This Document Contains Chapters 15 to 17 Chapter 15 Enhancing Ethical Behavior The major purpose of this chapter is to enhance ethical behavior by translating general knowledge about ethics into behaviors and skills. By engaging in these behaviors and applying the skills, the student will function at a high ethical level. CHAPTER OUTLINE AND LECTURE NOTES Ethics refers moral choices, or what is good and bad, right and wrong, just and unjust, and what people should do. Ethics is the vehicle for turning values into action. An ethical reputation helps a person obtain the job he or she wants. A person's ethical code has a big impact on his or her interpersonal relationships. I. WHY BE CONCERNED ABOUT BUSINESS ETHICS? A major reason for studying ethics is that most people are motivated by self interest and the desire to do something right. Ethical behavior is important because a good reputation can enhance business and attract investors. Unethical behavior is costly, such as employee theft. Business firms sometimes pay enormous fines for unethical behavior. Another problem is that many unethical acts are illegal which can lead to financial loss and imprisonment. High ethics can also increase the quality of work life. Examples of clauses from ethical codes include: • Demonstrate courtesy, respect, honesty, and fairness. • Do not use abusive language. • Do not bring firearms or knives to work. • Do not offer bribes. • Maintain confidentiality of records. • Do not harass subordinates, superiors, coworkers, customers, or suppliers. Abiding by ethical codes such as the above will improve the quality of work life. II. WHY WE HAVE SO MANY ETHICAL PROBLEMS To become more skilled at behaving ethically, it is important to familiarize yourself with common ethical problems. Whether or not a given situation presents an ethical problem for a person depends to some extent on its moral intensity, or how deeply others might be affected. A. Why Being Ethical Isn’t Easy Behaving ethically in business is more complex than it seems on the surface for a variety of reasons. 1. Complexity of ethical decisions. Ethical decisions typically have more than one side, such as whether hiring children for factory jobs overseas is all bad or somewhat good. 2. Predisposition to be unethical. Some people have a predisposition to be unethical, acting much like a personality trait. A person with a utilitarian predisposition believes that the value of an act’s outcomes should determine whether it is moral. 3. Self-interest. Another major contributor to ethical problems is acting out of self-interest. For example, during employee fraud intensifies during difficult financial times where workers are experiencing financial pressures in their personal lives. 4. Levels of moral development. At one end of the scale, some people behave morally just to escape punishment. At the other end, some people are morally developed to the point that they are guided by principles of justice and want to help as many people as possible. 5. Moral disengagement. Some people have a tendency to morally disengage, or think in such a way that avoids being moral without feeling distress. Many liars, cheaters, and thieves morally disengage. 6. Goals that reward unethical behavior. Goals sometimes reward unethical behavior, such as pushing for high sale volume leading to encouraging customers to 0urchase a service or product they do not need. 7. Motivated blindness. People tend to see what they want to see and easily block out contradictory information when it is in their interest to be uninformed. A stock broker might sell a high risk security because he or she ignores the warning signs of the weakness of the security. B. The Extent of Ethical Problems A 2011 National Business Ethics survey found that 45 percent of U. S. employees observed a legal or ethical violation in their workplace. One out of five employees who reported wrongdoing was retaliated against. Another finding was that 13 percent of employees perceived pressure to compromise standards in order to do their jobs. Ethical violations by rank-and-file employees are widespread, with stealing and sexual harassment making the list. As shown in Figure 15-1, and found in other surveys, lying is an ethical problem widespread in the workplace. Workers today might be more observant of ethical problems, and more willing to note them on a survey. C. Frequent Ethical Problems Mishandling an ethical issue can damage a career. Many ethical problems in business are predictable, such as those contained in the following list: 1. Illegally copying software. 2. Treating people unfairly (including cronyism) 3. Sexually harassing coworkers 4. Facing a conflict of interest. (A conflict of interest occurs when your judgment or objectivity is compromised.) 5. Abusing confidential information. 6. Misrepresenting employment or education history 7. Missing corporate resources. 8. Ethically violating computers and information technology. 9. Wasting company time. 10. Engaging in unethical behavior to benefit the company Note that these common ethical problems are not always clear-cut. Aside from obvious ethical violations, subjectivity enters into ethical decision making. D. Choosing Between Two Rights: Dealing with Defining Moments A challenging twist to ethical decision making is to sort through your values when you have to choose between two rights, or two morally sound choices. A defining moment is choosing between two or more ideals in which we deeply believe. A defining moment is a form of role conflict. The conflict can be worked through by discovering "Who am I?" III. GUIDELINES FOR BEHAVING ETHICALLY Following guidelines for ethical behavior is the heart of being ethical. An obvious example is "Follow the Golden Rule." A. Developing Virtuousness Including Honesty and Integrity A deep-rooted approach to behaving ethically is to have strong moral and ethical principles, or to be virtuous. A person of high virtue has good character and genuine motivation and intentions. A key component of virtuousness is honesty, the refusal to fake reality. Integrity means loyalty to one’s rational convictions, or sticking to one’s principles. B. Seeing the Big Picture A key contributor to being ethical is to understand how the work you are doing fits into the big picture or the total consequences of your actions. Hubbard, the dean of Columbia Business School, believes that future leaders must connect the dots, or see the big picture instead of focusing on their area of expertise. C. Following a Guide to Ethical Decision Making A powerful strategy for behaving ethically is to follow a guide for ethical decision making. Ethical screening refers to running a contemplated decision or action through an ethics test. The guide presented here is current and incorporates the basic ideas in other ethical tests. 1. Gather the facts. Ask yourself such questions as "Are there any legal issues involved here?" Gathering facts is influenced by emotion. 2. Define the ethical issues. Because the ethical issues are often more complicated than a first glance suggests, it helps to talk over the ethical issues with another person. The ethical issues might involve character traits or common ethical problems. 3. Identify the affected parties. When faced with a complex ethical decision it is important to identify all the affected parties. 4. Identify the consequences. It is important to identify the consequences with the highest probability of occurring and those with the most negative outcomes. Many people can be harmed by an unethical decision. Both long and short term consequences should be specified. The symbolic consequences are important in that every act and decision sends a message. 5. Identify the obligations. For example, the manufacturer of automotive brakes has an obligation to produce and sell only brakes that meet high safety standards. 6. Consider your character and integrity. Consider how relevant people would judge your character and integrity. How would you feel if your actions were publicly disclosed in a local newspaper or over e mail? 7. Think creatively about potential actions. People should stretch their imagination to invent several options rather than thinking of only two choices--to do or not to do something. 8. Check your intuition. People should ask how the contemplated decision feels, tastes, and smells. Would you be proud of yourself or would you hate yourself if you made the decision? D. Developing Strong Relationships with Work Associates People who have close ties to each other are likely to behave more ethically toward each other on the job. If a weak relationship exists between the two people, each party is more likely to engage in an unethical relationship. E. Using Corporate Ethics Programs Many organizations have various programs and procedures for promoting ethical behavior. The presence of these programs is designed to create an atmosphere in which unethical behavior is discouraged, and reporting on unethical behavior is encouraged. Ethics hot lines are the best-established programs to facilitate an individual avoiding unethical behavior. A counselor responds to questions, often to interpret a policy, and sometimes to intervene. Another widely used corporate program is training in ethics which can be valuable in starting a useful dialogue about right and wrong behavior that employees could remember in murky situations. F. Being Environmentally Conscious Another ethical skill is to be green or do your job in helping sustain the environment because it is morally responsible to protect the environment. One component is to take steps yourself to preserve the environment even in small ways. Another step is to be an advocate for the environment which may require persuasive and political skills. G. Following an Applicable Professional Code of Conduct Professional codes of conduct are prescribed for many occupational groups including physicians, nurses, lawyers, paralegals, purchasing managers and agents, and real estate salespersons. H. Be Ready to Exert Upward Ethical Leadership Upward ethical leadership is leadership displayed by individuals who take action to maintain ethical standards although higher-ups engage in questionable moral behavior. The person exerting this type of leadership would have to be diplomatic and non-accusatory. ANSWERS TO DISCUSSION AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What possible conflicts of interest do you see when a manager and a subordinate become Facebook friends? Answer: The potential for a conflict of interest is quite strong when a manager and subordinate become Facebook friends. A manager is supposed to make professional, objective judgments about subordinates such as during performance evaluations, salary reviews, and making work assignments. If the manager and subordinate are “friends,” it might tempt the manager to be too generous is his or her judgments about the subordinates. Also, the manager might hold back from making harsh judgments, such as disciplining the subordinate or placing him or her on a downsizing list. 2. How can behaving ethically improve a person's interpersonal relationships on the job? Answer: An ethical person has a better chance of being liked and trusted than one who is unethical. As a result, interpersonal relationships improve. Being ethical also improves the quality of work life for others. 3. Assume that you are walking by a lake and you witness a person throwing a few plastic bottles into the water. How would you deal with the situation? Answer: The answer to this question depends on both the student’s attitude toward environmental sustainability, as well as his or her level of assertiveness. The environmentally conscious person would want to prevent plastic bottles from being thrown into a lake for many reasons including that large fish often choke on the plastic fragments. Assertive responses include pointing out that the person is harming the environment, and that recycling cans are available near the lake. I would approach the person calmly and express concern about the environmental impact of littering. Politely suggest they dispose of the bottles properly and highlight the importance of keeping the lake clean. If the situation doesn't improve or feels unsafe, I would report the incident to local authorities or park officials to address the issue. 4. What is your opinion of the ethics of using the Wi-Fi access of other people including, business firms, when you are not a customer, without asking permission? Answer: Many students will see no ethical problem with using for free the Wi-Fi of other people. Many people even park outside homes with Wi-Fi access just so they can use their laptop computers while in their car. Students with higher ethical sensitivity will think that stealing is stealing in any form. The issue of using someone else’s Wi-Fi for free is similar to the situation of people who go to supermarkets to read magazines without any intent of purchasing a magazine. Using Wi-Fi access without permission is ethically problematic as it infringes on others' resources and privacy. It's respectful and lawful to seek permission before using a business's Wi-Fi, as unauthorized use can be considered theft and may violate terms of service. Seeking permission ensures respect for boundaries and fosters trust. 5. What evidence can you present that coworkers or fellow students really care if you behave ethically? Answer: This is a powerful question because many people do not think that the study of ethics has much relevance for them. Students can probably dredge up a lot of evidence that other people are cognizant of unethical behavior. One example is that people waiting in line at an airport or for concert tickets become quite upset when someone jumps ahead in line. Another example is that many people become upset when they see a person dump cigarette butts on to the ground from their auto ashtrays. One type of ethical behavior that leads to recognition and appreciation is when a person turns in a lost wallet or handbag that he or she found. 6. Provide an example of an action in business that might be unethical but not illegal. Answer: Many unethical acts are not illegal including accepting lavish gifts from suppliers and firing a competent worker to make room for an unqualified friend. An increasingly widespread practice is for companies to eliminate or substantially reduce retiree pensions. However unethical, it is apparently not illegal to renege on pension commitments. Declaring bankruptcy rather than exhausting every opportunity to pay debts might be deemed as unethical but not illegal. 7. In recent years, several CEOs at major companies have been forced to resign after it was discovered that they faked at least one college degree on their résumé. What is your opinion of the fairness of firing these executives for having lied about the academic credentials? Answer: he argument for not dismissing CEOs for having faked their academic credentials is that if they are performing well for the company, they can be forgiven for lying. This is the utilitarian perspective that if nobody is hurt by the act, an ethical violation has not occurred. My experience has been that most students take a very negative view of a CEO for faking academic credentials because the students are working so hard to obtain a legitimate degree. 8. Based on your knowledge of human behavior, why do professional codes of conduct, such as those for doctors, paralegals, and realtors, not prevent all unethical behavior on the part of members? Answer: Reading about standards of behavior will prompt many people to follow the standards. However, many people are not influenced by information they read once or twice. Human behavior is not that easy to influence. Strong internal motivators such as the desire for risk taking and thrill seeking, along with greed and gluttony overtake the persuasive impact of cognitive reasoning. 9. Check out the Websites of a couple of major business corporations. What conclusion do you reach about whether an environmentally conscious (or green) person would fit in these companies? Answer: GE and Waste Management are two companies that emphasize sustaining the environment in public statements about the company, with GE even more enthusiastic about being green. Most companies today emphasize how green they are. The vast majority of students is either “green,” or perceive themselves to be “green,” so they should enjoy finding information on a company Website that supports the value of sustainability. 10. What decision of ethical consequences have you made in the last year that you would not mind having publicly disclosed? Answer: To answer this question well, the student would need to find a decision that had ethical consequences. One example would be a decision about granting a price discount to a customer who was a friend and who was facing financial difficulty. Even a mundane act such as returning empty cans and bottles to a store has ethical consequences. Last year, I decided to volunteer my time to support a local non-profit organization, which I believe positively impacted the community. I would have no issue with this decision being publicly disclosed, as it reflects my commitment to contributing to a cause I value and demonstrates ethical integrity through community service. ANSWERS TO CASE QUESTIONS The One-Cent Ethical Dilemma This case illustrates that engaging in unethical behavior, even when the financial consequences are quite small, can create person-role conflict for the individual. To apply this case to Canada, the amount of change would have to be five cents, because pennies have been eliminated as part of cash transactions. 1. What actions do you recommend Rajah take about his concerns with respect to the new one-cent-in-change policy? Answer: If Rajah wants to retain his position or stay on good terms with his employer, his options are limited. He might prepare a carefully-reasoned argument about why the one-cent-in-change policy is poor for customer relationships, and then present it to his manager. Rajah might request that his opinion be passed along to upper management. 2. Explain whether you think that Rajah should blow the whistle on his employer. Answer: Unless Rajah wants to be a martyr, he should not take the whistle-blowing route with his complaints. He could wind up destroying his career in retailing if he blows the whistle on the dollar store. 3. What is your opinion of the ethics of the new policy about withholding one-cent in change? Answer: The more serious students might want to run this ethical problem through the ethical screening guide. Whether or not withholding one-cent in change from customers is of much financial consequences to an individual customer, the policy would flunk most ethics tests. Withholding one-cent in change can be ethically questionable as it may appear deceptive or unfair to customers. While it might simplify transactions or reduce costs, transparency and fairness should be prioritized. Customers should be fully informed of such policies, and efforts should be made to ensure that small amounts do not disproportionately affect them. Am I Paid to Be My Manager’s TV Repair Technician? This case deals with a delicate ethical problem for many young workers with good technical skills. A higher-ranking person places demands on them to help him or her fix a problem with personal rather than business equipment. 1. What do you see as any potential ethical issues in Gus’s request that Karen attempt to fix his TV set reception problem? Answer: One ethical issue is that Gus is attempting to use a company resource (a paid employee) for an off-the-job problem. Another ethical issue is that Gus is setting himself up for a situation involving a conflict of interest. If Karen complies with Gus’s request, will he then be positively biased toward her when he has to evaluate her job performance? If Karen does not comply with the request to repair the TV set, Gus might be biased against her. Another ethical issue would arise if Karen goes ahead with the request: Shouldn’t she be paid? Potential ethical issues in Gus’s request for Karen to fix his TV set reception could include whether Karen has the appropriate skills or authorization to handle the repair. If Karen is not qualified or if the request involves tasks outside her job responsibilities, it could lead to liability or quality concerns. Ensuring that requests align with job roles and qualifications is crucial for maintaining ethical standards. 2. What advice might you offer Karen for dealing with the problem? Answer: Karen is running the small risk of having a poor relationship with Gus if she refuses the request. If she does go along with the request, she might run the risk of contributing to a conflict of interest. A compromise for Karen might be for her to tell Gus that she would prefer not to mix profession and personal life, but that she will go along with the request one time only. 3. How do Gus’s demands fit into the category of expecting Karen to exhibit strong organizational citizenship behavior? Answer: Sorry Gus, you are over-interpreting organizational citizenship behavior. The concept refers to going beyond the call of duty with respect to job-related behaviors. Fixing a television set in the boss’s home extends beyond organizational citizenship behavior. Gus's demands might push Karen to exhibit strong organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) if they involve going beyond her formal job duties to address his issue. If Karen willingly assists Gus outside her standard responsibilities, it demonstrates a commitment to the organization's success and a cooperative spirit, reflecting OCB. However, consistent and unreasonable demands could strain her willingness to engage in such behavior. COMMENTS ABOUT QUIZZES AND EXERCISES Self-Assessment Quiz 15-1: The Ethical Reasoning Inventory Taking a self quiz about ethics should be an unusual experience for most students, and will help sensitize them to ethical issues. As usual, a discussion of the implications of several of the test items could prove fruitful. Skill-Building Exercise 15-1: The Ethics Game Students should enjoy participating in the type of ethics building exercise used in many companies. Group discussions, as required in this exercise, are particularly useful in shaping attitudes about ethics. Skill-Building Exercise 15-2: Dealing with Defining Moments Given that defining moments are a form of role conflict, students may need to use their conflict resolution skills to find an answer to these problems. Scenario 1: Perhaps the worker asking for the increase can be advised about ways to earn additional income on his own. In this way he might achieve his financial goals without receiving an unjust salary increase. Scenario 2: E-commerce workers are in high demand, so perhaps Mildred can be outplaced. She can be helped to find a position in another firm that can better fit her lifestyle in terms of working hours. It would seem unfair to lay off another member of the group who was working the full 60 hours per week. Skill-Building Exercise 15-3: Ethical Decision Making The three scenarios should prove to be a good opportunity to practice the eight step method of ethical screening. Scenario 1 is quite practical because some environmental efforts accomplish very little. Scenario 2 about the T-shirts is a difficult one from an ethical standpoint. If company management decides to hold back on the charitable donations this year, the in-store promotions about the donations should be stopped for the year. Scenario 3 about the high-profit toys is quite complicated involving such issues as the importance of profits versus good ethics. Another complication is that giving prisoners useful work is good for their mental health helps reduce prison riots, and facilitates transition to life after prison. Self-Assessment Quiz 15-2: The Ethical Workplace Relationships Inventory Workplace relationships are an important setting for ethical behavior, so taking this quiz could help sensitize students to the ethical aspects of dealing with work associates. Correspondingly, the quiz is important because the implication is that ethics do not apply on to customer relations. Skill-Building Exercise 15-4: Conducting an Environmental Audit Conducting an environmental audit is inherently interesting for many students, yet the project does consume a lot of time. The problem of conserving energy remains salient, particularly after the Deep Horizon oil rig explosion in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. Question 3 about sight and sound pollution as an environmental problem will be relevant for many students. Skill-Building Exercise 15-5: Confronting the Unethical Boss This role play demands two sets of interpersonal skill simultaneously: ethical skills and political skills. The role player wants to help the manager, Fred to behave more ethically thereby creating a more ethical environment. At the same time the role player wants to be tactful and diplomatic enough to preserve a good working relationship with the boss, as well as avoid being fired. Interpersonal Skills Role-Play: Dealing with an Unusual Request from the Boss This role play provides yet another opportunity for practice in dealing with a delicate interpersonal relations scenario. The student who plays Karen will have to be tactful, yet assertive. As suggested in the answers to the case questions above, Karen might suggest that she does not want to confuse personal and professional roles but that she would respond favorably to this request. Chapter 16 Stress Management and Personal Productivity The purpose of this chapter is to help people manage their work lives better by managing stress and being more productive. CHAPTER OUTLINE AND LECTURE NOTES The first half of this chapter deals with the nature of stress and how it can be managed, whereas the second half describes various approaches to improving personal productivity. Many readers of this book will become or already are corporate athletes, workers who engage in high-level performance for sustained periods. I. UNDERSTANDING AND MANAGING STRESS A major challenge facing any worker who wants to stay healthy and have good interpersonal relationships is to effectively manage stress. Stress is an adaptive response that is the consequence of any action, situation, or event that places special demands on a person. A stressor is the external or internal force that brings about the stress. Individual differences help determine which events are stressful. Note that stress is additive, so little annoyances can mount up. A. Symptoms and Consequences of Stress The physiological changes that take place within the body in response to stress are responsible for most stress symptoms. The battle against the stressor is referred to as the fight-or-flight response. Also, the brain senses stress as damage to well-being and therefore sends out a signal to the body to cope. The brain is a self-regulating system that helps us cope with stressors. 1. Physiological Reactions. The hormones activated to deal with the stressor produce physiological reactions such as an increase in heart rate, blood glucose, and blood clotting. Cortisol and other chemical responses to a stressor can increase the cardiovascular function and the immune system in the short run. If stress is continuous and accompanied by these short-term physiological changes, annoying and life-threatening conditions can occur. A stressful life event usually leads to a high cholesterol level (of the unhealthy type) and high blood pressure. People under continuous negative stress also age more quickly partly because of cell damage. A study of 812 Swedish workers conducted over a 25-year period found that work stress doubles the risk of dying from a heart attack. The major type of stress studied was having high work demands with little control over the work, combined with being underpaid. 2. Job Performance Consequences. Stress has both positive and negative consequences. Hindrance stressors are those stressful events and thoughts that have a negative effect on motivation and performance. Challenge stressors have a positive, direct effect on motivation and performance. A study of government workers found that challenge stressors were associated with higher performance, citizenship behavior, and customer service. Hindrance stressors had the opposite effect. The right amount of stress prepares us for meeting the difficult challenges and spurs us on to peak intellectual and peak performance. An optimum amount of stress exists for most people and most tasks. If stress is too great, people become temporarily ineffective, they may freeze or choke. 3. Burnout and Stress. One of the major problems of prolonged stress is that it may lead to burnout, a condition of emotional, mental, and physical exhaustion in response to long-term stressors. Work exhaustion is another term for burnout. Burnout contributors include feeling out of control, insufficient recognition and reward, and a lack of emotional support in the workplace. Burnout sufferers shift into a mode of doing the minimum as a way of protecting themselves. An example of a profession with many burnout victims is investment banking, based somewhat on the long hours and being blamed for past financial crises. B. Personality and Job Factors Contributing to Stress Individual factors and job or organizational factors both contribute to stress. 1. Personality Factors Predisposing People Toward Stress. Personality factors influence susceptibility to stressors. a. Low Perceived Control. Perceiving that you can control adverse circumstances influences how much stress you experience. Perceived control is the belief that an individual has at his or her disposal a response that can control the negative aspects of an event. b. Low Self-Efficacy. Workers with low self-efficacy tend to experience more emotional strain and physical strain than do workers with high self-efficacy. People who are confident they can perform a particular task are more likely to either avoid stress or have much milder symptoms. c. Type A Behavior and Hostility. A person with Type A behavior is demanding, impatient, and over-striving, and is therefore prone to negative stress. Free-floating hostility is also part of Type A behavior. The heart attack triggers are hostility, anger, and cynicism. All people with the Type A behavior pattern are therefore not prone to cardiac disease. Hostility is more strongly associated with coronary heart disease in men than smoking, drinking, overeating, or bad (LDL) cholesterol. d. Negative Affectivity and High Reactivity. A major contributor to being stress prone is negative affectivity, a tendency to experience aversive emotional states. The frequent complaining of people with negative affectivity hurts interpersonal relationships. People who have difficulty calming down after experiencing a stressor, exhibit a highly reactive, vigilant pattern (have high reactivity. The reaction appears to be at a biological level. 2. Job Sources of Stress Almost any job situation can act as a stressor for some employees, but not necessarily for others. Yet some stressors are frequently encountered. a. Role Overload Including Extreme Job). Having too much to do, or role overload, can create negative stress. The person may become fatigued and less tolerant of annoyances, and the person may feel perpetually behind schedule. In an extreme job the incumbent works at least 60 hours per week in a position that usually requires tight deadlines and heavy travel. b. Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity. Role conflict is a key stressor. Role ambiguity is a condition in which the job holder receives confusing or poorly defined expectations. Many people experience stress when faced with ambiguity. c. Adverse Environmental Conditions. Among the stressful environmental conditions are unpleasant or dangerous physical conditions, sick buildings and ergonomic problems. Excessive computer use can cause headaches, fatigue, and carpal tunnel syndrome. The latter occurs when repetitive flexing and extension of the wrist causes the tendons to swell, thus trapping and pinching the median nerve. Commuting to and from work is a major stressor that could be classified as an adverse environmental condition. However, some people enjoy commuting or adapt well to the situation. d. Adverse Interaction with Customers and Clients and Emotional Labor. Negative interactions with customers can be a major stressor. Related to adverse customer interaction is the stressor of having to control the expression of emotion to please or to avoid displeasing a customer. Emotional labor is the process or regulating both feelings and expressions to meet organizational goals. The process involves both surface acting and deep acting. Engaging in emotional labor for prolonged periods of time can lead to job dissatisfaction, stress, and burnout. e. Aggressive and Hostile Humor by Supervisor. A supervisor who directs aggressive, hostile, mean-spirited humor at an employee, particularly when the humor recipient is singled out, can create considerable stress. A study in China found that employees stress symptoms associated with hostile humor by the supervisor included Internet addictions, problem drinking and excessive cigarette smoking. f. Job Insecurity and Job Loss. Worrying about losing your job is a major stressor, even when jobs are plentiful. Downsizing and corporate mergers have contributed to job insecurity. Losing a job often leads to the stressors of financial problems and relationship conflict. Some people who lose their job become so stressed and depressed that they commit suicide. C. Methods and Techniques for Stress Management Not managing stress properly can lead to harmful long-term consequences. Managing stress refers to controlling it and making it a constructive force in your life. A key principle stress-management principle is that you are less likely to experience distress if you have the right resources, including the right personality characteristics and a support network. Coping with, or managing, stress includes hundreds of activities with substantial individual differences in which technique is effective. 1. Eliminate or Modify the Stressor. The most potent method of managing stress is to eliminate or modify the stressor giving you trouble. Leaving a stressful job would be one example. A major strategy for modifying a stress is to rethink you belief about a challenging situation. According to the cognitive behavior approach to stress management, people learn to recognize how pessimistic and distorted thoughts of gloom and doom create stress. Another application of the cognitive-behavior approach to managing stress is to cope in advance with an upcoming stress by aspiring for a positive future. 2. Get Appropriate Physical Exercise. A moderate amount of physical exercise is a cornerstone of managing stress and achieving wellness. Look for physical challenge but not overexertion and muscle and bone injury. Walking is ideal because it is inherently relaxing, yet with a minimum risk of physical danger. Everyday exercise, including housework, can be effective exercise. Physical exercise releases endorphins that lead to feelings of euphoria and are painkillers. Physical exercise directly reduces stress, and also reduces the risk of disorders that are debilitating themselves, and as a result become intense stressors. Yoga is widely used to reduce and prevent stress. Another benefit of Yoga is that it helps people place aside negative thoughts that act as stressors. 3. Rest Sufficiently. Rest offers similar benefits to exercise, such as stress reduction, improved concentration, improved energy, and better tolerance for frustration. Achieving proper rest is closely linked to proper exercise. A study of almost 24,000 Greek adults over a six-year period showed that people who napped had 37 percent lower risk of dying from a heart attack than people who did not nap. Napping also raises productivity. A rested brain is a more effective brain. 4. Maintain a Healthy Diet. Nutritious food is valuable for physical and mental health, making it easier to cope with frustrations that are potential stressors. A sensible dietary approach is to follow Dietary Guidelines of the United States Department of Agriculture. ChooseMyPlate.gov (Figure 16-5 of text) simplifies choosing a healthy diet. . 5. Build a Support Network. A support network is a group of people who can listen to your problems and provide emotional support. Members of your network can provide you with a sense of closeness, warmth, and acceptance that will reduce your stress. 6. Practice Visualization and Meditation. Visualizing a pleasant experience, similar to so many stress-reduction techniques including meditation, requires concentration. Concentrating helps slow down basic physiological processes such as the heart beat, and dissipates stress. Meditation is a relaxation technique used to quiet the mind, as well as to relive stress, and is more complicated than simple visualization. Many “corporate athletes” meditate. 7. Participate in Resilience Training. A time consuming yet robust method of educing and preventing stress is to participate in resilience training. The purpose of much resilience training is to help people steel themselves against difficult situations instead of becoming overly stressed. Part of steeling yourself is to thinking of what skills you might have that can be used to work your way out of the situation. 8. Practice Everyday Methods of Stress Reduction. Learning how to relax is an important method of reducing the tension and anxiety from both positive and negative stress. Everyday methods of stress reduction are presented in Figure 16-6. II. IMPROVING PERSONAL PRODUCTIVITY Achieving personal productivity is more in vogue than ever. During a recession workers pressure themselves to produce more because they fear job loss. Personal productivity refers to how many resources, including time, you consume to achieve a certain level of output. In measuring productivity, it is important to take into account quantity and quality of work as well as how the work was accomplished. A. Dealing with Procrastination The person who procrastinates delays action on tasks that need to be done for no good reason. Procrastination lowers productivity and is often a profound, debilitating problem. Approximately 90 percent of college students report problem with overdue papers and delayed studying. Depending on the reason for procrastination, the following techniques may help deal with the problem. 1. Commit to what you want in life. 2. Calculate the cost of procrastination. 3. Follow the WIFO principle, which stands for worst in, first out. 4. Break the task into manageable chunks. 5. Make a commitment to other people. 6. Remove some clutter from your mind. 7. Satisfy your stimulation quota in constructive ways. 8. Eliminate tangible rewards you are giving yourself for procrastinating. B. Enhancing Personal Productivity through Attitudes and Values Developing good work habits and time-management practices is often a matter of developing the right attitudes toward your work and toward time. 1. Begin with a Mission and Goals. A mission, or general purpose, propels you toward being productive. Goals support the mission statement. 2. Work Smarter, Not Harder . People caught up in trying to accomplish a job often wind up working hard, but not in an imaginative and well-planned way that leads to good results. A new perspective on working smarter, not harder, is to keep perfecting your skills through deliberate practice—strong effort to improve performance over time. Feedback from others is helpful. 3. Value Orderliness and Cleanliness. Orderliness helps most people become more productive because they can better focus their mind. Also, less time is wasted hunting for things. If you are orderly, you clear clutter. Yet individual differences exist, with some people being productive under cluttered conditions. Focusing too much on tidiness might detract from creative thinking, and many messy people, including Albert Einstein, believe that a messy work area facilitates their creative thinking. 4. Value Good Attendance and Punctuality. Good attendance and punctuality are expected of both experienced and inexperienced employees. Being at work is obviously more productive than being not at work, with few exceptions. A large study showed that employees who are late also tended to have high absenteeism records. 5. Attain a Balance in Life and Avoid Being a Workaholic. Overwork can lead to negative stress and burnout. Proper physical rest and relaxation can contribute to mental alertness and improved ability to cope with frustration. Many people do not get enough rest and relaxation, with more than one-half of Americans failing to take all their vacation days. Neglecting rest and relaxation can lead to workaholism, an addiction to work in which not working hard is an uncomfortable experience. However, note the achievement-oriented workaholic who thrives on work and is productive. 6. Increase Your Energy. The founder of the Energy Project says that increasing your energy is the best way to get more done faster and better. Rituals to establish productivity-boosting energy can be established in several spheres, with the body and mind being most important. Bodily energy can be increased through nutrition, exercise, and rest. Mental energy can be increased by minimizing distractions that lead to constant multitasking. A study with professional workers found that the strategies most related to having more vitality on the job focused on three areas: learning job-related skills and information; the meaning of one’s work, and positive workplace relationships. C. Enhancing Personal Productivity through Work Habits and Skills In addition to the right attitudes, effective work habits and skills are essential for high productivity. 1. Prepare a To-Do List and Set Priorities. At the heart of every time-management system is list making, wherever the lists are placed. Almost all successful people establish prioritized lists. Watch out that preparing to-do lists does not become an end in itself. To-do lists contribute enormously to productivity yet a to-do list may have to be revamped to meet the changing demands of the day. 2. Streamline Your Work and Emphasize Important Tasks. Getting rid of unproductive work is necessary when understaffed, and is part of business process improvement in which work processes are radically redesigned and simplified. Look for duplication of effort and waste. Search to accomplish work activities that if done well would make a big difference in your job performance. 3. Concentrate on One Important Task at a Time Instead of Multitasking. Intense concentration leads to crisper judgment and analysis and also minimizes major errors. Both experimental evidence and opinion has accumulated that multitasking while performing important tasks leads to problems in concentration, along with significant errors—for most people. However, multi-tasking for routine tasks can enhance productivity. Yet, watch out for rudeness and dangerous would you want your commercial airline pilot to be sending text messages to “friends” on a social network while flying through a storm? (The horrendous train accident in Spain in 2013 was mostly attributed to the conductor talking on his cell phone about train tickets. Being preoccupied, he ignored speed warnings on the train dashboard.) 4. Stay in Control of Paperwork and Electronic Work. The effective career person does not neglect paperwork, including electronic work. Sort and handle the papers in your in-basket and e-mail twice a day. Put papers in their proper location, not back in the basket. Communicating by e-mail or telephone with coworkers in distant time zones creates special challenges in terms of staying in control of electronic work. 5. Work Productively from Your Home Office or Virtual Office. A virtual office is a place of work without a fixed physical location from which the worker or workers communicate their output electronically. Many workers lack the self-discipline and effective work habits necessary to be productive outside a traditional office. Even if working at home, act as if you work in a traditional office. It is also helpful to stay in touch with other workers, such as visiting an office supply store or attending networking meetings. 6 . Enhance Your Internet Search Skills If your job requires conducting searches on the Internet, you will be more productive in you can conduct searches quickly. Use several search engines, and give careful thought to selecting the right search word or phrase. If you don’t find what you want in your initial search, reframe your question in another way, or change the terms. C. Overcoming Time Wasters Another basic thrust to improved personal productivity is to minimize wasting time. The average worker wastes 28% of the workday, according to a Salary.com survey. Whether or not an activity is a time waster depends on the purpose of the activity. Chatting with work associates could be wasting time, or it could be a method of informal learning and networking. Just being aware of time wasters is a starting point in wasting less time. Figure 16-7 presents a list of common time wasters. ANSWERS TO DISCUSSION AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Why might it be true that people who love their work live much longer than people who retire early because they dislike working? Answer: People who love their work receive satisfaction every day they work, and satisfaction is an energizing force. At the same time, being satisfied avoids the stress associated with job dissatisfaction. The early retirees who disliked their work may have already damaged their bodies and immune systems because of the long-term stress of job dissatisfaction. Finally, the early retirees often lack a passionate activity that keeps them energized day by day. 2. Why might having your stress under control improve your interpersonal relationships? Answer: Having stress under control helps interpersonal relationships in several ways. A person with multiple stress symptoms makes other people nervous, thereby not being an ideal friend or partner. Also, people are who experiencing considerable stress may be too preoccupied to be attentive to the needs of others. 3. Give an example of an adverse interaction with a customer that you have personally experienced, or that you have witnessed. What could the worker have done to decrease some of the stress in the situation? Answer: Many examples of adverse interaction with a customer will stem from incidents in retail stores and restaurants. However, it is also possible to have adverse customer interactions at the commercial level. One example would be an accounts receivable specialist having to deal with a company that delayed paying invoices for a long time, such as the 72 days Amazon.com takes to pay a bill. Not getting paid can be quite stressful. The stressor of adverse customer action can sometimes be decreased by applying an appropriate method of conflict resolution, such as confrontation and problem solving. For example a customer service representative who is being yelled and sworn at by a customer might say, “I want to help you, but I am only willing to help you if you stop yelling and swearing at me.” 4. Interview a person in a high-pressure job in any field. Find out whether the person experiences significant stress and what method he or she uses to cope with it. Answer: Noteworthy here is which occupations students identify as having high pressure. Students are likely to derive from the interviews a good awareness of the importance of stress management combined with a regular program of stress management. The many exceptions are that many people are not managing stress well because they suffer significant stress disorders. 5. Provide an example from your own or somebody else's life of how having a major goal in life can help a person be better organized. Answer: A germane example here is the many students who are focused on being successful in a specific career. The same students somehow find a way to get papers and projects done on time, and to adequately prepare for exams. The focused student perceives each assignment as a steppingstone to a compelling career goal. 6. Executives at Toyota, among many other Japanese companies, emphasize that clean work areas in the factory enhance productivity. What might explain this relationship between cleanliness and productivity? Answer: Cleanliness is linked to productivity for several reasons. First, cleanliness is associated with less clutter thereby helping people stay focused on work. It is simply easier for most people to focus on work when there are fewer visual distractions. Second, cleanliness is associated with attention to detail, and this orientation helps people attain higher productivity, including quality. Third, a cleanly workplace is more soothing to the mind resulting in less stress, and therefore higher productivity. 7. Identify a work-related skill you have that would likely be to improve substantially with deliberate practice. Answer: To answer this question well, the student would have to be first recognize a couple of areas for potential improvement. Here are several examples of job skills that might improve with deliberate practice: Interviewing job candidates; written communication skills; presentation skills; creating compelling messages on business-related social media postings; and, conducting performance appraisals of subordinates. One work-related skill that could improve substantially with deliberate practice is public speaking. By regularly practicing presentations, receiving feedback, and refining techniques, I could enhance my confidence, clarity, and effectiveness in communicating ideas. This improvement would benefit my ability to engage and influence audiences in a professional setting. 8. Use information in this chapter to explain how a person might be well organized and yet still not get very far in his or her career. Answer: A person might be well organized yet not focus enough on important tasks to get ahead in his or her career. Doing small tasks efficiently may help an organization, but accomplishing these small tasks is not enough to get noticed. 9. An increasing number of professional workers take their smartphones and laptop computers to bed so they can respond to e-mails, make phone calls, and do other work whenever they want. What do you see as the pros and cons of taking electronic gadgets to bed? Answer: On the positive side, the super-conscientious worker will experience some productivity gains by making work-related use of smart phones and laptops during time ordinarily reserved for sleep. Yet the negatives are strong also. The person may not get enough sleep to sustain high productivity the next day, and may not have enough time away from work to recharge. Even worse, if the person sleeps with another person, he or she might be perceived as rude and unromantic. 10. With millions of workers making regular use of smartphones throughout the world, why hasn’t productivity in organizations taken a dramatic leap forward? Answer: One reason for the lack of productivity surge is that much of the time saved by using smartphones is wasted rather than put to productive use. For example, if a worker uses an application on the iPhone to order-in food from a restaurant for a luncheon meeting, the person might have saved five minutes. But were those five minutes invested in a money-making or money-saving activity? Another major reason for the lack of productivity gain from smart phones is that people often use them for activities of no particular value. For example, as an airplane lands, about three-fourths of the passenger go through the ritual of calling home or the office to say, “We’ve landed.” No productivity gain here. ANSWERS TO CASE QUESTIONS The Overwhelmed Medical Billing Specialist This case illustrates how being overload with responsibilities can create stress, as well as problems in work and personal life. 1. What suggestions can you offer Sasha for working her way out of her problems? Answer: Sasha needs to both deal with getting her various responsibilities under control and also manager her stress. It appears that Sasha’s overlapping responsibilities are creating stress for her, and her stress symptoms are interfering with her job performance. A starting point for Sasha would be to simplify her life, even just a little. Perhaps next semester she can take just one course. Maybe a family member, such as her mother, father, or a sibling can take over a couple of chores for her. Sasha also needs to begin a stress management program, perhaps beginning with taking her son for a walk through the neighborhood. 2. Why is this case included in a chapter about improving productivity and managing stress? Answer: As already mentioned, Sasha is facing the combined effects of needing to better organize her work and priorities, and improve her stress management at the same time. Sasha’s heavy responsibilities are creating stress for her, and her stress is making it even more difficult to manage her responsibilities, including job demands. 3. How well do you think that Francesca handled the interview? Answer: Francesca appears to have done a fine job of handling the interview. She is quite explicit about the change she needs from Sasha, and at the same time shows some sympathy. One criticism, however, is that Francesca could have been a little more supportive, such as suggesting that she would help Sasha or point to another resource. Rob Haps to Boost His Productivity Perhaps this case is humorous, but it illustrates a practical point: Napping on the job might boost productivity but a little finesse is required to implement this productivity booster. 1. What do you recommend that Rob do about his productivity naps for the future? Answer: Rob needs to be more discreet about his napping. If he has a vehicle, such as an automobile, minivan, or pickup truck he might nap in the vehicle when the temperature permits. Extreme hot or cold makes napping in the vehicle difficult, and sleeping in a stationary vehicle with the heating or cooling system turned on runs the danger of being poisoned by carbon monoxide. Perhaps there is a warehouse or computer room on premises where Rob could nap with permission. Student creativity about a nap location is welcome here. 2. How should Nina deal with the situation of Rob taking naps for productivity and stress reduction? Answer: Nina should suggest that Rob find a better location for nap taking that would not detract from his professional behavior. The encounter with Rob might trigger Nina into thinking about the company providing napping facilities for employees. Nina should address Rob’s napping by discussing its impact on team dynamics and productivity. If Rob's naps are affecting his work or team performance, she could suggest finding a balance that accommodates his needs while maintaining productivity. Alternatively, exploring flexible work arrangements or wellness programs might support stress reduction without disrupting workflow. COMMENTS ABOUT QUIZZES AND EXERCISES Skill-Building Exercise 16-1: Visualization for Stress Reduction The visualization technique has remarkable power considering how little time and effort is required for its implementation. Experienced visualizers in the class might want to report on the success (or failure) they have had with this technique. A hilarious class discussion is for volunteers to describe the relaxing scenes they are visualizing. Skill-Building Exercise 16-2: Personal Stress-Management Action Plan In essence, this exercise encourages the student to use a problem-solving approach to stress reduction. The exercise is beneficial because the majority of people focus on symptom relief rather than attempting to eliminate or modify the stressors they are facing. Self-Assessment Quiz 16-1: Procrastination Tendencies An important feature of this quiz is that it helps the student identify subtle symptoms of procrastination such as number 3, "I crave the excitement of the 'last minute rush.'" Many people laugh off procrastination as not being a serious problem. Taking the quiz may help the student think more seriously about procrastination. Skill-Building Exercise 16-3: Using a Mission Statement and Goals to Power Work Habits This exercise can become a major planning tool in life. The exercise helps people translate lofty purposes in life into short-term goals to achieve those purposes. A side purpose of this exercise is to reinforce the idea that goal setting is characteristic of successful people. Skill-Building Exercise 16-4: Productivity Boosting through Work Habits An important purpose served by this exercise is to think through the purposes of implementing good work habits and using the Internet. An example of a real productivity booster would be to concentrate on important tasks. For example, a productivity booster would be getting in touch with a person who might have a job lead for the individual, rather than spending a lot of time selecting the right paper for a hard-copy résumé. Many people accept the Internet as an obligatory work and personal life activity without understanding how the Internet might improve productivity. Corporate managers and small-business persons have found dozens of ways for boosting productivity through the Internet, including saving time in searching for information and making purchases. Another example of a productivity booster would be selling goods inexpensively. Personal productivity might be boosted in such ways as obtaining travel information quickly, making purchases over the Internet to save time visiting malls, and locating where to find certain merchandise. However, whether productivity is boosted depends upon what is done with the time saved by using the Internet. Skill-Building Exercise 16-5: Maintaining a Time Log Maintaining a time log is a standard technique for getting started boosting personal productivity. An important insight to be gathered is to identify activities that do not contribute to personal productivity or happiness. For example, some people find they spend far too much time in the middle of the day for lunch. Instead of waiting in line at a restaurant, they might be able to purchase lunch from a street vendor or pack lunch. However, if the socializing aspects of lunch are an investment in networking and happiness, the time spent away from work is productive. Interpersonal Relations Role Play: Francesca Attempts to Help Sasha A good opportunity here for the student who plays the role of Francesca will be to communicate empathy and support. The role player of Francesca must also recognize that her intent is not to conduct a discipline session with Sasha. Another observation point is whether the student who plays Sasha projects an attitude of wanting to be helped, rather than simply defending her position. Chapter 17 Job Search and Career Management Skills This final chapter of the text focuses indirectly on interpersonal skill development: Conducting a successful job search and managing one's career both require good interpersonal skills. Also, without good skills in these areas a person would not have the opportunity to practice interpersonal skills in the workplace. CHAPTER OUTLINE AND LECTURE NOTES The aspects of career success described in this chapter are divided into two segments: conducting a job search, and career-advancement methods. The previous 16 chapters also dealt with topics that facilitate career success. I. CONDUCTING A JOB SEARCH The vast majority of workers have to conduct a job campaign at various times in their career, including an internal search within one’s employer. A. Job-Hunting Tactics The tactics described here can be used as a checklist to ensure not having neglected something important during the emotionally-charged job hunt. 1. Identify Your Job Objectives. An effective job search begins with a clear perception of what kind of position (or positions) you are seeking. Your chances of finding suitable employment increase when several different types of positions will satisfy your job objectives. 2. Be Aware of Qualifications Sought by Employers. What you are looking for in an employer should be matched against what an employer is looking for in an employee. Self-Assessment Quiz 17-1 is a useful checklist of qualifications sought by employers. 3. Identify Your Skills and Potential Contribution. Today's job market is skill based. Show what skills you have that can help the employer. 4. Develop a Comprehensive Marketing Strategy A vital job-finding strategy is to use multiple approaches to reach the right prospective employer. Multiple approaches to finding a job can also include extreme job hunting, an offbeat way of attracting an employer’s attention, with a small probability of success. 5. Stay Organized During Your Job Search. A major challenge for many people in conducting a job search is to avoid being overwhelmed by all the applications, Websites, and job-finding suggestions that have amassed. 6. Use Networking to Reach Company Insiders. The majority of successful job campaigns stem from personal contacts. In regard to job hunting, networking is contacting friends and acquaintances and building systematically on these relationships to create a still wider set of contacts that might lead to employment. Insiders can also be reached through such means as contacting the company by postal mail, e-mail, and the career section of the company Website. The people who receive your letter and e- mail messages become part of your network. 6. Use Multiple Online Approaches The Internet is a standard part of job hunting, even for middle management and executive positions. Sources of job leads on the Internet include general job boards, specialty job boards, company Websites, and social networking Websites. Virtually all employers have an employment section on their company Website. A growing number of employers believe that the best way to find good job candidates is to advertise on Websites where these candidates are likely to be spending considerable time, such as Facebook or LinkedIn. Job boards are also found on social networking sites. A large number of employers have developed versions of their career Websites suitable to hand-held devices, including filling out and application using a smartphone. The Internet is just one source of job leads that should be used in conjunction with other job-finding methods, especially personal contacts that might lead to an interview. A challenge the job seeker faces is that so many people are making effective use of the Internet, including social networking sites, to find a position. Personal contracts are therefore all the more important. Establishing your own Website or a blog is another possibility for online job hunting. 7. Smile at Network Members and Interviewers and Be Enthusiastic Assuming that you have the right qualifications, the simple act of smiling can be an effective job-hunting technique. A smile helps build a relationship. Display enthusiasm and excitement when speaking to people who can help you land a position. 8. Smooth Out Rough Spots in Your Background Background investigations now routinely include a credit check. Any job seeker who has severe negative factors in his or her background cannot readily change the past. Yet the job seeker can look to have untrue or distorted negative facts changed. And maybe a negative reference can be negotiated to one that is less harsh. Potential employers will often enter your name into a search engine, and also check social networking sites to see if you have done anything outlandish. B. The Job Résumé and Cover Letter No matter what method of job hunting you choose, inevitably somebody will ask for a résumé. An exception is when joining a family business or one owned by a friend. 1 Résumé Purpose. The résumé is a marketing tool, with a specific purpose of helping you obtain an interview that can lead to a job. (Yet some people with skills in hot demand are hired on the basis of their résumé alone.) 2. Résumé Length and Format. A one-page résumé is mostly for career beginners. Employers want so much detail about skills that a two-page résumé is preferable for people with some full-time work experience. Hiring managers and human resource professionals have widely different perceptions of what constitutes an effective résumé. a. Keywords and past tense of verbs. Certain keywords attract the attention of managers and specialists who scan job résumés manually or with software. A starting point in finding key words is the job description. It is helpful to sprinkle the résumé with past tenses of verbs connoting accomplishments, action, and forcefulness (such as achieved, transformed, and won). b. Easy access for employers. When submitting your résumé and cover letter electronically, make it easy for the employer to access, such as using an attached Word document. c. Error minimization. Despite all that has been written about avoiding errors in job résumés, employers still complain about receiving résumés containing too many small errors. A frequent type of large error is to make vague statements without verification. d. Video résumés and creative formats. The video approach is good for capturing your appearance, personality, and oral communication skills. Professional help may be needed in constructing your video résumé. Another alternative to developing a distinctive résumé is to create an unusual format in factors such as color, size, and layout including presenting the résumé in the form of a marketing brochure. A trending format is to prepare the résumé in the form of a tweet, using 140 characters or less. e. Honesty is essential. It is generally acceptable to glamorize your accomplishments, yet inserting false statements crosses the line into unacceptable behavior. 3. The Cover Letter. A résumé should be accompanied by a cover letter explaining who you are and why you are applying for this particular position, thereby customizing your inquiry. Sometimes it is helpful to prepare an attention-getting cover letter in which you make an assertive statement about how you intend to help the employer deal with an important problem. A personal contact might be mentioned as part of the attention grabber. C. Performing Well In a Job Interview A telephone-screening interview is a quick check for oral communication skills including a sample job problem. Some job candidates overlook the fact that the phone interview is a serious contact with their employer, and do not differentiate between a social interview and a professional one. Team interviewing is becoming more common. Another variation on the traditional interview is that you meet for a brief interview with a series of interviewers, or the speed interview (as in speed dating). A general guide for performing well in the job interview is to present a positive, but accurate picture of you. Keep these points for a successful interview in mind: 1. Be prepared, look relaxed, and make the interviewer feel comfortable. 2. Avoid talking too much during the interview. 3. Establish a link between you and the prospective employer. 4. Ask perceptive questions. 5. Be prepared to discuss your strengths and weaknesses (developmental opportunities). 6. Be prepared to respond to behavioral interview (sampling of job behavior) questions. 7. Show how you can help the employer. 8. Use nonverbal communication that projects confidence and decisiveness. 9. Practice good etiquette during the interview, including during a meal. 10. Be low key about salary. 11. Minimize the use of utterances that annoy many interviewers. 12. Send a follow-up (or thank-you) letter. II. CAREER ADVANCEMENT STRATEGIES AND TACTICS Improving interpersonal relationships in general helps career advancement. Here we describe fifteen other key strategies and tactics for career advancement, whether the advancement relates to promotion or growth at the same organizational level, or a combination of the two. A. Strategies and Tactics for Controlling Own Characteristics and Behavior 1. Develop Career Goals. Career planning inevitably involves some form of goal setting. Because of frequent organization changes, it may be better to establish general goals that focus on the type of work a person wants to perform in the future. Values will often drive career goals. It is helpful to establish personal goals that mesh with career goals. Most career goal should have an approximate time element. 2. Capitalize on Your Strengths and Build Your Personal Brand. A long-established principle of getting ahead in your career, as well as managing others, is to capitalize on strengths rather than focus solely on overcoming areas for improvement. Understanding your basket of strengths forms the basis for developing your personal brand, which makes you unique, thereby distinguishing you from the competition. Your personal brand should be authentic in terms of expressing who you are. Developing a personal brand statement requires considerable work, and might require some professional coaching. 3. Be Passionate About and Proud of Your Work. Successful people in all fields are passionate about their work, thereby not relying exclusively on external rewards. Taking pride in your work stems naturally from passion. The surest path to career success is to identify your area of expertise and then build a career around it, as in building a personal brand. Recent research suggests that being passionate about your career is similar to having a calling—a consuming, meaningful passion people experience toward their field. 4. Develop a Code of Professional Ethics and Prosocial Motivation. An ethical code determines what behavior is right or wrong, good or bad, based on values. A code of professional ethics helps a worker deal with such issues as accepting bribes, backstabbing coworkers, and sexually harassing a work associate. A part of many worker’s ethical code is prosocial motivation, the desire to expend effort to help other people. 5. Develop a Proactive Personality. A proactive personality is relatively unconstrained by situational forces, and brings about environmental change. Highly proactive people identify opportunities and act on them, show initiative and keep trying until they bring about meaningful change. The proactive personality displays organizational citizenship behavior because he or she is a good citizen who will step outside the job description to be helpful. Two studies showed that being a proactive personality is positively related to salary, promotions, initiative, and career satisfaction. A more recent study indicated that a proactive personality influenced job search success among 180 graduating college students. An advantage of being proactive on the job is that it may enhance your reputation because you are likely to be perceived favorably by others. Also, may people will think that the good results you attain are the result of positive inner qualities. Finding a good way to be proactive may require creative thinking. To get started developing a proactive personality a person might take more initiative to fix problems and attempt to be self-starting. A way of expressing proactivity on a grand scale is to seek new opportunities, such as developing a new product or service, or finding a new market for one’s employer. 6. Keep Growing Through Continuous Learning and Self-Development. Continuous learning is linked to the new employment contract. An everyday method of continuous learning is to ask intelligent questions about processes or procedures that will help you understand the business. Many companies support continuous learning because they perceive themselves to be learning organizations. 7. Document Your Accomplishments. An accurate record of what you have accomplished can be valuable when being considered for reassignment, promotion, or applying for a position outside your company. Sending e-mail updates to your manager about your noteworthy accomplishments is effective if not done to the point of being an annoyance. It is helpful to point to tangible, objective accomplishments rather than subjective evaluations. Consider weaving your accomplishments into an interesting story to tell other people. Documentation enables you to promote yourself in a dignified, tactful way. 8. Project a Professional Image For advancement, your clothing, desk and work area, speech, scent, and general knowledge should project the image of a professional, responsible person. A subtle part of having a professional image is to have a positive attitude. Although many exceptions exist, business formal attire for both men and women has been making a strong comeback. A challenge in projecting a professional image is to figure out what constitutes a professional image in your particular environment. A general guideline is to dress somewhat like the successful people in your firm, or the customer’s firm. Hairstyle is a superficial part of appearance that the career-minded person must ponder. (Here is a sparkling topic for class discussion. 9. Perceive Yourself as a Provider of Services. One perspective is that everyone should see himself or herself as a personal service business entity. You are a business, offering the company a valuable service. You keep offering the service as long as the company keeps you on the payroll and you enjoy the work. You might also think of yourself as a professional-level temporary employee. B. Strategies and Tactics aimed mostly at interacting with the outside world are as follows: 1. Develop Depth and Breadth. In general it pays to have good depth in one area of expertise, yet also to acquire broad experience. Breadth can be achieved in one company, in different companies, and in different industries. If your goal is to become an executive, broadening your experience is a career enhancer. 2. Rely on a Network of Successful People. Network members can assist with difficult job problems, provide emotional support, buy from you, and offer you good prices. Networking might be more inclusive in the beginning, then narrowed down to more influential people later on. Golf remains the most effective networking sport. Social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter, can often be used to find members for your professional network despite their social emphasis. The professional site, LinkedIn, is particularly useful. Posting your own blog and visiting the blogs of other people can also be a source of valuable contacts. A three-year study conducted with German workers found that networking was associated with both a higher salary and to growth rate of salary over time. As you build your network over time, it is helpful to keep in mind Dunbar’s number, contending that a person can only maintain 150 close social connections. Whether or not the number 150 is accurate, it is important to avoid having so many contacts that they become superficial. 3. Work with a Mentor. Having a mentor can facilitate career advancement. Ideally a person should develop a small network of mentors who give advice and counsel on different topics such as job advancement opportunities and how to solve a difficult problem. At the root of mentoring is the ability to attract and build a relationship with a person who is more experienced and talented than you. Lending mentors a hand on projects is useful, as is being positive and personable Celebrity executive Sheryl Sandberg of Facebook explains that an effective way of attracting a mentor is to impress a higher-up with how well you are performing on the job. A mentor can help the career beginner overcome hurdles such as being disappointed about the first job, including not being listened to or receiving enough feedback. 4. Find a Good Organization-Person Fit. It is best to work for a company where your personality and style fit the organization culture (a system of shared values and beliefs that influence worker behavior). A person-organization fit is the compatibility of the individual and the organization. The compatibility can involve work-related values as well as personality traits, physical appearance, and dress. Workers who find a good person-organization fit are more likely to stay committed to the organization. 5. Take Sensible Risks. People who make it big in their careers usually take sensible risks on their journey to success. Sensible risk taking means about the same thing as moving outside your comfort zone. An example would be joining a fledgling company that offers big promises but a modest starting salary. A risk worth considering is to enter a field or industry that others might overlook because the field or industry doe not receive much publicity, or is not perceived as glamorous. Some of these industries, and the companies within them, are recession resistant. The waste-management industry, including garbage pickup, is an example of a low-glamor industry with opportunities for workers of many specialties. 6. Emphasize Relationships to Combat Being Outsourced. The positions that are the least likely to be outsourced are those than require the physical presence of the worker, and cannot easily be done remotely. Make relationship building a key part of your job, whether or not you are performing mostly technical work. ANSWERS TO DISCUSSION AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. During a labor shortage (when there are more positions open than qualified applicants) why is it still important to have good job search skills? Answer: Good job search skills are important during a tight labor market to help the job seeker obtain a better job. Competition for good jobs remains strong even during a labor shortage. 2. With all the emphasis on online job hunting, how do you demonstrate that you have effective interpersonal skills? Answer: As a starting point, the job hunter can display good interpersonal skills in the written mode. Politeness and sensitivity could be displayed in such approaches as addressing the receiver by name, or even a generalized title such as “Dear Hiring Manager.” This would be in contrast to beginning the correspondence with no title or simply, “Hi.” When the online application leads to a phone or in-person interview, the job seeker would then be in position to demonstrate good interpersonal skills. 3. In what ways might video résumés both help and hinder a company attain the goal of having a diverse workforce? Answer: The video résumé is helpful in identifying demographic characteristics of people such as their race and sex as well as approximate age. Sex identify comes into question of a candidate because so many first names are unisex, such as Leslie, Pat, and Chris. The recruiter who was looking to either include or exclude specific demographic groups would find the visual images helpful. Also, some companies like to give preferential hiring to candidates who fit a certain image—leading to a lack of diversity. The video résumé would help screen for appearance. 4. To what extent do you think it is still realistic for a personal in his or her early twenties to join a large company and stay employed for 40 years or more? Answer: Perhaps with a limited number of stable, large corporations it might be possible for a young person to enter the company and stay for 40 or more years. Yet there are strong counterforces with respect to staying so long at one company. One problem is that modern companies often go through downsizing phases therefore threatening job security. A related problem is that companies often sell off divisions or outsource a large part of their operations, leaving the would-be long timer without a position. 5. Imagine that you are friends with a 24-year-old NBA or WNBA player who has to quit playing professional basketball because of injuries to both knees. What advice would you offer this person to restart his or her career in another field? Answer: Having been an outstanding basketball player could be a key factor in his or her personal brand. If the player also completed degree requirements his or her athletic experience would count even more heavily for a career in business. The former player might than look for business firms that favor former athletes for their training program or sales staff. A similar approach would be for the former professional player to search for hiring managers who favor former athletes. The job seeker in question might also be prepared to give a description of how he or she has attempted to keep up in his field to suggest that has made good use of his college studies. 6. Give an example from your own life in which you behaved as if you were a proactive personality. Answer: Students might be able to identify situations in which they took the initiative to resolve a problem such as identifying a parts shortage. Another example of a proactive personality might be having identified the hazards investing in real estate in certain regions companies before others recognized the upcoming crash. In personal life, an example of proactive behavior would be conducting a campaign to stop drivers from running stop signs in the neighborhood. In my previous job, I noticed a recurring issue with project delays and took the initiative to develop a streamlined process for tracking progress. I proposed and implemented a new project management tool, which significantly improved efficiency and reduced delays. This proactive approach helped address the problem before it escalated and benefited the entire team. 7. How does talent and expertise contribute to career advancement? Answer: In most endeavors, talent and expertise are the bedrock for career advancement because the twin factors contribute to good job performance. As a person performs well, he or she develops a positive reputation including receiving favorable performance evaluations. A related factor is that most people who attain high- level success in their field, such as becoming a CEO, were outstanding performers early in their career. 8. Suppose that a person has 6,000 followers on Twitter, how might he or she capitalize on this fact in a job search or in career advancement? Answer: The fact of having 6,000 followers on Twitter would be worth mentioning in a few situations. The large number of followers might be of interest to a consumer products company because it could mean an expanded network of customers for the company. A company attempting to recruit large numbers of employees might also be interested in the job candidate or current employee with 6,000 Twitter followers. The large number of followers might also impress the employer that the person had leadership potential, thereby facilitating getting promoted. 9. Which sport or pastime in addition to golf do you think would be useful for building a professional network? Why? Answer: The number-one pastime for building a professional network would most likely be spending time on social media sites, particularly LinkedIn. Working out at athletic clubs has promise for building a network because so many professionals are athletic-club members. People who work out at an athletic club are often easier to approach than those involved in a sport requiring as much concentration as golf. Also, athletic club members tend to mill around in the lounges, providing an opportunity to start conversations. 10. What is the most useful idea you picked up from this chapter about either conducting a job campaign or managing your career? Answer: Responses to this question will vary considerably. The author of this book would be happy if a lot of students said the most useful idea was that conducting a job campaign or managing his or her career is likely to be more effective if supported by planning and specific tactics. The most useful idea from the chapter is the importance of building a strong personal brand. Effectively showcasing your unique skills, values, and accomplishments can distinguish you from others and attract opportunities. This proactive approach helps in conducting a successful job campaign and advancing your career by clearly communicating your value to potential employers. ANSWERS TO CASE QUESTIONS Sharon Tackles a Job Interview Although this case may seem humorous, it illustrates how an otherwise intelligent person can make so many faux pas during an employment interview. 1. What interview errors does Sharon appear to be making? Answer: The major error Sharon makes is to focus on her needs, such as an urgent need for money, rather than on how she can contribute to the employer’s success. Sharon’s statement at the end of the interview about being really short on cash, even if honest, projects an unprofessional image. 2. What has Sharon done right as an interviewee? Answer: Sharon apparently showed up on time for the interview, she did mention a relevant strength (knowing a lot about constructing buildings), and she said that she would like to work for the company. 3. What advice can you offer Sharon about conducting herself in a job interview, should she fail to get an offer based on this job interview? Answer: As implied in the answer to question 1, Sharon needs to be more professional during a job interview. She has to focus on what she can do for the employer, and ask a few insightful questions. In general, Sharon should study some material on performing well during a job interview. Networking in Evanston This case illustrates one of the most challenging parts of networking: what to do when you come into contact with people at a networking event. 1. What suggestions can you offer Jason for improving his networking effectiveness? Answer: Jason is moving too quickly and too abruptly when he meets people. Even if only brief time spend with each potential network member, Jason should attempt to engage the potential member in conversation rather than jumping in with a demand to help him. 2. What important rule for networking is Jason violating? Answer: Jason is not explaining how he might be able to assist the person he is facing. An important rule for networking is reciprocity—explain what you can do to help the other person. A strong violation of this rule was reflected in Jason’s statement to Baxter: “Here’s how you can help me…” 3. What, if anything, is Jason doing right in terms of career networking? Answer: To Jason’s credit, he is taking the time and some money to get out and meet people at a networking event. Meeting people face-to-face should be combined with Internet approaches to networking. COMMENTS ABOUT QUIZZES AND EXERCISES Self-Assessment Quiz 17-1: Qualifications Sought by Employers This exercise has several potential values such as reinforcing the importance of skills students are already developing, helping understand success factors in business, and identifying needs for development. The list of qualifications also might give the impression that employers are somewhat unrealistic if they expect all this talent in one candidate. Skill-Building Exercise 17-1: Extreme Job Hunting A subtle contribution of this exercise is that it encourages students to think imaginatively about different approaches to job hunting. Too often job hunters rely on one or two basic approaches to job search and neglect to think imaginatively about the process. It has been said that because thousands of people now make use social networking Websites to conduct a job search, finding out how to meet people face-to-face becomes even more important. It will be instructive if any participants in this exercise present a case history of an approach to extreme job hunting that worked. Skill-Building Exercise 17-2: The Twitter Résumé A Twitter résumé provides a good opportunity for students to think about their most important job qualifications, much like building a personal brand statement. Comparing Twitter résumés should be helpful. Creative thinking and good written communication skills are important in constructing this type of very brief résumé. Skill-Building Exercise 17-3: The Job Interview A useful outcome from this exercise is demonstrating that conducting a job interview is a complex skill. A common error the interviewers make is to ask long, multifaceted questions and talk more than the interviewee. Self-Assessment Quiz 17-2: My Tendencies toward Being a Proactive Personality The construct of proactive personality may not receive as much publicity as other personality constructs, but it is quite important for career growth and leadership. Students might therefore benefit substantially from reflecting about their standing on this quiz measuring tendencies toward being proactive. . Skill-Building Exercise 17-5: The Professional Image Investigation Here is an opportunity for students to gain first-hand knowledge about what constitutes a professional image in a specific workplace. If students share their findings, it will be informative to look for similarities of what constitutes a professional image across different workplaces. Skill-Building Exercise 17-6: Building Your Network Students who are committed to building their networks should benefit handsomely from this exercise. Even if people do not use the entire method, they should be able to come away with a couple of useful networking ideas. Linking network members to goals is a high-impact idea. Interpersonal Relations Role Play: What Sharon Should Have Done Here is an opportunity for students to practice being interviewed for a job, and profiting from feedback from other students and perhaps the instructor. The questions posed in the interview will give some helpful structure to the activity. Solution Manual for Human Relations: Interpersonal Job-Oriented Skills Andrew J. DuBrin 9780133506822, 9781292059365
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