say she doesn’t just to please dissatisfied peers. A worker who hates his job may not resign because few alternatives are available in a poor economy. Also keep in mind that behaviour is most likely to correspond to attitudes when people have direct experience with the target of the attitude and when the attitude is held confidently. 2. What is the difference between procedural and interactional fairness? Give an example of each. Answer: Procedural fairness refers to the process used to allocate work outcomes and the extent to which it is seen as reasonable. It is concerned with how outcomes are decided and allocated. When an employee is not provided with adequate reasons for decisions, or when inconsistent procedures are used over time and across people, procedural fairness will be low. Other things that will influence it include the accuracy of information used, two-way communication, and appeals are welcome. Interactional fairness refers to how decision outcomes have been communicated. It occurs when people feel that they have received respectful and informative communication about some outcome and involves the interpersonal treatment received when learning about the outcome. When a manager tells an employee that he/she did not receive a promotion they were expecting in an uncaring and unsympathetic manner it is likely to result in lower interactional fairness. 3. Explain how these people might have to regulate their emotions when doing their jobs: hair salon owner; bill collector; police officer; teacher. How will this regulation of emotion affect job satisfaction? Answer: For a salon owner, customer service would certainly be a priority and remaining cool when dealing with unhappy clients would necessitate emotional regulation, but to the extent that an owner of a salon can target a certain segment of the market and style, he or she would be quite free to actually set the emotional tone for the business. Teachers would also have leeway in setting the emotional tone for the classroom, but would also be mindful of creating a positive learning environment by regulating moods and retaining control in situations of rowdiness. A class of particularly difficult students would require high doses of emotional regulation and take a toll on job satisfaction. Bill collectors would need to regulate emotions carefully as they often deal with people who are embarrassed, evasive, and sometimes aggressive. A calm, low-key but serious demeanour would be best; an overly aggressive tone could be dangerous and an overly cheerful tone would be inappropriate. Being the constant bearer of bad news and dealing with upset people could take an emotional toll and hurt job satisfaction. Police officers would need to regulate emotions in the face of emotional, and potentially shocking, events. The need to remain composed and in control when confronted with disturbing events or abusive behaviour is a requirement for all police officers. However, it is reasonable to expect that officers subjected on a regular basis to very emotional events could see job satisfaction quickly dissipate if not counter-balanced with helping episodes and successes. 4. Using the model of the turnover process in Exhibit 4-8, explain why a very dissatisfied employee might not quit his or her job. Answer: A dissatisfied employee might not quit his or her job for a number of reasons. The dissatisfaction might be offset by a strong commitment to the overall values and mission of the organization; an employee might be so embedded in the community that he or she is willing to endure a dissatisfied job rather than move; or a weak job market might result in limited employment alternatives. 5. Explain why employees who are very satisfied with their jobs might not be better performers than those who are less satisfied. Answer: A worker might be more satisfied because of rewarding social relationships that actually interfere with high performance. Similarly, a dissatisfied worker might perform fairly well due to close supervision and organizational controls such as production quotas. In general, satisfaction is more likely to be associated with performance when work rewards are made contingent on performance. In many organizations this contingency does not exist. 6. Use equity theory to explain why a dentist who earns $100,000 a year might be more dissatisfied with her job than a factory worker who earns $40,000. Answer: The essential issue here is comparison persons. It is unlikely that dentists choose factory workers as comparison persons (or vice versa) in evaluating their job inputs and outcomes. Perhaps the dentist is dissatisfied because she believes that other dentists or professionals earn much more than she does in exchange for equal inputs. Similarly, she may see herself as investing additional inputs (time, effort, and skill) for equivalent outcomes. On the other hand, the factory worker may see himself as fairly paid in comparison with other factory workers in the community, given his job inputs. 7. Mexico has a fairly large power distance culture, while the United States and Canada have lower power distance cultures. Discuss how effective management techniques might vary between Mexico and its neighbours to the north. Answer: In a culture that has a large power distance with low individualism, jobs can be spelled out in very precise terms and strong leaders must be chosen so that the group can function effectively. In the U.S. and Canada, an approach that provides greater autonomy and decision-making power to individuals and self-managed groups would be more effective. 8. Describe some job aspects that might contribute to job satisfaction for a person in a more collective culture. Do the same for a person in a more individualistic culture. Answer: In a more collective culture, the following factors might contribute to job satisfaction: Team work; group-based rewards; the organization giving hiring preference to one’s own family members or clan; factors that promote and reward organizational loyalty. In a more individualistic culture, the following characteristics might contribute to job satisfaction: Rewards based on individual performance; the opportunity to work independently; status symbols accorded to individuals. 9. Give an example of an employee who is experiencing distributive fairness but not procedural fairness. Give an example of an employee who is experiencing procedural fairness but not distributive fairness. Answer: Jack is the best performer in the department, and he is the most highly paid. However, there is no provision for formal performance review and no mechanism to appeal pay decisions. Mary is paid according to her performance and works under a clear, unbiased performance review system with appeal mechanisms. However, her pay is $5,000 under market value. SAMPLE ANSWERS TO INTEGRATIVE DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What role do perceptions play in the determination of job satisfaction? Refer to the components of perception in Chapter 3 and describe how perception plays a role in the determination of job satisfaction according to discrepancy theory, equity theory, and dispositions. How can perceptions be changed to increase job satisfaction? Answer: Perceptions play a key role in the determination of job satisfaction. Discrepancy theory involves people’s perceptions of what they obtain from their job and what they want. Equity theory is a function of one’s perceived inputs and outcomes and the perceived inputs and outcomes of comparison others. Dispositions influence how people perceive their job and whether they are satisfied or not. Looking at the components of the perceptual system, the perceiver’s experience, motivational state, and emotional state is likely to influence his or her perception of what they obtain as well as their inputs and outcomes. As well, to the extent that one’s emotional state influences how they perceive things, then a positive or negative emotional state can influence one’s degree of job satisfaction. Perception is also a factor to the extent that any of the targets are ambiguous. Ambiguous targets could be one’s own inputs and outcomes as well as those of comparison others. The nature of the situation could also influence how one perceives his or her job and therefore play a role in job satisfaction. Changing perceptions to increase job satisfaction could involve making the target less ambiguous and creating pleasant work situations. For example, if workers have a clear idea of what their inputs and outcomes are as well as those of relevant comparison others, they might be more satisfied provided that such information indicates an equitable situation. 2. Does personality influence values and job attitudes? Discuss how the Big Five personality dimensions, locus of control, self-monitoring, self-esteem, and positive and negative affectivity, might influence occupational choice, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment (affective, continuance, and normative). If personality influences job satisfaction and organizational commitment, how can organizations foster high levels of these attitudes? Answer: There is fairly good evidence that personality does influence people’s job attitudes. Personality also influences occupational choice. For example, research on self-esteem has found that individuals with high self-esteem are more likely to choose occupations that fulfill their needs. They are also likely to have higher job satisfaction than individuals with low self-esteem. Also, as noted in Chapter 2, the Big Five dimensions are related to job satisfaction and career success. All of the Big Five dimensions except for openness to experience are positively related to job satisfaction. As well, people who are high on positive affectivity report higher job satisfaction while those high on negative affectivity report lower job satisfaction. In terms of occupational choice, high extraversion has been found to be important for managers and salespeople. High self-monitors have been found to prefer occupations that require role-playing such as sales, law, public relations, and politics and to be less committed to their organization. People with an internal locus of control tend to be more satisfied with their jobs, more committed to their oganization, and achieve greater career success in terms of pay and position. Ultimately, the key to fostering high levels of job satisfaction and commitment is to ensure a good match between individual personality and jobs. Thus, person-job fit is important in terms of occupational choice and job attitudes. SAMPLE ANSWER TO ON-THE-JOB CHALLENGE QUESTION: MR. WINSTON Use the material in the chapter to speculate on various reasons for Mr. Winston’s awesome attendance record. What accounts for the great media interest in Mr. Winston? Answer: Mr. Winston appears to have had a set of work values that made work a central part of his life. There was no indication that he was working so long and so diligently simply to deal with financial need. Rather, he was probably experiencing job satisfaction due to the work itself. It is extremely interesting that Mr. Winston appeared to exhibit organizational commitment in spite of the fact that he experienced unfairness (probably distributive and procedural) due to racial bias in his earlier years. The terminal where Mr. Winston worked was eventually named for him, and this might have offset his views about his earlier privations. This amazing attendance record is an extreme example of OCB, and it is unlikely that he held a grudge toward his employer. His attendance record is all the more amazing when it is realized that the average North American misses 4-7 days of work a year, depending on occupation. This extreme example of “outlier attendance,” coupled with his violation of age stereotypes, doubtless heightened media attention. EXTRA ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. What is the relationship among attitudes, beliefs, and values? Answer: Relationship Among Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values: • Values: Core principles or standards that guide behavior and decision-making. • Beliefs: Convictions or acceptances that certain things are true or real, often based on values. • Attitudes: Evaluations or feelings towards objects, people, or situations, influenced by beliefs and values. • Relationship: Values shape beliefs, which in turn influence attitudes. For example, if someone values honesty (value), they might believe that transparency is important (belief), leading to a positive attitude towards open communication. 2. Why is the concept of job satisfaction and organizational commitment important to organizations? Answer: Importance of Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment: • Job Satisfaction: Affects employee motivation, performance, and retention. Satisfied employees are more likely to be productive and stay with the company. • Organizational Commitment: Reflects an employee’s emotional attachment and loyalty to the organization, influencing their willingness to go above and beyond and reducing turnover. 3. Use equity and discrepancy to explain what causes job satisfaction. Answer: Equity and Discrepancy in Job Satisfaction: • Equity Theory: Job satisfaction is influenced by how fairly employees perceive they are treated compared to others. If they believe their input-to-output ratio is fair relative to colleagues, they are more likely to be satisfied. • Discrepancy Theory: Job satisfaction is affected by the gap between employees' expectations and their actual experiences. Smaller discrepancies between expectations and reality typically lead to higher satisfaction. 4. Describe how emotions and moods influence job satisfaction. Answer: Influence of Emotions and Moods on Job Satisfaction: • Emotions: Positive emotions generally enhance job satisfaction by making work more enjoyable and meaningful. • Moods: Persistent moods can affect overall job satisfaction. For instance, a generally positive mood can lead to higher satisfaction, while negative moods might contribute to dissatisfaction. 5. List the various tips you would give a manager who wishes to change the attitudes of his or her employees. Answer: Tips for Managers to Change Employees’ Attitudes: • Open Communication: Foster transparent communication and involve employees in decision-making. • Recognition and Reward: Acknowledge and reward positive contributions and achievements. • Professional Development: Offer opportunities for growth and skill enhancement. • Supportive Environment: Create a supportive work environment that addresses employee concerns and needs. • Feedback and Improvement: Provide constructive feedback and act on suggestions for improvement. 6. What are the factors that contribute to feelings of procedural fairness? Answer: Factors Contributing to Feelings of Procedural Fairness: • Consistency: Procedures are applied consistently across all employees. • Bias Suppression: Decision-making processes are free from bias and discrimination. • Transparency: Clear and open communication about how decisions are made. • Voice: Employees have the opportunity to express their opinions and concerns during decision-making. 7. Distinguish between affective, continuance, and normative commitment? Can organizations maintain high levels of commitment given the changes in the workplace? Answer: Types of Organizational Commitment: • Affective Commitment: Emotional attachment to the organization. Employees stay because they want to. • Continuance Commitment: Perceived cost of leaving the organization. Employees stay because they need to. • Normative Commitment: Sense of obligation to stay with the organization. Employees stay because they feel they ought to. • Maintaining High Commitment: Organizations can foster high commitment by addressing employees’ needs, providing growth opportunities, and maintaining a supportive work environment, even amid workplace changes. 8. What are some value differences across cultures and what are their implications for organizational behaviour? Answer: Value Differences Across Cultures: • Individualism vs. Collectivism: Cultures that value individual achievement may prioritize personal goals, while collectivist cultures emphasize group harmony and loyalty. • Power Distance: Cultures with high power distance accept hierarchical order, whereas low power distance cultures prefer egalitarian relationships. • Implications: Understanding these differences helps organizations manage diversity effectively, tailor management practices, and improve cross-cultural communication. 9. What are the different generations in the workplace and what are some value differences between them? What are the implications of these value differences for organizations? Answer: Generations in the Workplace and Value Differences: • Generations: Commonly identified generations include Baby Boomers, Generation X, Millennials, and Generation Z. • Value Differences: • Baby Boomers: Value loyalty and job security. • Generation X: Value independence and work-life balance. • Millennials: Value meaningful work and flexibility. • Generation Z: Value digital communication and career advancement opportunities. • Implications: Organizations must adapt to these diverse values by offering flexible work arrangements, opportunities for career development, and engaging work environments to cater to different generational needs. 10. Describe the progression of withdrawal that is associated with job dissatisfaction and what are the implications for managers? Answer: Progression of Withdrawal Associated with Job Dissatisfaction: • Progression: Employees may first exhibit minor withdrawal behaviors, such as reduced effort or absenteeism, which can escalate to more severe behaviors like quitting. • Implications for Managers: Managers should address job dissatisfaction early by identifying and resolving issues, providing support, and engaging employees to prevent escalation of withdrawal behaviors and potential turnover. TEACHING NOTES FOR ATTITUDES TOWARD ABSENSTEEISM FROM WORK EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE This exercise can be used to demonstrate how people have different attitudes towards absenteeism and that there are different reasons for absenteeism besides job dissatisfaction. Students can obtain their score by adding up their responses to the seven scenarios and divide by 7. Lower scores represent less favourable attitudes toward absenteeism. Helena Addae, who developed the scenarios, administered them to over 1500 employees in nine countries. The average rating across the 7 scenarios was 3.09. The average ratings for each scenario were: S1=2.39; S2=2.88; S3=3.96; S4=3.52; S5=3.12; S6=3.03; S7=2.70. With respect to the questions in the text: 1. Students should calculate their total score which indicates their personal attitude towards absenteeism. Answer: Calculating Total Score: • Activity: Have students calculate their total score on the absenteeism attitude exercise. This score reflects their overall attitude towards absenteeism, indicating whether they view it more leniently or strictly. 2. Students should discuss their ratings for each scenario in groups and compare their responses. On what scenarios was their agreement or disagreement? Why do students disagree on some of the scenarios? Students should also compare their average scores and try to understand why there are differences among group members. Answer: Discussing Ratings and Group Comparisons: • Activity: Students should discuss their individual ratings for each absenteeism scenario in groups. • Comparison: They should identify scenarios where there was agreement or disagreement, exploring why different members rated scenarios differently. • Understanding Differences: Discuss factors contributing to differing ratings, such as personal experiences, values, or interpretations of legitimacy. Compare average scores among group members to analyze the range of attitudes toward absenteeism. 3. Each group should decide which scenario is most legitimate and which is least legitimate. They should then determine what distinguishes these two scenarios. In other words, what is it that makes one the most legitimate and the other one the least legitimate? They can then compare their choices with the norms listed at the end of the exercise. Answer: Determining Most and Least Legitimate Scenarios: • Activity: Each group should identify which scenario they consider the most legitimate and which is the least legitimate. • Analysis: They should then analyze what criteria distinguish the most legitimate scenario from the least legitimate one. This might include factors such as the reason for absenteeism, its impact on the organization, or the context of the absence. • Comparison: Compare their distinctions with norms or guidelines provided at the end of the exercise to see if their views align with established standards. 4. Students should think about how they would react as a manager to each scenario. Would they react differently to the most and least legitimate scenario and why? They should also consider what they would do in the case of each scenario. It is interesting to see if they would do different things depending on the scenario or would some students do the same thing regardless of the scenario and degree of legitimacy. After all, absenteeism is absenteeism or does the reason for it matter? Answer: Managerial Reactions to Scenarios: • Activity: Students should consider how they would respond as a manager to each scenario. • Different Reactions: Evaluate whether their reactions would differ for the most and least legitimate scenarios and why. Reflect on what actions they would take, considering whether the reason for absenteeism affects their response or if absenteeism is treated uniformly regardless of context. • Consistency: Discuss if students would handle all cases of absenteeism in a similar manner or if the reason behind the absence influences their managerial decisions. Some issues to discuss with the class include: 1. What are the reasons for absenteeism in the seven scenarios? Answer: Reasons for Absenteeism in the Seven Scenarios: • Scenario 1: Personal illness or health issues. • Scenario 2: Family emergency or caregiving responsibilities. • Scenario 3: Scheduled vacation or planned time off. • Scenario 4: Unplanned absence due to an unforeseen event (e.g., car trouble). • Scenario 5: Chronic absenteeism without a clear justification. • Scenario 6: Stress or burnout related to work conditions. • Scenario 7: Disinterest or lack of motivation in the job. 2. What makes absenteeism legitimate versus illegitimate? Answer: Legitimacy of Absenteeism: • Legitimate Absenteeism: Absences due to personal illness, family emergencies, planned vacations, or unplanned but unavoidable circumstances (e.g., sudden car trouble) are typically viewed as legitimate. • Illegitimate Absenteeism: Chronic absenteeism, frequent unexcused absences, or absences due to disinterest or dissatisfaction without valid reasons may be considered illegitimate. 3. What do the scenarios tell us about the reasons for absenteeism and the effect of job satisfaction? To what extent is job satisfaction part of the reason for absenteeism in each of the scenarios? Answer: Implications of Scenarios for Job Satisfaction: • Scenario Insights: Scenarios involving personal illness, family emergencies, or planned time off often reflect legitimate reasons for absenteeism and may not necessarily be related to job satisfaction. However, scenarios involving stress or burnout may indicate low job satisfaction as a contributing factor to absenteeism. • Job Satisfaction Role: Job satisfaction can play a significant role in scenarios involving work-related stress or burnout. Low job satisfaction might increase absenteeism due to decreased motivation or dissatisfaction with the job. 4. Should managers react to all absenteeism in the same way or does the reason and legitimacy matter? Answer: Managerial Reactions to Absenteeism: • Uniform Reaction vs. Contextual Reaction: Managers should not react to all absenteeism in the same way. The reason for the absence and its legitimacy matter significantly. A tailored approach that considers the context of absenteeism can lead to more effective management and resolution of issues. • Reason and Legitimacy: Addressing legitimate absences with understanding and support, while dealing with illegitimate absenteeism with corrective measures, helps maintain fairness and employee morale. 5. Ask students to relate the material in Chapter 3 on attributions to the scenarios. Do the scenarios differ in terms of whether one will make a dispositional or situational attribution for the absenteeism? Does this help explain how students responded to the scenarios? Will this impact how a manager might respond to the absenteeism? What role do attributions play in determining whether the absenteeism in the scenarios was rated as legitimate or illegitimate? Answer: Attributions and Absenteeism Scenarios: • Dispositional vs. Situational Attributions: • Dispositional Attribution: Scenarios such as chronic absenteeism or frequent absences due to lack of motivation might lead to dispositional attributions (e.g., seeing the employee as irresponsible or disengaged). • Situational Attribution: Scenarios like personal illness or family emergencies are more likely to be attributed situationally (e.g., seeing the absence as due to external, uncontrollable factors). • Impact on Student Responses: Students’ responses to the scenarios may be influenced by whether they attribute absenteeism to internal traits or external circumstances. • Managerial Impact: Managers’ responses can be affected by their attributions; they might take a more supportive approach to absences they attribute to external factors and a more corrective approach to those attributed to internal factors. • Role of Attributions: Attributions help determine whether absenteeism is seen as legitimate or illegitimate. Understanding the underlying reasons for absenteeism through the lens of attribution theory can guide more appropriate managerial responses. TEACHING NOTES FOR HOW MUCH DO YOU GET PAID? CASE INCIDENT 1. According to equity theory, how will these incidents influence Joan’s job satisfaction and behaviour? Answer: Joan is in a classic case of inequity in comparison to new hires and her peers. In terms of her inputs, they include her many years of experience and outstanding work, winning awards, and her seven years of tenure in the organization. Her outcomes include a salary of $75,000 plus benefits. The two new hires only have a degree from a top school of journalism. However, their outcome is a salary of $80,000. Thus, Joan’s inputs are greater but her outcomes are lower. In addition, Joan’s two colleagues have similar inputs but stand to receive greater outputs if they accept their job offers - $150,000 salary plus $10,000 for every award they receive. Thus, Joan is clearly in a state of inequity and this is likely to result in job dissatisfaction. This might have a negative effect on her performance if something is not done to deal with the inequity. She might also lower her organizational citizenship behaviour in response to a situation that she perceives as unfair. 2. What should Joan do in response to her situation? What should her organization do? Answer: Joan has a number of options. She could try to live with the situation if she can tolerate the inequity. She might try to change her equity equation by asking for a raise and thereby increase her outcomes. If this does not work, she might lower her inputs if this is possible, but given the satisfaction she gets from the excitement and challenge of her work, this might be unlikely. Finally, she might simply quit and follow her colleagues to big American networks where she will receive greater outcomes. Her organization should do something to deal with the inequity in their organization. To begin with, they should increase Joan’s outcomes relative to the new hires as this clearly creates a situation of internal inequity. Second, while they might not be able to match what the big networks are offering, they might be able to provide additional outcomes such as compensation for winning awards. Ultimately, if the organization does not want to lose experienced reporters like Joan, they must do something to deal with the inequity. TEACHING NOTES FOR GEN Y IN THE WORKFORCE “RU BRD?” CASE STUDY 1. What are the sources of generational conflict between Josh Lewis and Sarah Bennett? How do their values differ? Answer: Josh sees himself as a creative type who deserves to have an interesting and challenging job despite his relative lack of experience. He eschews status differences and sees nothing improper in bypassing his boss Sarah to talk to Sam Smithstone. Josh is very much into the new media and is comfortable in that domain. More so than Josh, Sarah seems inclined to value order, discipline, loyalty, and hierarchy. She is “old school” in wanting impeccable work but can’t seem to call Josh on his lackluster performance on the assignment. Both professional issues and style are at play here. Professionally, Josh values a new-media approach and an informal style. Sarah is more conservative in the domain of media and more rank-conscious. 2. What are the sources of job dissatisfaction for Josh? What are the sources of job dissatisfaction for Sarah? In both cases, consider discrepancy between wanted and received job outcomes and issues of fairness. Answer: Josh wants challenging work and the chance to have an impact. Routine work and slowly “proving” himself are not on his agenda. Instead, he has boring work and feels that Sarah does not listen to him or respect his ideas, especially in the media domain. Hence, he exhibits job dissatisfaction and is resorting to “job crafting” in bypassing Sarah and going to Sam. Ironically, we get the impression that Sarah suffers a bit from the same issue. The case implies that her creative side has been suppressed by the practical demands of management, and she is surprised that Smithstone knows who she is. In addition, she is required to supervise an entitled member of the younger generation who does marginal work and bypasses her by talking to Smithstone. Although their respective reference persons are not clear from the case, both feel inequity in that their outcomes are perceived as inadequate. 3. Was Josh correct to bypass Sarah and intervene directly with studio head Sam Smithstone? Answer: Opinions will vary, and it would be interesting to see if older and younger students react differently to this question. On one hand, Josh would probably claim that Sarah would not listen to his excellent ideas and he was thus warranted to bypass her. On the other hand, she might claim that he had no right to potentially embarrass her. Both points have merit. 1. Hierarchy and Protocol: • Company Protocol: In many organizations, it is important to follow the established chain of command. Bypassing immediate supervisors or managers can disrupt workflows and violate company protocol. • Importance of Issue: If the issue was urgent or significant and required immediate attention, bypassing Sarah might have been justified to resolve the problem promptly. 2. Nature of the Issue: • Urgency and Impact: Was the issue critical to the studio’s operations or had significant consequences if not addressed quickly? If so, direct intervention might have been warranted. • Sarah’s Role: Consider if Sarah was the appropriate person to handle the issue. If Sarah lacked the authority or expertise to address the problem effectively, intervening with Sam Smithstone might have been necessary. 3. Communication and Relationship Dynamics: • Josh’s Intentions: Was Josh’s decision to bypass Sarah done with the intention of solving the problem efficiently or was it an attempt to undermine Sarah’s authority? • Impact on Relationships: How might Josh’s action affect his working relationship with Sarah and the overall team dynamics? 4. Alternative Actions: • Options for Resolution: Was there another way to address the issue that involved working through Sarah? For example, could Josh have escalated the issue to Sarah before approaching Sam Smithstone? 5. Company Culture: • Organizational Norms: Some organizations have a culture that encourages direct communication with higher-ups, while others strictly adhere to the hierarchy. Understanding the company culture can provide insight into whether Josh’s action was appropriate. Conclusion: Josh’s decision to bypass Sarah and intervene directly with Sam Smithstone should be evaluated based on the urgency of the issue, the appropriateness of the action in the context of company protocols, and the potential impact on team dynamics and relationships. If the situation was urgent and required immediate attention, and if Sarah was not in a position to effectively address the issue, then Josh’s intervention might be justified. However, if the issue could have been handled through the proper channels without negative repercussions, bypassing Sarah might have been inappropriate. 4. In this series of events, could Josh have acted more effectively? Could Sarah have acted more effectively? In each case, explain your reasoning. Answer: Josh should have informed Sarah about his sources of job dissatisfaction. Complaining to his friends is not an effective interpersonal strategy. Also, he should have tried to make a formal pitch to Sarah of his ideas in spite of her tendency to naysay them. After all, the ability to persuade is a critical skill in marketing. Sarah is not listening effectively enough to Josh and not validating his ideas. At the same time, she gives inauthentic feedback when he does substandard work. Her cross-generational communication skills are lacking. 5. What should Sarah do right now? Should she punish Josh, or commend his diligence, or invite him to the meeting, or commandeer his ideas, or something else? Answer: Because she is clearly unhappy with the bypass behaviour, she should first make this known to Josh. Concealing her feelings and giving inauthentic feedback have contributed to the current situation, and she should not make the same mistake again. Then, she should find out what exactly it is that Josh wants to pitch to Sam. If the idea has some potential merit, she should take Josh with her to the meeting and allow him to present it under her banner. In other words, he must grasp that she is the boss and she is delegating him to speak at the meeting. He needs to understand that he is part of an in-house team, not an independent media contractor. Still, credit should be given if it is due. 6. What should Sarah do in the longer term? Answer:Taking a lead from the previous answer, Sarah might think about adopting a more team-based approach that will allow Josh and others of his generation to at least get their ideas on the table. Being heard is a prerequisite for having influence, but just being heard might go a long way. Sarah seems to be lacking a bit in seeing the role that new media, including social networking, can play in marketing, a particular deficit in the entertainment industry. She has to be open to learning from her younger colleagues in this domain. Sarah should also clarify the importance of some of the routine task assignments and insist that she demands impeccable execution. This will be more palatable if the more interesting aspects of the team approach are implemented. Solution Manual for Organizational Behaviour: Understanding and Managing Life at Work Gary Johns, Alan M. Saks 9780133347500, 9780133951622