CH-1-2 Organizational Behaviour and Management – Organizational Behaviour: Understanding and Managing Life at Work: Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 1 to 2 CHAPTER 1 ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR AND MANAGEMENT SAMPLE ANSWERS TO DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are your goals in studying organizational behaviour? What practical advantages might this study have for you? Answer: Students might report a diverse set of goals, ranging from completing a required course, to understanding others, to being more effective managers. They are less likely to cite being a more effective consumer or employee, and these possibilities can be called to their attention. Practical advantages can almost always be grouped into the three categories of improved prediction, explanation, or management of behaviour. When the practical advantage of managing behaviour is mentioned, the importance of prediction and understanding should also be underlined. Studying organizational behavior helps understand how individuals and groups interact within an organization. Practical advantages include improved management and leadership skills, enhanced communication and teamwork, better conflict resolution, and the ability to foster a positive work environment. This knowledge can lead to increased job satisfaction, higher productivity, and career advancement. 2. Consider absence from work as an example of organizational behaviour. What are some of the factors that might predict who is likely to be absent from work? How might you explain absence from work? What are some techniques that organizations use to manage absence? Now do the same for turnover as an example of organizational behaviour. Answer: Both reactions to the job, such as job satisfaction, and personal factors, such as age, gender, or family commitments, might predict absence from and turnover. For example, less satisfied workers and younger workers are absent more frequently than those who are more satisfied or older. Explaining such relationships is more complicated. Some dissatisfied workers may be absent to look for another job, while others may stay home to recuperate from job-related stress. Similarly, younger workers may be absent because they occupy less rewarding, lower status roles, or because they encounter more non-work attractions than older workers. To manage absence, organizations use a variety of strategies including (1) not paying for absent days; (2) giving prizes to those with good attendance records; or (3) using sanctioning programs with visits from company nurses. Such strategies should be effective to the extent that they correspond to the reasons for the absence. Some of the reasons for turnover are discussed in Chapter 4 such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment. You might inform students that the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover is far from perfect and ask them to explain why and what this means in terms of techniques to reduce turnover. You might also ask students to explain why satisfied people sometimes quit their jobs or dissatisfied people do not quit. These issues are discussed in more detail in Chapter 4. Besides increasing job satisfaction and organizational commitment, organizations can also use realistic job previews (see Chapter 8) to reduce turnover. 3. Describe the assumptions about organizational behaviour that are reflected in television shows, such as situation comedies and police dramas. How accurate are these portrayals? Do they influence our thinking about what occurs in organizations? Answer: It is fairly safe to say that TV portrayals of work and behaviour in organizations are biased and/or often inaccurate. For one thing, many shows consciously downplay the working life of their characters. This means that the impact of work on individuals is also deemphasized. Secondly, the broad range of jobs in our society is not portrayed on TV. One finds few blue-collar workers, but many detectives, doctors, lawyers, and police officers. These jobs are not typical in the demands they make on workers nor in the rewards they provide to their incumbents. Finally, TV emphasizes the personality of job holders and discounts the tremendous influence of the occupational role itself. Often, the job is just a convenient setting for an interesting character. Television may contribute substantially to inaccurate occupational stereotypes and to the expectations young people develop about certain kinds of jobs. In the past, about the only people we really would see working on TV were reporters and professional athletes. In recent years, however, a number of television shows have begun to show lawyers, doctors, nurses, and police officers and detectives actually working. 4. To demonstrate that you grasp the idea of contingencies in organizational behaviour, consider how closely managers should supervise the work of their employees. What are some factors on which closeness of supervision might be contingent? Answer: Closeness of supervision should be contingent on factors such as employee experience, trustworthiness, need for independence, and the importance of the project in question. Close supervision is indicated for employees with little experience, those who have not proven their trustworthiness, and those who are dependent. Looser supervision is indicated for those who are experienced, trustworthy, and independent. As project importance increases, some increase in supervision might be provided to preclude costly errors, but this itself is contingent on the other factors mentioned. 5. Management is the art of getting things accomplished in organizations through others. Given this definition, what are some factors that make management a difficult, or at least a challenging, occupation? Answer: Challenges come about as a result of changes in the domestic and international world. Specific challenges include increased global competition, the emergence of new technologies, the added challenge of diversity, changing employee expectations, and societal pressures regarding ethical behaviour. Organizational success requires effective management. 6. Use the contingency approach to describe a task or an organizational department where a more classical management style might be effective. Then do the same for a task or department where the human relations style would be effective. Answer: The contingency approach theorizes that different conditions and situations require the application of different management techniques. Advocates of this approach say that there are no universal truths, concepts, or principles that can be applied under all conditions. A more classical style of management may be more appropriate for a professional football coach, where discipline, execution, and technical precision are of paramount importance. A human relations style may be more appropriate for the coach of a figure skater, where expression and artistry may be more important. 7. What is corporate social responsibility (CSR) and what does it have to do with organizational behaviour? Explain how an understanding of organizational behaviour can help organizations become more socially responsible? Answer: Corporate social responsibility refers to an organization taking responsibility for the impact of its decisions and actions on its stakeholders and an organization’s overall impact on society at large. CSR has a great deal to with organizational behaviour including how an organization treats it employees, the management of diversity, work-family balance, employment equity, issues of fairness, and employee well-being. Organizations that rank high on CSR are good employers because of the way they treat their employees and because their management practices promote the well-being of employees. CSR has implications for an organization’s reputation and financial performance and an increasing number of organizations are placing greater emphasis on CSR initiatives. An understanding of OB can help organizations become more socially responsible because it involves changing management practices as well as employees’ attitudes and behaviours. This has implications for learning, communication, rewards and recognition, motivation, values, and leadership, to name just a few OB areas. As indicated in the chapter, at Fairmont Hotels and Resorts employees volunteer to be on “green teams” that meet monthly to brainstorm environmental initiatives. The company also recognizes and rewards employees for their efforts. The program has had a positive effect on employee engagement and motivation and employees are proud to be working for an environmentally responsible organization. The “Applied Focus, Green Management at the Delta Chelsea Hotel.” is also a good example of how OB can help organizations become more socially responsible. It is also worth noting that an organization’s CSR has implications for the recruitment and retention of employees and talent management as an increasing number of workers want to work for organizations that are environmentally friendly and rank high on CSR. 8. Why do studies of managerial behaviour reveal the importance of networking? What about human resource management? Explain the differences between these two behaviours and their importance for success. Answer: When you examine what managers actually do, and the amount of time they spend with people, the role of networking and human resource management and their importance becomes evident. Networking consists of interacting with people outside of the organization and informal socializing and politicking with insiders. Networking has been found to be critical for moving up the ranks of the organization quickly. Human resource management involves motivating and reinforcing, disciplining and punishing, managing conflict, staffing, and training and developing employees. It is associated with unit effectiveness and employee satisfaction and commitment. Thus, both networking and human resource management are important managerial activities and both are associated with success; however, the meaning of success is what differs (i.e., moving up quickly for networking, and unit effectiveness and positive employee attitudes for human resource management). 9. What are some of the demands that increased workforce diversity and increased global operations make on managers? What are some of the opportunities that these trends offer to managers? Answer: Challenges that come about as a result of changes in international operations and because of a diverse workplace both here and abroad challenge managers who must be able to cope with these changes. The ability to communicate in other languages and the ability to understand and accept subtle cultural differences are among the things that managers must be able to do. Managers who are able to successfully compete in this environment will experience greater career opportunities and the rewards that come with them. 10. Describe how management practices and organizational behaviour can help organizations deal with the contemporary management concerns discussed in the chapter. In other words, what are some of the things that organizations can do to a. manage local and global diversity, b. create a positive work environment and improve employee well-being, c. improve and facilitate the management of talent and employee engagement, and d. promote corporate social responsibility. Answer: Organizational behaviour offers many possible solutions to address each of the contemporary management concerns. For example, an awareness of cultural differences and stereotypes can improve the management of local and global diversity. Diversity training programs can be especially effective. Understanding how the effectiveness of leadership styles and motivational practices might vary across cultures is also important. Organizations can create a more positive work environment and improve employee well-being by creating a more spiritual workplace that provides employees with interesting work that gives them meaning and a feeling of purpose, and by providing them with opportunities for growth and development. Organizations can also develop employees’ PsyCap through the use of PsyCap interventions (PCI) that focus on enhancing each of the components of PsyCap. Some of the practices from organizational behaviour that can improve talent management and employee engagement can be found in Exhibit 1.1,which lists some of the management practices of the best companies to work for in Canada, such as flexible work schedules, incentive compensation, extensive training and development programs, and employee recognition and reward programs to mention just a few. Organizations can use OB practices to communicate to employees the importance of CSR and to recognize and reward employees for socially responsible behaviours such as volunteer work in the community and initiatives that make the organization more environmentally friendly. Management practices and organizational behaviour are key to creating an organization that ranks high on CSR. 11. What is the meaning of workplace spirituality and how is it different from religion in the workplace? What does an organization have to do to become a spiritual workplace? Would you want to work in a spiritual workplace? Explain your answer. Answer: Workplace spirituality refers to a workplace that provides employees with meaning, purpose, a sense of community, and a connection to others. Make sure that students understand that workplace spirituality is not about religion in the workplace and that it has nothing to do with religion at work. Some students might have difficulty understanding the difference. Therefore, it is important to emphasize that this has to do with creating a positive work environment that provides employees with meaning and a sense of purpose rather than just a pay cheque. Some students might wonder why this matters. You might ask them if they would want to work in an organization that provides them with interesting work, opportunities for growth and development, meaningful relationships with others, and part of a caring and supportive community. Most students will probably see these things as good to have and you can tell them that these are the makings of a spiritual workplace. It might be interesting to hear from any students who would not want to work in such a workplace and to explain why. This might further help to emphasize that a spiritual workplace is not the same as a religious workplace. 12. What is the meaning of psychological capital and what does it have to do with organizational behaviour? Describe each of the components of psychological capital and how they can help you in your studies. Answer: Psychological capital refers to an individual’s positive psychological state of development that is characterized by self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience. Self-efficacy refers to one’s confidence to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks; optimism involves making internal attributions about positive events in the present and future and external attributions about negative events; hope refers to persevering toward one’s goals, and when necessary making changes and using multiple pathways to achieve one’s goals; and resilience refers to one’s ability to bounce back or rebound from adversity and setbacks to attain success. PsyCap is important because it is related to various aspects of organizational behaviour including more positive employee attitudes, behaviours, and job performance as well as employee well-being and lower anxiety, stress, and turnover intentions. Remind students that each of the components of PsyCap are states or positive work-related psychological resources that can be changed, modified, and developed and they are not fixed, stable, or static personality traits. Students should describe and understand that if they have higher self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience they will do better in their studies and very likely will get higher grades. Thus, it is worth the effort to learn about each component and how they can be developed and improved. SAMPLE ANSWER TO ON-THE-JOB CHALLENGE QUESTION: THE ULTIMATE PERK NOTE: The video “Playing Hooky” features Social Media Group and its unlimited time-off vacation policy. You might want to show the video before discussing the questions. What do you think about Social Media Group’s unlimited vacation policy? Using an organizational behaviour perspective, what effect do you think the unlimited vacation policy will have on employees’ attitudes and behaviour? Discuss the implications of the unlimited vacation policy for each of the contemporary management concerns discussed in the chapter. Do you think it is a good idea for organizations to have an unlimited vacation policy? Explain your answer. Answer: Students will probably like the idea of an unlimited vacation policy. After all, who wouldn’t want to take a vacation whenever they want! Cleary, from an organizational behaviour perspective, such a policy is likely to have a positive effect on employees’ attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction, organizational commitment) and behaviours (absenteeism, turnover, job performance). Perhaps more interesting and worth discussing, is why? Answering this question can help introduce students to other topics in later chapters such as trust and organizational support (Chapter 3), fairness (Chapter 4), motivation (Chapters 5 and 6), culture (Chapter 8), leadership style (Chapter 9), and stress (Chapter 13). In terms of the contemporary management concerns, such a policy will address the needs of a diverse workforce as do the various forms of alternative working schedules (Chapter 6); the policy will help to contribute to a positive work environment that promotes employee health and well-being; it will help in the management of talent by attracting and recruiting employees as well as engaging and retaining them; and it will contribute to an organization’s corporate social responsibility (contributes to work-life balance and promotes employee well-being). In terms of whether this is a good idea, many students might think so since it is something they would probably like to have in a job and also because of its potential to meet the four contemporary management concerns discussed in the chapter. However, it is worth asking students if it is something that other organizations should do or does it have its limits. The point should be made that it will not work in all organizations. Ask students why they think it works for Social Media Group. Part of the answer should have to do with the small size of the company, the type of work and employees, and the leadership style and culture. Clearly, this is something that will not work in all organizations or even be practical. After a discussion of this question, you can introduce the rest of the course (if you have not already done so) by explaining how in later chapters students will learn more about employee job attitudes and behaviours, and how to improve job satisfaction, organizational commitment, motivation, and employee engagement as well as how to lower absenteeism and turnover and manage stress (Chapters 4, 5, 6, and 13). You can also discuss the importance of culture (Chapter 8) and leadership (Chapter 9) and how it can influence employee attitudes and behaviours. In effect, the issues and problems raised in this On-the-Job Challenge questions can lead you into a discussion of almost any topic in the text. Relevant topics and chapters that you might want to mention include trust and perceived organizational support (Chapter 3), fairness, job satisfaction, emotions, organizational commitment, absence from work, turnover, performance, and organizational citizenship behaviour (Chapter 4), theories of motivation (Chapter 5), job design and alternative working schedules (Chapter 6), organizational culture (Chapter 8), leadership (Chapter 9), and stress (Chapter 13). Ultimately, you can take this question anywhere you want as you introduce students to organizational behaviour and the course. The Social Media Group's unlimited vacation policy can have both positive and negative effects on employees' attitudes and behavior. From an organizational behavior perspective, it may increase job satisfaction, trust, and autonomy, potentially boosting motivation and reducing burnout. However, it might also lead to ambiguity and pressure, as employees could feel guilty about taking time off or unsure about how much vacation is appropriate. Implications for contemporary management concerns: 1. Employee Well-being: Can improve work-life balance but may also cause stress if not managed properly. 2. Performance Management: Requires clear expectations and communication to ensure productivity. 3. Workplace Culture: Can foster a trusting and empowering culture but may lead to inconsistencies in vacation use. Overall, an unlimited vacation policy can be a good idea if accompanied by a strong culture of trust and clear guidelines. It should align with the organization's values and be implemented with careful consideration of employee needs and organizational goals. EXTRA ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Discuss how the goals of the field of organizational behaviour are related to the managerial tasks of analysis and action. Answer: The goals of organizational behavior (OB) include understanding, predicting, and influencing employee behavior. These align with managerial tasks of analysis (assessing situations, diagnosing problems) and action (implementing strategies, making decisions). OB provides the framework and tools for managers to effectively analyze organizational dynamics and take appropriate actions. 2. Why is survival a goal of virtually all organizations? Answer: Survival ensures an organization's continued existence, allowing it to fulfill its mission, serve stakeholders, maintain employment, and adapt to changing environments. It is the foundation for achieving long-term objectives and growth. 3. Discuss the following statement: Organizational behaviour technologies should not be developed to control the behaviour of individuals in organizations. Answer: While OB technologies can provide structure and guidance, they should not be overly controlling, as this can stifle creativity and autonomy. Instead, they should empower individuals, enhance engagement, and support ethical behavior, fostering a positive and productive work environment. 4. What does the term contingency mean? Why are contingencies so central to an understanding of how organizations function? Answer: Contingency refers to the idea that the best organizational practices depend on specific situational factors. It emphasizes that there is no universal solution; decisions must consider variables such as culture, environment, and technology. Contingencies are central as they account for the complexity and variability in organizational settings. 5. Why is it important to study organizational behaviour? Answer: Studying OB is crucial for understanding and managing human behavior in organizations. It enhances leadership skills, improves communication, fosters teamwork, and contributes to better decision-making and conflict resolution. 6. Discuss how organizational behaviour can influence the competitiveness and success of an organization. Answer: OB contributes to organizational success by improving employee motivation, job satisfaction, and overall performance. It enables the development of a positive organizational culture, enhances customer service, and fosters innovation, giving the organization a competitive advantage. 7. Discuss some of the contemporary concerns of management and the role of organizational behaviour in the successful management of these concerns. Answer: • Diversity and Inclusion: OB helps create inclusive workplaces and manage diverse teams. • Technological Change: Facilitates adaptation to new technologies and processes. • Employee Well-being: Addresses mental health, work-life balance, and job satisfaction. • Globalization: Prepares organizations for cross-cultural challenges and global markets. OB plays a vital role in addressing these concerns by providing insights and strategies for managing people and processes effectively. TEACHING NOTES FOR GOOD JOB, BAD JOB EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE This exercise is essentially self-explanatory. It makes a good “ice breaker,” and unlike some ice breakers, it is clearly tied to the content of the course. Note that it could also be used as an introduction to job satisfaction in conjunction with Chapter 4. For the debriefing, you may want to address the following issues in addition to those noted in the exercise: 1. Is a good job simply the opposite of a bad job, or are there qualitative differences between the two? Answer: A good job is not merely the opposite of a bad job; they differ qualitatively. Good jobs offer positive attributes like meaningful work and supportive environments, while bad jobs may involve unpleasant tasks and poor conditions. 2. Although it is possible to list dozens of good and bad qualities, are there any more basic and general dimensions being tapped here? One might be the distinction between intrinsic job qualities (e.g., interesting work) and extrinsic job qualities (e.g., high pay). Answer: • Job qualities can be categorized into intrinsic (e.g., job satisfaction, meaningful work) and extrinsic factors (e.g., salary, benefits). Both dimensions contribute to overall job satisfaction. 3. To what extent can good job aspects compensate or make up for bad job aspects? Can a nice boss make up for boring work? Answer: Positive aspects can mitigate negative ones to some extent. For example, a supportive boss can partially offset uninteresting work, but the extent of compensation varies based on individual preferences and the significance of the bad aspects. 4. What accounts for the fact that a good job for one person could be a bad job for another? (This is a good opportunity to preview need patterns and individual differences.) Answer: What constitutes a good or bad job varies among individuals due to differences in values, needs, and preferences. For instance, one person might prioritize job security, while another values creative freedom. 5. Is there a tendency toward social desirability in the response to this exercise? That is, do people tend to describe good and bad jobs in a way that they think might elicit approval from others? (This is probably less likely when students reflect on jobs they have actually held versus giving abstract opinions about good and bad jobs in general.) Answer: There may be a tendency for people to describe jobs in socially desirable terms, especially in abstract discussions. However, when reflecting on personal experiences, responses are likely more genuine and specific. TEACHING NOTES FOR OB ON TV EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE The purpose of this exercise is to get students to reflect on the factors that influence their views of organizational life. One element of popular culture, television, plays a role in this influence. The exercise is meant to be assigned a week in advance of its class discussion if possible. Variations might involve developing additional questions for students to consider or assigning certain regularly-scheduled shows in a systematic way for comparison and contrast purposes. Given at least a week’s notice, almost all students will be able to devote a half an hour or an hour to this assignment. For some student populations, you might be sensitive to the unlikely but not impossible lack of access to TV. Also, part-time jobs or other such factors may interfere with doing the assignment during prime time. Encourage the students to do the assignment actively rather than working from memory of some familiar series. Leah Van de Berg and Nick Trujillo conducted a comprehensive study of the portrayal of organizational life on U.S. television in the 1980’s (Organizational Life on Television, Ablex Publishing, 1989). They used quantitative content analysis and qualitative textual analysis of both printed descriptions of TV programming and actual videotapes of TV shows. Here are some of their findings which may be somewhat less valid today: 1. In terms of industrial sector, the service and public administration industries dominate prime time TV. Among these, police work, national security, and private detective services are most prominent. Work in these domains is featured much more frequently than its actual base rate in the population. On the other hand, manufacturing, agriculture, mining, and construction are greatly underrepresented on TV. 2. In terms of jobs, major characters are most often professionals, service workers, or managers with fairly high positions. 3. With the exception of lawbreakers and managers making a one-shot appearance, the portrayal of all job groups on TV is more positive than negative. 4. Prime time TV stresses hard work, cooperation, and creativity in organizations. People are stressed over products or profits. The best laid plans often are messed up. Personal and professional life are hard to separate. 5. Prime time TV fails to illustrate the economic role of organizations. It also fails to cover the need for organizational change and the conditions under which organizations are instruments of domination. The dullness of much organizational life is not portrayed on TV. In debriefing the class, you might wish to have them consider the extent to which the portrayal of organizational life on television creates realistic or unrealistic expectations about work. In this regard, note that this exercise would also work nicely in conjunction with Chapter 8 (Social Influence, Socialization, and Organizational Culture see section on Unrealistic Expectations and the Psychological Contract as well as the section on Realistic Job Previews). Finally, you might find a clip of prime time organizational behaviour to show in class when discussing this exercise. TEACHING NOTES FOR OB IN THE NEWS EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE This exercise is meant to serve a number of purposes. For starters, it demonstrates to students that management and OB is pervasive in our world and that there are frequent examples of it in the news. A second purpose is for students to make connections between the events and information described in the article and organizational behaviour. At a more advanced level, this exercise is designed for students to learn how an understanding of organizational behaviour can help them understand the world in a new and more informed manner. Thus, the questions for this exercise require students to examine the article through the lens of OB and begin to see things in a new and more informed light. Finally, this exercise provides students a way to apply the material in the chapter to an actual event or story that they have chosen to focus on. Thus, by using their article and answering the questions they can better understand what organizations are and what organizational behaviour is about; why organizational behaviour is important and how it makes a difference; the goals of organizational behaviour; and what contemporary management concerns are facing organizations. From this exercise students should not only learn the material in Chapter 1, but they should also come to understand that learning about organizational behaviour can improve their understanding and interpretation of everyday stories and events that they read and hear about in the news. TEACHING NOTES FOR MY MOTHER’S VISIT CASE INCIDENT This Case Incident is similar to a story that a student conveyed to one of the authors several years ago. His mother was visiting from overseas and he had to leave work early on the last day of her visit to drive her to the airport. His boss was unwilling to give him permission to leave early even after he made sure all of his work was completed and in order. A similar story can be found in an article by Gary Powell, “The abusive organization” which appeared in the Academy of Management Executive (1998, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 95-96). Powell notes that such stories are common in organizations. As Powell notes, “It seems that everyone has one to tell or knows someone who has one to tell.” As a result, this is an excellent way to begin the course because students can and do relate to this incident. Powell uses the incident to describe what he calls an “abusive organization” which is an organization that “operates with callous disregard for its employees, not even displaying what might be considered a minimum amount of concern for human needs.” According to Powell, the number of abusive organizations is on the rise. The two case incident questions can be used to introduce students to some of the major issues in organizational behaviour. The first question is designed to flesh out various topics in organizational behaviour, and the second question is designed to apply the goals of organizational behaviour. Before discussing the questions, you might pique student interest by asking some general questions such as what they think about the incident; was it appropriate for George’s boss to make him complete the assignment; did George do the right thing by staying; what would you have done; and have you ever had a boss like George’s or ever experienced a similar incident? 1. What does this incident tell you about management and organizational behaviour at George’s organization? Answer: This question is designed to get students to think about some of the major topics in organizational behaviour. For example, what type of personality does the boss have? Why does he behave the way he does? Perhaps he has a high need for power and uses his power for personal gain (personal power manager, Chapter 12). Other personality characteristics to consider might be Type A Behaviour Pattern (Chapter 13), low agreeableness (Chapter 2), or machiavellianism (Chapter 12). The discussion could also focus on perception. You might ask students what their perception is of George’s boss, and then introduce topics such as perceptions of trust and perceived organizational support (Chapter 3) and fairness (Chapter 4). You can also discuss the leadership style of George’s boss and introduce leader behaviours such as directive, supportive, participative, reward, punishment, and leader-member exchange theory (Chapter 9). A discussion of culture can focus on what it must be like to work in George’s organization (Chapter 8). This might involve some discussion of Powell’s description of an abusive organization as well as the notion of pathological cultures (Chapter 8). The meaning of power can also be introduced (Chapter 12) by describing how George is dependent on his boss for his job as well the bases of power (Chapter 12) that his boss can use to influence George’s behaviour (e.g., legitimate, reward, and coercive). With respect to the material in Chapter 1, you might ask students to think about the management style of George’s organization. Is the organization more like the classical view and bureaucracy or the human relations movement? Based on the behaviour of George’s boss, it would seem that this is a good example of a bureaucracy with a strict chain of command, detailed rules, regulations, and procedures ensuring that the job gets done, and the centralization of power with management. Clearly, George’s boss is not showing the kind of participative management and concern toward employee needs that is characteristics of the human relations movement. Ask students to describe what George’s boss might have done if the human relations movement was the dominant approach to management in the organization. Then consider the impact of the two approaches on employee attitudes and behaviour. The incident suggests a lack of empathy and flexibility in the organization's management. It indicates an "abusive organization" culture, where employee well-being and personal needs are not prioritized. The management's rigid approach demonstrates poor understanding of work-life balance and can lead to decreased employee morale, job dissatisfaction, and a negative organizational climate. This type of environment likely undervalues employees as individuals and focuses excessively on task completion, potentially resulting in high turnover and reduced organizational commitment. 2. How can organizational behaviour help to predict and explain the behaviour of George and his boss? What advice would you give to George and his boss in terms of managing organizational behaviour in the future? Answer: This question can be used to describe the importance and goals of organizational behaviour. For example, George is likely to form negative attitudes toward his boss and organization as a result of this experience. The incident could lower his perceptions of organizational support as well as his job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and might also influence his behaviour. For example, he might consider quitting his job; he might decide to be absent the next time he needs time off work; he might refrain from organizational citizenship behaviours; and/or his performance might be affected. In terms of the goals of organizational behaviour, George should be able to predict his boss’s future behaviour in similar circumstances. He might see him as uncaring and unlikely to consider his needs. To manage the situation, George might avoid future incidents by scheduling non-work events like his mother’s arrival at a time when his boss cannot force him to stay at work (e.g., on a Sunday or in the evening); he might find a backup at work who can cover for him; or perhaps he can make arrangements with his boss in advance and complete any work prior to the day he must be absent from work, assuming that his boss will cooperate. From the organization’s perspective, they should realize that the kind of behaviour displayed by George’s boss could have a negative effect on employees’ attitudes and behaviour, and ultimately, on the organization itself. Such behaviour could result in a high rate of turnover when the labour market becomes more favourable and a high rate of absenteeism. To ensure that employees have positive attitudes and choose to remain in the organization, the organization should implement work-family programs so employees have more flexible work schedules and should also provide support to employees to help them meet their family-related needs and obligations. More understanding of employees’ needs and a more participative leadership style on the part of George’s boss would also be a good idea. LMX theory of leadership which is discussed in Chapter 9 might be worth noting. 3. What does this incident tell you about management and organizational behaviour in general? Answer: This question provides a good opportunity to discuss the importance of management and organizational behaviour and how it affects employees and organizations. The case incident helps to demonstrate different approaches to management (classical vs. human relations movement) and how different approaches and practices can impact employee attitudes and behaviours. You might ask students to think about how the incident described in the case might influence George’s future attitudes and behaviours - how it might cause his commitment to the organization to decline, lower his performance, and perhaps increase his absenteeism (next time he is probably likely to just not come to work), and his likelihood of quitting. You can relate the incident to several issues in the chapter such as why study organizational behaviour, the goals of organizational behaviour, what mangers do (discuss George’s boss in terms of managerial roles and activities), and contemporary management concerns (especially creating a positive work environment and employee well-being, talent management and employee engagement, and CSR). You might also relate the case to the Research Focus, “Are the Best Companies to Work for the Best Companies?” and how organizational behaviour not only makes organizations great places to work, but also makes them more successful. Finally, you can point out the importance of various topics in organizational behaviour such as leadership, communication, culture, power, and stress (work-family conflict). TEACHING NOTES FOR A ZERO WAGE INCREASE AGAIN? CASE STUDY The questions for this case were developed specifically for Chapter 1 and focus on the goals of organizational behaviour and managerial roles and activities. However, the case illustrates a number of other issues and topics in organizational behaviour that can also be discussed with this case including: learning and operant learning theory (Chapter 2), attributions and performance appraisals (Chapter 3), fairness perceptions and equity theory (Chapter 4), motivation theories (Chapter 5) and linking pay to performance (Chapter 6), psychological contracts (Chapter 8), leadership (Chapter 9), and decision making (Chapter 11). Furthermore, the case can also be used as a case study for Chapter 2 (with a focus on operant learning theory, positive and negative reinforcement, punishment, recognition programs) and Chapter 6 (with a focus on money as a motivator and linking pay to performance). For the purpose of Chapter 1, it serves as a good way to begin talking and thinking about organizational behaviour and management and for introducing other topics to be covered later in the course. 1. Explain the relevance and importance of organizational behaviour for the issues described in the case and the wage review dilemma. What are the main issues and what do they have to do with organizational behaviour? Answer: This case is all about organizational behaviour. In fact, throughout the case there are many examples of organizational behaviour such as the fact that some employees dislike their job and have low morale, an absenteeism problem that follows long weekends, and a problem of employee theft. The focus of the case is the fact that employees did not receive a raise in 2009 or in 2010 and while they seem to have understood why this was necessary, they may not be willing to accept a zero percent wage increase once again for the third year in a row. At the heart of the case is the use of pay to motivate and reward employees and if some or all of the employees should receive a pay increase. The potential effect of a pay increase or lack of one on employee attitudes and behaviour is the main issue in the case. Organizational behaviour is concerned about the attitudes and behaviours of individuals and groups in organizations. The case is about the possible effect of a zero wage increase on employees’ attitudes and behaviours. It also touches on the issue of linking pay to performance which is discussed in Chapter 6 and equity theory and fairness perceptions which are covered in Chapters 4 and 5. 2. Use the goals of organizational behaviour to address the wage review dilemma. In other words, what needs to be predicted, explained, and managed? What do you think will happen if there is not a wage increase? What will happen if there is a wage increase? What will happen if only some employees receive a wage increase? How can the goals of organizational behaviour help Mark make a decision about the wage dilemma? Answer: The goals of organizational behaviour are highly relevant to this case since Mark is concerned about the effect of a zero wage increase for the third year in a row on employees’ attitudes and behaviours. He understands that it is unreasonable to ask employees to accept a wage freeze again. The goals of organizational behaviour are predicting, explaining, and managing organizational behaviour. Therefore, Mark needs to predict what might happen if there is another zero wage increase; explain why this might happen; and then manage it. In terms of predicting organizational behavour, Mark should first consider the effect of a zero wage increase on employees attitudes and behaviours. As he states in the case, some employees already seem to dislike their jobs and it is quite possible that their morale will sink even lower, they will be difficult to deal with, and they might even quit if there is a third year without an increase. Furthermore, as contemplated by Mark, a zero wage increase might also lead to an increase in employee theft as employees who feel cheated might find this an acceptable way to obtain a different kind of raise. On the other hand, providing a wage increase might increase the morale and job satisfaction of some employees, reduce employee theft, and lower the likelihood that employees will quit. If only some employees receive a wage increase while others are subject to a zero increase for the third year in a row, there could be an angry backlash that leads to a host of other problems including conflict, lack of cooperation among employees, increased absenteeism, sabotage, and other counterproductive work behaviours. Given these predictions, the other goals of organizational behaviour can help Mark make a decision about the wage dilemma. First, he must explain why employees might respond in these different ways. One explanation might be a lack of fairness or equity. That is, some employees might not think it is fair to not receive a wage increase for the third year in a row or they might not think it is fair to give some employees an increase and not others. You might want to inform students about equity theory which they will learn about later in the course and which is described in Chapters 4 and 5. If the explanation for these predictions revolves around equity and fairness issues, then Mark might want to manage the wage dilemma by making a decision that will be perceived as fair and equitable to all employees. This might mean giving all employees a raise but basing it on their performance and making it clear to them what their performance is and why they are receiving a given percentage wage increase. This might help to create some sense of equity and fairness among employees and therefore limit the negative types of reactions and behaviours that Mark predicted might result from a zero wage increase or limiting a wage increase to only some employees. It might be worth mentioning the importance of procedural, distributive, and interactional fairness in this process and inform students that fairness will be discussed in more detail later in the course (Chapter 4). 3. Consider the relevance of each of the managerial roles and activities for Mark Coglin. What roles and activities are most important for dealing with the wage dilemma? What does Mark need to do and how should he proceed? Answer: In terms of managerial roles, all of Mintzberg’s roles are important. That is, Mark has to have good relations with all employees (interpersonal role), he has to receive and transmit information (informational role), and he has to make important decisions (decisional role). In terms of the wage dilemma, the most important role is the decisional role. In particular, Mark has to decide if he should use the additional funds for a wage increase (resource allocation role). The interpersonal role is also important as Mark is also concerned about rewarding the best employees (leadership role). Among the various managerial activities, the human resource management activity is most relevant to Mark as he is concerned about motivating and reinforcing employees’ behaviour and performance. As described in the text, the human resource management activity is most strongly associated with unit effectiveness and employee satisfaction and commitment which are of course important consequences that will be affected by Mark’s decision about the wage dilemma. 4. Do you think Mark should give all or none of the employees a wage increase? Should Mark give only some of the employees a wage increase? What are the implications of each decision and how can organizational behaviour help Mark make this decision and understand the implications? Answer: It is first worth noting that Mark could give all of the employees an increase. As indicated in the case, if all of the ideas suggested by Aaron to cut expenses were implemented, there would be enough money to give all employees a 2.5 to 3.0 percent increase. Thus, Mark certainly can give all employees an increase and avoid a third year of zero wage increases. However, the question is whether he should give them all an increase and if he does, should they all get the same increase. Clearly, the dilemma Mark is facing is that some of his employees really do deserve an increase while others do not even deserve what they already get paid according to Mark. Thus, the dilemma for Mark is that if he gives everybody an increase then there will be some employees who get a raise but don’t deserve it. If nobody gets an increase, then many employees who deserve an increase will not receive one. Furthermore, as indicated in the answer to question #2, there are many potential negative consequences of another zero wage increase. Thus, it makes most sense to either give some employees an increase and not others, or give all employees an increase but give those more deserving a higher increase. The implications of no increase are that some good employees will leave while other employees will become more dissatisfied and engage in various forms of counterproductive behaviours such as theft. In answering this question, it might helpful to list each alternative on the board and have students discuss the pros and cons of each: 1. Zero wage increase for all employees, 2. Equal increase for all employees, 3. Wage increase for all employees but those most deserving receive a higher increase. Ask students to vote on each option and to explain their preferred course of action. You might also have students form groups and have each group choose an option and then defend it. As with the answer to question #2, organizational behaviour can help Mark make this decision with an understanding that he needs to manage the attitudes and behaviours of all employees. That is, he wants to keep his best employees and motivate and reward them, but at the same time try to avoid negative attitudes and behaviours on the part of other employees. 5. What do you think Mark should do and why? Is there something else he could do besides a wage increase? Will Mark’s decision have an affect on the attitudes and behaviours of the employees? Explain your answers. Answer: From the previous answer, students should have some idea of what Mark should do. The two extremes (zero wage for everybody, wage increase for only some) are likely to lead to a number of problems. The problem with a wage increase for some employees and not others is that this will come as a surprise and even a shock to those who do not get an increase because it has never been done before and they were not informed of this new policy. If, however, Mark gives all employees an increase and bases the percent of the increase on their behaviour and performance, then employees are more likely to be understanding and accepting. This will of course require that he first discuss their performance with them which is noted throughout the case with respect to various employees who are both very good and not so good (e.g., Simon, Doug, Marie, and Anne, Aaron, Wes, and Kyle). The case indicates that if all of the ideas are implemented, then all employees can receive a 2.5 to 3.0 increase. However, it is possible to give the best employees such as Aaron, Simon, and Wes a higher increase (e.g., 4 percent) and give the poorer performing employees a lower increase (e.g., 2 percent). This avoids the problem of a third year zero wage increase and it also rewards those employees who are the best performers. Furthermore, all employees, especially those at the lower end of performance and the wage increase, will be motivated to do better with the expectation that future raises will be based on performance. The fact that all employees receive a wage increase and that there is some sense of fairness because it is based on their performance should help to create more positive attitudes and behaviours. That is, it should help to keep the best employees in the organization and performing at a high level, and hopefully improve the attitudes, motivation, and performance of the lower performing employees who might now be motivated to do better. You might also ask students if there is anything else they think Mark might do. One answer might be some kind of celebration (e.g., company lunch) in recognition of the fact that everybody is receiving an increase. Perhaps special recognition can also be given to the best employees as another way to show appreciation and to motivate other employees to work harder and do better. You might ask students to consider other forms of recognition and non-financial rewards such as prizes and cash rewards. Mark might also have to consider other approaches for dealing with the attendance problem and employee theft. This might require a discipline program and it would certainly require more attention to performance appraisals and performance management. CHAPTER 2 PERSONALITY AND LEARNING SAMPLE ANSWERS TO DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Consider the relevance of the dispositional, situational, and interactionist approaches to your own behaviour. Describe examples of your behaviour in a school or work situation that demonstrates each perspective of organizational behaviour. Answer: This is a good question to get students thinking about how each approach is relevant to their own behaviour in various situations. Students should be able to think of situations in which they behaved in a certain way because of their personality and dispositions. If you need to provide an example, ask students what happens when they must work on a group project and the group meets for the first time. How do they behave and how do the other members of their group behave? This is a good example of a weak situation where there are no rules or contingencies. As a result, personality is likely to have a strong effect on how people behave. For example, students who are extraverted and have high self-esteem are more likely to begin a group discussion and provide some direction. Students should also be able to provide examples of situations in which they behaved a certain way because of the situation. For example, ask students how they and other new employees behave when they first begin a new job. They will probably tell you that they try to figure out what they are supposed to do and then conform. In other words, everybody who is new basically follows what others are doing in order to stay in line. The situation is strong in terms of rules and reward and punishment contingencies and so the situation will have a strong influence on behaviour. When students provide their examples it might be a good idea to ask them to think about whether the situation was “weak” or “strong” and how that determined whether personality or the situation was the main factor for their behaviour. Students might have a more difficult time thinking of examples of the interactionist approach. You might be able to assist them by asking them about situations in which not everybody behaved or reacted the same way. For example, if an instructor suddenly announces that there is going to be a test at the end of the class, some people will be experience a great deal of anxiety and stress while others will not be too concerned. This is a good example of how people vary in their reactions to stressors. People with low self-esteem or high negative affectivity might be more likely to experience a stress reaction in response to the instructor’s announcement. 1. Dispositional Approach: Example: In school, I consistently take the lead in group projects, reflecting my natural leadership and extroverted personality traits. This tendency persists regardless of the group's dynamics or topic. 2. Situational Approach: Example: At work, I adapt my communication style depending on the team's needs. For instance, I adopt a more directive approach during tight deadlines but am more collaborative when time allows, demonstrating how the situation influences my behavior. 3. Interactionist Approach: Example: During a school group assignment, I became more organized and proactive because my teammates were less structured. This reflects the interactionist perspective, where my behavior was shaped by both my personality and the specific context of working with a disorganized team. 2. Suppose that you are the manager of two employees, one who has an internal locus of control and another who has an external locus control. Describe the leadership tactics that you would use with each employee. Contrast the management styles that you would employ for employees with high versus low self-esteem. Answer: Internals are not necessarily better workers than externals. Since internals do better on more innovative and creative jobs, and externals do better in jobs that are more routine, you should place the workers in the environment where they can most excel. For instance, if you were managing the marketing department and had to produce and place a television advertisement for your company’s product, the internal locus of control individual could be placed in charge of managing the copywriting and design of advertising, while the external locus of control individual could track production schedules, cost, and procuring airtime from television stations. In terms of self-esteem, you should tend to use negative feedback sparingly with a low self-esteem worker. Low self-esteem workers also react less well to stressful and ambiguous work situations, so you should provide clear direction and minimize stress. Since most organizations and work settings will benefit from workers with high self-esteem, you should avoid petty work rules that signal that the employees are untrustworthy. 3. Consider some examples of behaviour that you repeat fairly regularly (such as studying or going to work every morning). What are the positive and negative reinforcers that maintain this behaviour? Answer: Studying: Positive reinforcers that might maintain studying behaviour include receiving good grades, feeling confident about mastery of subject matter, or receiving compliments from a professor. Negative reinforcers include the threat of losing a scholarship or the fear of being embarrassed in class. Going to work: Positive reinforcers that might maintain work attendance include any rewards that the job provides, such as pay and interesting work. Negative reinforcers include the threat that superiors, co-workers, and family members will react negatively toward poor attendance. 4. We pointed out that managers frequently resort to punishing ineffective behaviour. What are some of the practical demands of the typical manager’s job that lead to this state of affairs? Answer: Many managers (especially those at lower organizational levels) command few tangible positive reinforcers to control employee behaviour. That is, they may have little real control over pay raises, promotions, and so forth. In addition, they may lack the social skills to use praise and compliments as positive reinforcers. In this case, they may perceive that punishment (for example, reprimands, docking pay) is the only available means to control employee behaviour. In addition, many managers are exceedingly busy and have many employees to supervise. They may concentrate only on poor performance or deviant behaviour. “Exceptions” are noted and punished, while routine, acceptable role performance is ignored due to time constraints. 5. Discuss a situation that you have observed in which the use of punishment was ineffective in terminating some unwanted behaviour. Why was punishment ineffective in this case? What would have made it more effective? Answer: Punishment is most effective when it is swift, intense, and administered in a consistent, fair, and unemotional manner. In addition, it is essential that the unwanted behaviour be replaced with a desirable behaviour that can be reinforced. For an example of ineffective punishment, consider the employee who has been turning in reports that are technically accurate but poorly written and messily presented. The boss ignores the negative aspects of the reports for several weeks, and then gets angry and “cracks down,” screaming at the employee that the reports are “totally unacceptable.” The boss committed several errors: (1) He delayed the punishment; (2) He punished with anger; (3) He didn’t explain exactly what was wrong with the reports. In this case, it is likely that the employee will become hostile, and he has little notion of how to improve the reports. Punishment would have been more effective if the boss had punished the employee immediately, made sure his emotions were under control, and explained to the employee what was wrong with his reports and what is considered to be acceptable. The manager might then reinforce the employees’ reports when they are better written and presented. 6. Describe a situation in which you think an employer could use organizational behaviour modification and an employee recognition program to improve or correct employee behaviour. Can you anticipate any dangers in using these approaches? Answer: A sales manager of office equipment was concerned that her employees were not keeping up on trends in the marketplace and trends in the competitors’ products. She sent around a memo stating that these issues would be discussed at the next sales meeting and asked salespersons to bring any information they had on these subjects for discussion. One brought in a relevant article from Business Week and another brought in a sales brochure on a new competing product. She publicly praised these persons before their materials were discussed. The following week more materials were brought in, and she continued to praise the people who brought them. Gradually, the discussion of new trends and products became an established practice due to her strategy of positive reinforcement. As long as OB Mod is confined to the use of positive reinforcement, it involves few problems. However, some might object that it makes workers highly dependent on the source of reinforcement. (In such a case, self-regulation should be initiated.) An employee recognition program could also be used to recognize and reward employees who bring in the most interesting new information and ideas. At the end of the year, an award ceremony can take place in which those employees who have made the greatest contribution in keeping up with trends in the marketplace (perhaps determined by peer vote) are recognized for their efforts. The key to making it an effective employee recognition program is to specify (a) how a person will be recognized, (b) the type of behaviour being encouraged, (c) the manner of the public acknowledgement, and (d) a token or icon of the event for the recipient. As long as the program is fair and employees appreciate the recognition, there should not be any dangers. Doing this on a monthly basis, however, might eventually lose its appeal and begin to lose its impact after a few events. 7. A supervisor in a textile factory observes that one of her employees is violating a safety rule that could result in severe injury. What combination of reinforcement, punishment, and extinction could she use to correct this behaviour? What does social cognitive theory suggest that she do to correct the behaviour? Answer: A combination of punishment and positive reinforcement is advisable. Noting the violation, the supervisor should reprimand the employee immediately at the workstation but out of the earshot of other employees. The goal is to punish the violation firmly but not to provoke strong negative emotions. Then, the supervisor should model the safe work practice and have the employee imitate her behaviour. Correct imitation should be reinforced with praise. In following days, the supervisor should monitor the employee’s behaviour and praise safe work practices frequently. In addition to the use of observational learning, social cognitive theory also suggests strengthening the employee’s self-efficacy beliefs and self-regulation. Positive feedback, praise, and encouragement can be used when the employee exhibits safe working practices which should help to strengthen self-efficacy beliefs. The employee should also be shown how to use self-regulation for learning safe working practices by collecting self-observation data, observing other employees’ safe working practices, setting goals for safe working behaviour, rehearse the practices, and then reinforce oneself for meeting one’s goals and for engaging in safe working practices. 8. Describe a job in which you think an employee recognition program might be an effective means for changing and improving employee behaviour. Explain how you would design the program and how you might use principles from operant learning theory and social cognitive theory. Answer: An employee recognition program could be used to reinforce any behaviour that is important for an organization including employee attendance, safe working practices, customer service, or sales. What is most important is that employees’ are recognized for behaving in a manner that is highly desirable to the organization. To be effective, an employee recognition program should specify (a) how a person will be recognized, (b) the type of behaviour being encouraged, (c) the manner of the public acknowledgement, and (d) a token or icon of the event for the recipient. When answering this question, make sure that students provide answers to each of the components of an employee recognition program. Students will not have too much trouble indicating the behaviour to recognize. When they do, be sure to ask them how employees will be recognized, the manner of public acknowledgement, and the token or icon of the event for the recipient. A good example of an employee recognition program that specifies each of these components is the one for improving work attendance that is described in the text. Be sure to also bring in principles from operant learning theory and social cognitive theory. The importance of positive reinforcement and making rewards contingent on desirable behaviour from operant learning theory is particularly relevant. In addition, observational learning from social cognitive theory can be built into the public acknowledgement such that those who are recognized serve as role models for others to learn from. In addition, the public acknowledgement can also serve as a way to strengthen the self-efficacy of recipients and observers. Praise, encouragement, and social recognition can serve as strong means for strengthening self-efficacy. 9. Do you think organizations should base their hiring decisions on applicants’ personality? What are the advantages and disadvantages of doing this? If an organization were to do this, what personality characteristics do you think they should focus on when assessing and choosing applicants? Answer: Many organizations do use personality tests as part of the selection process. The research evidence described in the chapter does indicate significant relationships between many of the personality traits and various job attitudes and behaviours. Thus, a potential advantage is that employees with certain personality traits will have more positive attitudes and job performance. A disadvantage might be that the situation changes and the personality trait is no longer required for a particular task or job. Another disadvantage could be a lack of diversity of perspectives if employees are hired because of a particular personality trait. The key point for doing this as suggested in the text is the notion of fit. That is, putting the right person in the right job, group, or organization. This follows from trait activation theory and the idea that traits lead to certain behaviours only when the situation makes the need for that trait salient. Thus, if organizations are going to base their hiring decisions on an applicant’s personality, then they must have a good understanding of the situation or job and the personality trait that is required for a particular situation or job. A good example is that extraversion is especially important for jobs that require a lot of interpersonal interaction such as sales and management. 10. Refer to the Research Focus feature, “CEO Personality and Firm Performance,” and consider the relationship between the Big Five personality characteristics and strategic flexibility. Why do you think conscientiousness was the only trait negatively related to strategic flexibility given that it has been found to be the best predictor of job performance among the Big Five? Why are openness to experience, extraversion, and emotional stability positively related and why is medium agreeableness better for strategic flexibility than high or low agreeableness? Answer: This question should cause students to think about the importance of the situation when it comes not only to the effects of personality in general, but to specific personality variables. Conscientiousness has been found to be the best predictor of overall job performance among the big five personality dimensions. Why then is it negatively related to strategic flexibility? According to the authors of the study, CEOs who are high on conscientiousness will have a strong concern for legalism or a commitment to established rules and so they will rely on dependable, tried-and-true strategies and ignore new and unique strategies that challenge existing assumptions. As a result, they will develop a narrow field of vision and a selective perception bias that will create barriers to strategic flexibility. Their selective perceptions bias will undermine the ability to sense new and unfamiliar information in a timely manner and the ability to initiate responsive actions quickly through efficient resource deployment. Emotionally stable CEOs feel less threatened by new and unpredictable stimuli and are likely to improve their sensing and responsive capabilities which are important for strategic flexibility. Extraverted CEOs have the ability to take initiative and persuade and influence people to promote strategic flexibility. CEOs with high openness to experience develop broad fields of vision and consider multiple strategic perspectives. They will notice and interpret new and diverse environmental information and will consider a wide range of strategic alternatives. As a result, open CEOs will minimize selective perception and interpretation biases which can inhibit strategic flexibility. As for agreeableness, the authors argue that medium levels will maximize strategic flexibility and provide a balance between very high levels of agreeableness which can induce passivity and compliance and very low levels which can undermine employee creativity and risk taking thereby inhibiting strategic flexibility. In summary, this research provides a good example of trait activation theory and is a good example to show that when it comes to personality traits and whether or not they are important, the situation matters. 11. Employee of the month (EOM) programs are one of the most popular forms of recognition in organizations. However, there is some evidence that such programs are not effective and can even have detrimental effects such as sabotage and unhealthy competition. Based on the material presented in this chapter, why do you think that the typical EOM program is not effective and how should EOM programs be designed to make them more effective? Answer: Students will probably be familiar with EOM programs and might have worked in organizations where they were used. It might be fun to ask students if they are familiar with such programs and if they have ever worked in an organization that had them and if they were ever chosen as the employee of the month. If so, additional probes might help to determine how an employee was chosen as the employee of the month. Students might be surprised to learn that EOM programs are often ineffective. Perhaps you can ask a student who is familiar with such a program what behaviours were being rewarded and reinforced. You might then ask the class why EOM programs are often not effective in terms of leading to improved behaviour and performance. As described in the chapter, a common organizational error is confusing rewards with reinforcers. In other words, EOM programs do not make the reward contingent on specific behaviours that are of interest to the organization. In addition, the focus of EOM programs is often results rather than specific behaviours. This means that employees might engage in undesirable behaviours but achieve the results needed to be chosen as employee of the month. This could involve unethical or illegal behaviour. In some cases, it is not clear what the criteria are for being chosen as employee of the month so employees do not know what they should be doing and what they have to do to be chosen as employee of the month. Another problem that is unique to EOM programs is that there is usually only one employee of the month which means that other employees who are doing a great job and are good performers are not rewarded. As a result, many good performers will be rewarded and overtime their good behaviour and performance might be extinguished. It is also possible that the same few employees who are consistently the best performers will frequently be chosen as employee of the month making it difficult for other good performers to be rewarded and recognized. To make EOM programs more effective, it is important to first identify the important and desirable behaviours that the organization wants to recognize and reward. They should then make it clear to employees what the desirable behaviours are and what the criteria are for being chosen as employee of the month. Finally, it is probably a good idea to have an “Employees of the Month” program so that all employees who meet the criteria can be rewarded and reinforced. The key as always is to identify the desirable behaviours and make sure that the reward and reinforcement is made contingent on the desirable behaviours. EOM programs have to be careful to reward and reinforce desirable behaviours and at the same time, avoid punishing and extinguishing desirable behaviours. SAMPLE ANSWERS TO INTEGRATIVE DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Refer to the material in Chapter 1 on Mintzberg’s managerial roles. Use what you know about Mintzberg’s managerial roles and consider how personality might be a factor in how effectively a manager performs each role. Discuss the relationship among the Big Five personality dimensions, locus of control, self-monitoring, self-esteem, proactive personality, and general self-efficacy, with each of the managerial roles. Answer: This question helps students understand how personality might be an important factor in management. In terms of Mintzberg’s roles, it is possible to consider how some of the personality characteristics discussed in this chapter might be important. For example, interpersonal roles are used to establish and maintain interpersonal relations. This includes the figurehead role, leadership role, and liaison role. Of the Big Five dimensions, extraversion is likely to be important since it refers to the extent that a person is outgoing and enjoys social situations. Other dimensions of the Big Five that are important for the interpersonal role are emotional stability, agreeableness, and openness to experience. High self-esteem would also be important for the interpersonal role because it is associated with good social skills. High self-monitoring might also be important in those situations where one has to adapt their behaviour in social situations. Informational roles are concerned with various ways a manager receives and transmits information. Roles in this group include the monitor role, disseminator role, and spokesperson role. High conscientiousness is likely to be especially important for this role as well as emotional stability and agreeableness. Decisional roles deal with managerial decision-making and include the entrepreneur role, the disturbance handler role, the resource allocator role, and the negotiator role. Conscientiousness is likely to be important in this role. Also important would be an internal locus of control or the belief that one is able to control what happens to them. Internal locus of control is also important for this role to the extent that it is associated with less stress and the ability to cope with stress. Managers with high self-esteem will also perform better in this position because they are more likely to be sure of the correctness of their opinions, attitudes, and behaviours. Openness to experience would be important for the entrepreneur role. Managers with a proactive personality would be especially effective in the entrepreneur role given their tendency to identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere until they bring about meaningful change. In addition, managers with high general self-efficacy (GSE) are likely to perform the decisional roles effectively given that they have strong beliefs about succeeding at a variety of tasks. Managers with high GSE will probably perform especially well in the entrepreneur and negotiator roles. 2. Discuss how each of the organizational learning practices described in the chapter can be used by organizations to deal effectively with the contemporary management concerns discussed in Chapter 1 (i.e., diversity – both local and global; a positive work environment and employee well-being; talent management and employee engagement; and corporate social responsibility). Answer: The organizational learning practices can be applied to each of the contemporary management concerns discussed in Chapter 1. For example, organizational behaviour modification and employee recognition programs can be used to positively reinforce behaviours that are consistent with corporate social responsibility. That is, positive reinforcement and recognition can be provided when workers do things that support CSR such as green initiatives and volunteer work for charitable organizations. Training and development can be used to help employees appreciate and learn about diversity and corporate social responsibility, stereotype reduction, and to prepare employees for assignments in foreign cultures. In addition, training and development in the form of PsyCap interventions can be designed to develop employees’ PsyCap. Employee recognition programs, training, and career development can be used as part of a positive work environment that makes an organization more attractive to job applicants and to retain employees (talent management). Many of the best companies to work for have employee recognition programs and provide more training and career development programs than other organizations (see Exhibit 1.1). Finally, employee recognition programs, opportunities for learning (training and development), and career opportunities (career development) can be used to improve work engagement. SAMPLE ANSWER TO ON-THE-JOB CHALLENGE QUESTION: PLAYING HOOKY How can we explain these behaviours? Based on what you know about learning theory, explain why workers engaged in these inappropriate behaviours during work hours and why they were not doing what they were supposed to be doing. What do you think needs to be done to stop these behaviours and increase the probability that workers will do what they are supposed to be doing? Answer: This situation provides a good example of how the failure to use positive reinforcement and punishment effectively can lead to employees not performing expected behaviours and instead exhibiting inappropriate on-the-job behaviour. It might be a good idea to first have students identify the desirable and undesirable behaviours and to then ask them to describe what behaviours are being reinforced. It should be clear from the description in the text that the desired behaviours are not being reinforced and as a result, employees are not exhibiting them and are instead engaging in inappropriate behaviours which it seems have not until recently been punished. This should help students see the importance of positive reinforcement and what can happen when positive reinforcement is not properly used. In this case, positive reinforcement should be used and made contingent on desirable behaviours. At the same time, the inappropriate behaviours need to be consistently punished. This is in effect what the school board has done following the news reports. Some workers were given warnings about their conduct while others were “dismissed for cause.” While this might help to reduce the instances of the inappropriate behaviour, it does not seem that any thing has been done to reinforce appropriate behaviours. As indicated in the text, punishment provides a clear signal as to which activities and behaviours are inappropriate. However, it does not by itself demonstrate which activities should replace the punished response. Of course, one has to assume that the workers in question do know what they are supposed to be doing. The problem seems to be a lack of reinforcement that is contingent on the desired behaviours. Thus, the best strategy moving forward would be to reinforce desired behaviours and continue to punish the undesirable behaviours. EXTRA ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. How important is personality for organizational behaviour and when it is it most likely to influence employee attitudes and behaviour? Answer: Personality significantly impacts employee attitudes and behavior, especially in influencing work style, interpersonal interactions, and response to organizational culture. It is most influential in situations requiring autonomy, leadership, and team dynamics. 2. Distinguish between locus of control, self-monitoring, self-esteem, and general self-efficacy. Answer: • Locus of Control: Belief in control over life events (internal vs. external). • Self-Monitoring: Ability to adjust behavior based on social cues. • Self-Esteem: Overall self-worth evaluation. • General Self-Efficacy: Belief in one's ability to succeed across various situations. 3. What do employees learn in organizations and what are some of the ways they can learn these things? Answer: • Employees learn skills, norms, culture, and procedures through formal training, mentorship, socialization, and on-the-job experiences. 4. How could organizational behaviour modification be used to increase the productivity of civil servants? Answer: Can increase productivity by setting clear expectations, providing positive reinforcement for desired behaviors, and offering constructive feedback for improvement. 5. Defend or refute this statement: Operant learning is unethical because it entails manipulating people to behave in a certain manner. Answer: • Defense: Operant learning can motivate and encourage positive behavior through rewards and recognition. • Refutation: It may be seen as manipulative if not transparent or if it disregards employees' autonomy and intrinsic motivation. 6. Discuss some of the ways reinforcement could be used to teach students about organizational behaviour. Answer: Positive reinforcement (e.g., praise, grades) can encourage participation and engagement. Negative reinforcement (e.g., removing deadlines) can reduce anxiety and improve focus. 7. Differentiate between punishment, extinction, and negative reinforcement, citing examples to clarify your answer. Answer: • Punishment: Decreasing unwanted behavior by adding a negative consequence (e.g., a warning for tardiness). • Extinction: Reducing behavior by removing reinforcement (e.g., ignoring attention-seeking behavior). • Negative Reinforcement: Increasing behavior by removing a negative condition (e.g., lifting a restriction when performance improves). 8. What can managers do to ensure that their use of reinforcement and punishment is effective? Answer: • Ensure clarity, consistency, fairness, and timely application. Reinforce desired behaviors and provide constructive feedback for undesired ones. 9. Describe social cognitive theory and give an example of how each component of the theory can be used to improve student learning. Answer: • Observational Learning: Learning by observing others (e.g., watching peer presentations). • Self-Efficacy: Encouraging belief in students' abilities (e.g., setting achievable goals). • Self-Regulation: Teaching students to monitor and adjust their behavior (e.g., using study schedules). 10. Describe various types of organizational learning practices and how an organization can use them to help employees learn to perform their jobs better. Answer: • Training Programs: Structured learning for skill development. • Mentorship: Guidance from experienced colleagues. • Job Rotation: Gaining diverse experiences. • Knowledge Sharing: Platforms for sharing expertise. • Continuous Improvement Programs: Encouraging ongoing skill enhancement. Organizations can use these practices to improve employee performance by providing opportunities for growth, fostering a learning culture, and aligning learning with organizational goals. TEACHING NOTES FOR PROACTIVE PERSONALITY SCALE, GENERAL SELF-EFFICACY, AND CORE SELF-EVALUATIONS SCALE (CSE) EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE Students should be asked to complete the Proactive Personality Scale, General Self-Efficacy, and Core Self-Evaluations scales prior to class. They can score and interpret their results by following the directions provided in the text on pages 73 and 74. This is the first of a number of exercises in the text that enable students to learn something about themselves that is related to organizational behaviour. Given the link between proactive personality and career success, general self-efficacy and job performance, and CSE and job satisfaction and job performance, students are likely to be very interested in their score and what it means. It might be worth discussing a study by Seibert, Kraimer, and Crant (2001, Personnel Psychology, pp.845-876) on the link between proactive personality and career success. You might ask students why they think people with a proactive personality have greater career progression (salary growth and number of promotions) and career satisfaction. What is it that proactive people do? In their study, Seibert et al. found that proactive personality was positively related to innovation (develop and work to implement new ideas, processes, and routines at work), political knowledge (gaining information regarding formal and informal work relationships and power structures within the organization), and career initiative (take responsibility for the management of one’s own career such as career planning and skill development). These proactive behaviours were related to the positive career outcomes. Thus, proactive individuals influence work situations that increase the likelihood of career success. To help students understand the meaning of proactive personality, general self-efficacy, and CSE and their scores, class discussion might revolve around the following issues: 1. What is proactive personality, general self-efficacy, and CSE? Answer: • Proactive Personality: Tendency to take initiative and effect change in one's environment. • General Self-Efficacy: Belief in one's ability to succeed in various tasks and situations. • Core Self-Evaluations (CSE): A broad personality trait comprising self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability. 2. How is proactive personality, general self-efficacy, and CSE relevant for organizational behaviour? Answer: • These traits influence how individuals approach work tasks, interact with others, and handle challenges. They affect motivation, job satisfaction, and performance, shaping workplace dynamics and outcomes. 3. How might your proactive personality, general self-efficacy, and CSE scores influence your grades? Answer: • A proactive personality can lead to better time management and participation. High general self-efficacy encourages persistence in difficult subjects, and positive CSE fosters confidence and resilience, potentially leading to better academic performance. 4. How might your proactive personality, general self-efficacy, and CSE scores influence your career? Answer: • Proactive individuals are likely to seek opportunities, network, and pursue career advancement. High self-efficacy contributes to taking on challenging tasks, while positive CSE leads to job satisfaction and effective stress management, enhancing career success. 5. Is it important for people to know about their own proactive personality, general self-efficacy, and CSE? Answer: • Understanding these traits helps individuals leverage strengths and address weaknesses. It guides personal development, career planning, and interpersonal relationships, ultimately contributing to personal and professional growth. In terms of the discussion questions provided in the text, you might proceeds as follows: 1. Is there a relationship between proactive personality and involvement in extracurricular and service activities? What about personal accomplishments that involve environmental change. Try to determine if there are differences between students with higher proactive personality scores in these and other ways. Have they been more involved in extracurricular and service activities? What do students with high scores on proactive personality do different from those with low scores? Answer: 1. Relationship Between Proactive Personality and Involvement: • Yes, individuals with a higher proactive personality are typically more involved in extracurricular and service activities. They actively seek out and engage in these opportunities to create positive change and gain new experiences. 2. Personal Accomplishments and Environmental Change: • Those with higher proactive personality scores are more likely to achieve personal accomplishments related to environmental change. They are more innovative and driven to initiate and lead projects that impact their surroundings. 3. Differences Between High and Low Proactive Personality Scores: • High Scores: More likely to take initiative, participate in leadership roles, and seek out opportunities for growth. They actively engage in activities and projects that involve change and development. • Low Scores: Less likely to take proactive steps or engage in additional activities beyond their immediate responsibilities. They may prefer stable and well-defined roles with less emphasis on change. Regarding GSE, have students with higher GSE been more effective in adapting to novel, difficult, and challenging situations? What do students with high scores on GSE do differently from those with lower scores? For CSE, are students with higher CSE scores more satisfied with their current or a previous job and are they more satisfied with their life? 2. Have students try to understand how proactive personality, GSE, and CSE might be beneficial in some situations but not in others. Of course, one of the main benefits of proactive personality appears to be career success. But are there any other benefits? Are there any downsides? What about GSE and CSE? Answer: • Proactive Personality: • Benefits: Increased career success, leadership opportunities, and ability to drive change. • Downsides: Potential for burnout or overstepping boundaries if not managed well. • General Self-Efficacy (GSE): • Benefits: Greater confidence in handling challenges and achieving goals. • Downsides: Overconfidence might lead to taking on unrealistic tasks. • Core Self-Evaluations (CSE): • Benefits: Higher job satisfaction, better performance, and resilience. • Downsides: High CSE may not always align with job requirements or organizational culture. 3. Students are likely to frown upon the idea of hiring people just because they have a proactive personality or a high GSE and CSE. Try playing devil’s advocate and challenge them to explain why they believe it might not be a good idea to do this. You might say something like, “If I have a business, isn’t it my right to hire people who are high on proactive personality, GSE, and CSE?” Answer: • Challenge: Hiring solely based on proactive personality, GSE, and CSE may overlook other critical skills and attributes necessary for specific roles. It might also lead to homogeneity in the workplace, reducing diversity of thought and approach. 4. You might ask those who scored high on proactive personality, GSE, and CSE if they think it has helped them in school and in other areas of their life. You might also ask them how students who scored lower might be able to improve their proactive personality, GSE, and CSE. What things can they do that will help them to be more proactive and have higher GSE and CSE? It might be worth pointing that just because people with a proactive personality are more proactive, does not mean others cannot work on being more proactive. The text defines proactive behaviour as taking initiative to improve current circumstances or creating new ones. Can students who scored lower make more of an effort at being proactive? And what about GSE and CSE? GSE has to do with one’s belief in their ability to perform successfully in a variety of challenging situations. Can this belief be changed? What can people do so they increase these beliefs and their GSE? Should people even try to change their GSE and what are the potential advantages of doing so? CSE is a broad personality concept that consists of self-esteem, general self-efficacy, locus of control, and neuroticism (emotional stability). Is this something that can be changed? What specific traits of CSE might be easier or perhaps difficult to change? Can people change their personality in the process? What if any aspects of personality might be worth trying to change and why? Answer: • For High Scorers: Reflect on how these traits have facilitated success in various areas and continue to build on them. • For Lower Scorers: • Proactive Personality: Engage in activities that require initiative and problem-solving. • GSE: Set and achieve small, challenging goals to build confidence. • CSE: Work on improving self-esteem and emotional stability through self-reflection and stress management. Changing Traits: • Proactive Personality: Can be developed by seeking new challenges and being more involved in opportunities for change. • GSE: Beliefs can be enhanced through achievements and positive reinforcement. • CSE: Specific traits like self-esteem and locus of control can be changed with effort, though core personality traits may be more stable. Efforts should focus on areas that align with personal and professional goals. TEACHING NOTES FOR COURIER CATS CASE INCIDENT 1. Why do you think that the employees did not use the new software? Answer: There are a number of reasons why employees did not use the new software. To begin with, the training program (a one-day seminar) might not have been enough to learn to use software that was more complex and sophisticated than what employees were used to. Even if the training was sufficient, it is possible that employees were not provided with any positive reinforcement to use the software and were able to continue using the old program. Lacking any form of positive reinforcement in the form of rewards, feedback or recognition, employees did not change their behaviour. As well, the fact that some employees did not think they would ever be able to learn how to use the new software suggests that their self-efficacy was probably weak, and as a result, they either did not try to use the new software or they gave up. Finally, it is possible that the work environment at Courier Cats does not encourage or support learning. 2. Can personality explain why some employees refused to use the new software? What personality characteristics are most relevant for explaining why some employees refused to use the new software while others had no trouble learning and using it? Answer: A number of the personality variables described in the chapter might be important for learning and using the new software. For example, among the Big Five, persons higher on openness to experience would be more likely to use and learn the new software given their receptiveness to new ideas while those who are less open favour the status quo. Proactive personality is also likely to be important given the tendency to take personal initiative and to effect positive change in the one’s environment. Employees with higher general self-efficacy are also more likely to use the new software program given that GSE is a motivational trait and individuals who score higher on it believe they have the ability to perform successfully in a variety of challenging situations. Thus, openness to experience, proactive personality, and general self-efficacy probably help to explain why some employees refused to use the new software while others had no trouble learning and using it. 3. What are some of the implications that stem from operant learning theory and social cognitive theory for increasing the probability that the employees will use the new software? What do you recommend for improving the use of the new software? Answer: One of the most important implications from operant learning theory is that some form of positive reinforcement should have been provided to employees for using the new software. In other words, rewards, positive feedback, or recognition should be provided to employees for learning and using the new software. Perhaps rewards could also be provided for helping co-workers learn the software in order to facilitate learning. In terms of social cognitive theory, more effort has to be made to strengthen employee’s self-efficacy for using the new software. Perhaps additional training both on and off-the-job will help. Self-regulation training might also be effective to help employees observe their behaviour, set goals, and reward themselves for attaining their goals. A good recommendation would be to combine the training program with some informal learning in which employees can work together, discuss the new software, and help each other on-the-job. An organizational behaviour modification program that rewards employees for using the new software, getting up to speed, and helping others would also be a good idea. Behaviour modeling training might also be effective especially if trainees are instructed to set goals and when rewards and sanctions are used in the work environment following the training. TEACHING NOTES FOR HOWE 2 SKI STORES CASE STUDY This is an excellent case for demonstrating how a poor understanding of learning principles can cause problems in an organization. In particular, it shows how the lack of positive reinforcement and in fact an environment that does not reinforce desired behaviours can lead to undesirable behaviours and outcomes that threaten the reputation and success of a business. The case provides a good example of the importance of clearly identifying the desired behaviours that need to be reinforced and ensuring that rewards are made contingent on the desired behaviour. The case is also useful for applying the organizational learning practices described in Chapter 2. 1. What are the main problems occurring in the Howe 2 Ski Stores? To what extent are the problems due to personality and characteristics of the work environment? Answer: Maria has noticed signs that employee productivity has begun to slide. For example, there were eight occasions where expensive ski orders were not delivered in time for the customer’s ski vacation and she had to do a variety of things to retain the customers. The cost of these late orders was high and these incidents could damage the store’s reputation. In addition, at least 15 percent of all ski orders were delivered more than two days late. After implementing the merit performance system for the moulders waves of discontent popped up all over the stores because the moulders felt that their merit ratings were inaccurate and other employees were interrupting them. Other employees complained because they were not given the opportunity for merit pay. Productivity problems were also occurring in other areas of the store. Complaints about customer service were up 20 percent. A record number of “as is” skis were sold at the end of the season because they were damaged. In addition, 20 percent of the rental equipment had been lost or seriously damaged and could not be charged to the renters because the records were poorly maintained. Fewer and fewer comments were being placed in the suggestion boxes. Similar problems occurred in the windsurfing season. Given that the problems seem to be occurring throughout the stores and across all employees and jobs, it is likely that they are due to the work environment and not to the personalities of some of the employees. Of course some might argue that the employees are not high on conscientiousness but this would not explain why these problems have only recently begun. Also, note that there is no indication that Maria has changed her procedures for hiring or that she is hiring a different kind of employee. 2. What behaviours need to be maintained or increased and what behaviours should be reduced or eliminated? Answer: It is clear from the case that there are behaviours that need to be increased and others that need to be reduced or eliminated. The behaviours that need to be reduced or eliminated include: delivering equipment late; clerks talking to each other while customers were in the store and waiting for assistance; damaging equipment; lost or damaged rental equipment not being charged to renters; poorly maintained records of equipment rentals. The behaviours that need to be maintained or increased include: delivering ski orders on time; excellent customer service (e.g., assisting customers when they need help); proper handling of equipment in the store and warehouse to avoid damaging it; maintaining accurate and up to date records of renters; charging renters for damaged or lost equipment; comments for suggestion boxes. 3. What do you think of Maria Howe’s attempt to respond to the difficulties in the stores? Use operant learning theory and social cognitive theory to explain the effects of her merit performance system. Why wasn’t it more effective? Answer: In an attempt to respond to the difficulties in the stores, Maria instituted a merit performance system for the moulders. Although productivity seemed to increase for a while, waves of discontent popped up all over the stores in part because the moulders did not believe that the merit ratings were accurate and because store managers could not observe them working much of the time. The moulders also complained that their performance levels were being hampered by other employees who were interrupting them. As well, other employees complained because they were not given the opportunity for merit pay. In terms of operant learning theory, it is not clear exactly what behaviour is being reinforced other than the performance of the moulders. But even if this was clear to them, the case shows some of the errors involved in using reinforcement. For example, the merit pay (reward) is not really contingent on the specific behaviour of the moulders. This is due in part because the merit pay is based on ratings made by managers that the moulders feel are inaccurate and because the managers are not able to observe the moulders very often. Thus, there is clearly a problem with the merit pay being contingent on the desired performance. As for the merit pay as a reinforcer, it would seem that pay is an important source of reinforcement for these workers although it is possible that there may be differences in preferences for reinforcers. It would also be a good idea to include other important sources of reinforcement such as performance feedback and social recognition. But overall, in terms of operant learning theory it would seem that the main problem is confusing rewards with reinforcers because the reward is not being made contingent of specific behaviours. In terms of social cognitive theory, we can consider each of the main components. For example, there might not be any models whose behaviour results in consequences that the moulders can imitate. In terms of self-efficacy, given that the moulders were hired for their expertise and the fact that they have performed the job successfully in the past, they probably have high self-efficacy for their job. As for self-regulation, perhaps the moulders can set goals for their own performance and then observe and reward themselves. However, the real problem here seems to be an environment that just does not reinforce the desired behaviours. 4. What do you think Maria Howe should do to respond to the difficulties in the stores? Refer to operant learning theory and social cognitive theory in answering this question. Answer: Maria has to implement a system in which she clearly indicates the desired behaviours for all employees (not just the moulders) and provides rewards that will be desirable to employees. Well this might include pay it can also include other things, perhaps equipment and other gifts desired by the employees. In addition, she should also consider other sources of reinforcement such as performance feedback and social recognition. Performance feedback is especially important as the employees need to know how they are doing and what they need to do to improve. Social recognition can also be used as an important but inexpensive reinforcer. She will need to train the managers on how to provide performance feedback and to give social recognition. And finally, she will have to make sure that rewards are made contingent on desired behaviours. Some of the desired behaviours as indicated in the answer to question #2 include delivering ski orders on time; excellent customer service (e.g., assisting customers when they need help); proper handling of equipment in store and warehouse to avoid damage; maintaining accurate and up to date records of renters; charging renters for damaged or lost equipment; comments for suggestion boxes. She might also consider increased sales as well as this is a desired behaviour that some of the employees can influence. She might provide some form of reward for any suggestion made by an employee that is implemented. Rewards can be made contingent on ski orders being delivered on time, a decrease in customer complaints or a given low percentage of complaints, up to date and accurate maintenance of rental records, sales, etc. Note that these behaviours can and should be measured as part of a performance feedback system. For social cognitive theory, Maria needs to make sure that employees’ self-efficacy is high for doing the things she is asking them to (e.g., deliver equipment on time, excellent customer service, increasing sales, etc.). She might also instruct employees on how to self-regulate their behaviour (set goals, monitor behaviour, self-reward, etc.) and she might identify those employees whose performance is exceptional and who can be role models for other employees. 5. What organizational learning practices might be effective for changing employee behaviours? Consider the potential of organizational behaviour modification, employee recognition programs, and training and development programs. Explain how you would implement each of these and their potential effectiveness. Answer: All three of these learning practices can be used to change employee behaviours and to increase the probability of the desired behaviours. To be clear, what Maria needs to focus on is making sure that ski orders are delivered on time; excellent customer service and a reduction in customer complaints; more careful handling of equipment so that it does not get damaged in the store or warehouse (focus on amount of damaged equipment); and that any rental equipment that is not returned or comes back damaged is charged to the renter (this also requires up to date and accurate maintenance of records). To reinforce these behaviours, she should implement an OB Mod program in which the desired behaviours are reinforced through various means (monetary and non-monetary rewards such as gifts, performance feedback and social recognition). Managers need to be included in the implementation of the program and instructed on how and when to provide feedback and social recognition for the desired behaviour (e.g., when a sales clerk is observed providing excellent customer service or when there are no customer complaints; when a moulder delivers equipment on time). The key is to clearly spell out the desired behaviour and make sure that rewards are made contingent on the desired behaviour. This of course must include all employees and focus on the relevant and desired behaviour for each job. An employee recognition program would seem to be especially worth implementing as long as it follows the guidelines indicated in the text to be effective. In other words, the program must specify (a) how a person will be recognized, (b) the type of behaviour being encouraged, (c) the manner of the public acknowledgement, and (d) a token or icon of the event for the recipient. Employees can be recognized for providing excellent customer service, delivering equipment on time, making a suggestion that was implemented, increased sales, etc. It would also be a good idea to consider a peer recognition program in which the employees can nominate each other and vote for co-workers who deserve to be recognized for their behaviour and performance. Finally, training might also be necessary to ensure that employees know what they have to do to provide excellent customer service, ensure that that equipment is properly handled and stored so it is not damaged, etc. Training can also be useful for increasing the self-efficacy of employees for performing their jobs. Thus, all three of the learning practices can be used by Maria to increase the desired behaviours. An employee recognition program would probably be the easiest and least expensive to implement. 6. What advice would give Maria Howe on how to address the problems in her stores? Should she pay more attention to the personalities of the people she hires and/or should she make changes to the work environment? What employees and what behaviours should she focus on? Explain your answer. Answer: The main problem in Maria’s stores is that there is no reward or reinforcement system in place. It does not matter what employees do or do not do as they are not rewarded for it and this is why there are performance problems. Maria needs to clearly indicate to employees what is expected of them and what will happen when they perform as expected. She needs to reinforce the desired behaviours and she needs to make sure that the rewards are made contingent on the desired behaviour. If she wants equipment to be delivered on time then she has to reinforce this behaviour by recognizing and rewarding employees who do this. There is no indication that the problem has anything to do with the personality of certain employees. This is a problem in the work environment and it is a work environment that does not reward and reinforce the desired behaviours. Maria should consider implementing a performance feedback system accompanied with social recognition and implement a formal employee recognition program that includes peer recognition. She needs to focus on the behaviours that are most desired as already indicated (e.g., delivering equipment on time, excellent customer service, etc.) and reinforce them. That being said, it might be worth considering a change in the hiring of mainly part-time employees with skiing expertise. Given that such expertise can probably be taught, Maria might consider hiring some full time employees who might have a greater commitment to the store and its customers and train them on what they need to know about skiing and windsurfing. After all, part-time employees who do not plan to stay around very long might be experts when it comes to skiing, but not the best employees when it comes to doing what is in the best interests of the store and its customers. The hiring of full time employees might also provide examples/models of behaviour that the part time employees can learn from. This also makes sense given the increased competition and the potential for continued expansion. A mix of full time and part time employees might be a better strategy then just hiring part time employees who don’t seem to notice or care about Maria’s problems. Solution Manual for Organizational Behaviour: Understanding and Managing Life at Work Gary Johns, Alan M. Saks 9780133347500, 9780133951622