This Document Contains Chapters 9 to 11 Chapter 9 Resolving Conflicts with Others The major purpose of this chapter is to provide insights and skills into resolving interpersonal conflict in the workplace. Sexual harassment receives special attention because of its prevalence as a type of job conflict. CHAPTER OUTLINE AND LECTURE NOTES I. SOURCES OF INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT IN ORGANIZATIONS A conflict is a situation in which two or more goals, values, or events are incompatible or mutually exclusive. A conflict is also a strife, quarrel, or battle. Understanding the sources, or causes, of conflict can help resolve the present conflict and help prevent a similar occurrence. All conflict includes the underlying theme of incompatibility between one's goals, values, or events and those of another person. A. Competition for Limited Resources Conflict arises when two or more people squabble over who should get the limited resources, with resources usually being limited. B. Role Conflict Being placed in a predicament can lead to conflict and stress. Role conflict is having to choose between two competing demands or expectations. Compliance with one aspect of a role makes compliance with the other role difficult or impossible, such as receiving contradictory offers. Role conflict can take various forms such as attempting to complete two objectives that are in apparent conflict. An example is being pushed for both speed and quality. Person-role conflict takes place when the role (s) your organization expects you to occupy is in conflict with your basic values. For example, a bank official with strong humanitarian values might be foreclosing on home owners who are delinquent on their mortgage. C. Competing Work and Family Demands Balancing the demands of career and family has become a major role conflict facing today’s workforce. The challenge is particularly intense for employees who are part of a two-wage-earner family. Work-family conflict occurs when an individual’s roles of worker and active participant in social and family life compete with one another. 1. Work-to-Family and Family-to-Work Conflict. Work can interfere with family responsibilities, and family responsibilities can interfere with work. An analysis of many studies found that work demands can create some stress and low satisfaction at home, and that personal demands can create some stress and low satisfaction on the job. Another study found that work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict led to guilt and hostility at work and at home respectively. 2. The Issue of Work-Life Choices Work-life (or work versus family life) choices are difficult to make, and the choice has consequences. When managers perceive subordinates to be experiencing family-work conflict, there is a tendency for the bosses to think that the subordinate is not a good candidate for promotion. Making a work-family choice can sometimes reduce the conflict. 3. Company Initiatives to Reduce Work-Family Conflict Equitable time-off policies can avoid or reduce work-family conflict. The underlying company attitude is that all employees need a work-life balance. Flexible working hours are helpful. Being well-organized can help reduce work-family conflict. Supervisory support helps reduce work-family conflict, and includes such behaviors as expressing sympathy for the worker’s challenges, and giving friendly advice. A supportive organization also helps reduce work-family conflict. D. Personality Clashes and Drama Many workplace disagreements arise because people simply dislike each other. A personality clash is an antagonistic relationship between two people based on differences in personal attributes, preferences, interests, values, or styles. The most commonly reported office problem is the personality conflict. One of the most frequent conflicts is between the sweeping big picture person, and the cautious detail-oriented person. People who get along well at first sometimes develop a personality clash later on, Drama takes the form or an obstacle you want to attain, and often functions like a personality clash because the dramatic person does not get along with you. E. Bullies in the Workplace Some people convert disagreement into an attack on the other person. Bullies are people who verbally, and sometimes physically, attack others frequently. Among their typical behaviors are interrupting others, ranting in a loud voice, and making threats. One observer says that bullying is considered part of daily workplace culture. The most likely victims of supervisory bulling are those workers with less power, especially those in personal service roles such as housekeepers, nannies, and office assistant roles The Workplace Bullying Institute found that 60 percent of bullies are male, and 40 percent are female. An estimated 37 percent of American workers have been bullied on the job. Male bullies appear to choose men and women as targets in equal number. A study found that in a culture in which managers are expected to exercise power and authority, workers will tolerate a little more bullying. F. Incivility and Rudeness A milder form of aggressiveness in the workplace is rudeness or incivility toward work associates. Incivility (employees’ lack of regard for one another) has gained attention as a cause of workplace conflict. Uncivil treatment can lead to counterproductive behavior such as being rude to customers. A study showed that overall, employees subjected to incivility tend to feel frustrated, annoyed, and a little bit offended. Another study found that incivility and rudeness can lead to lowered performance, stress, and emotional exhaustion. A group of Duke University researchers suggest that we become upset with rude behavior because it violates unwritten laws of behavior referred to as social exchange rules. In perspective, rudeness and incivility may be simply part of modern life where self-expression counts for everything and manners nothing. G. Cross-Generational Conflict Value-based differences in behavior can lead to conflict such as disputes about Gen Y workers wanting members of Gen Y and baby boomers to be continuously logged on to instant messaging. Three examples of potential work-related conflict across generations are (a) preferred approach to communication, (b) approach to problem solving, and (c) requirement for being respected. Although cross-generational conflict is mild in nature it can still lead to miscommunication and hard feelings that disrupt work. H. Workplace Violence (A Cause and Effect of Conflict) Aggressiveness can also take the extreme form of shooting and knifing a former boss or colleague by a mentally unstable worker recently dismissed from the company. Workplace violence is a cause of conflict in the sense that being the subject of violence, witnessing violence, or worrying about violence creates two opposing needs—the worker wants a peaceful environment yet is forced to experience chaos. Workplace violence is an effect of conflict because as an extreme response to conflict, such as being fired, some workers strike back at their employer through physical aggression. Violence has become so widespread that homicide is the fourth leading case of workplace deaths, with some 500 workers murdered each year in the United States. Homicides account for about 10 percent of all fatal workplace injuries. Workplace violence is often predictable, with the worker who may erupt into violence showing early signs. Two such predictors are talking about weaponry, and being a loner who does not fit into the group. I. Task versus Relationship Conflict Another way to understand conflict is whether it is aimed at work or personal issues. Task conflict focuses on substantive, issue-related differences related to the work itself. Such conflict can be resolved more intellectually than emotionally. Relationship conflict focuses on personalized, individually-oriented issues. Such conflict has to be dealt with emotionally. Task conflict and relationship conflict can be equally disruptive. II. CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STYLES A well-known classification scheme identifies styles of conflict management based on different combinations of satisfying one's concerns (assertiveness) and satisfying the concerns of others (cooperativeness). A. Competitive. A competitive person desires to win his or her concerns at the expense of the other party. B. Accommodative. The accommodative type favors appeasement, or satisfying the other's concerns without taking care of his or her own. C. Sharing. The sharing style prefers moderate but incomplete satisfaction for both parties, resulting in compromise. D. Collaborative. The collaborative style reflects a desire to fully satisfy the desire of both parties (win-win). The option chosen results in mutual gain. E. Avoidant. The avoidant style is a combination of uncooperative and unassertive. III. GUIDELINES AND TECHNIQUES FOR RESOLVING CONFLICTS Because interpersonal conflict in organizations is almost inevitable a a career-minded person must learn effective ways of resolving conflict. The techniques described here are based somewhat on the underlying philosophy of win-win. A. Confrontation and Problem Solving The ideal approach to resolving any conflict is to confront the real issue, and then solve the problem. Confrontation means taking a problem-solving approach to differences and identifying the underlying facts, logic, or emotions that account for them. Confrontation can proceed gently in a way that preserves a good working relationship. As with all methods of resolving conflict, it is helpful to bring closure by shaking hands, restating commitments, and saying “thank you.” B. Constructive Handling of Criticism Learning to profit from criticism is an effective way of benefiting from conflict. People who benefit from criticism are able to stand outside themselves while being criticized. Suggestions for dealing constructively with criticism include: 1. See yourself at a distance. 2. Ask for clarification and specifics. 3. Decide on a response. (Respond appropriately to the critic.) Apologies are effective. 4. Look for a pattern in terms of other criticism. 5. Disarm the opposition. (If you agree with the criticism, the criticizer no longer has reason to use his or her armament.) C. Reframing Reframe the conflict by looking at it in a different light. 1. Reframing through Cognitive Restructuring. The conflicting elements in a situation can be lessened by viewing them more positively. According to the technique of cognitive restructuring, you mentally convert negative aspects into positive ones by looking for the positive elements in a situation. If you search for the beneficial elements in the situation there will be less area for dispute. 2. Reframing by Asking Questions Step back, take a deep breath, and ask a few questions including the following: “Do I fully understand the situation?” Is the person really angry with me or just worried and anxious?” “What is the real issue here?” D. Negotiating and Bargaining Conflicts can be considered situations calling for negotiating, or conferring with another person to resolve a problem. A new perspective on negotiation is that people are not just negotiating for the economic value of the negotiation, but for intangibles, such as feeling good about the negotiation process and themselves. Eight useful negotiating tactics are presented here. 1. Understand the Other Party’s Perspective. To obtain a good deal, or sometimes any deal, negotiators have to dig for information about why the other side wants its demands. Also, look for common ground. 2. Focus on Interests, Not Positions. Rather than clinging to specific negotiating points, keep your overall interests in mind and try to satisfy them. 3. Compromise. The most widely used negotiating tactic is compromise, the settlement of differences by mutual concessions. One party agrees to do something if the other party agrees to do something else. 4. Begin with a Plausible Demand or Offer, yet Allow Room for Negotiation. A plausible demand shows that you are bargaining in good faith. If a third party has to resolve a conflict, a plausible demand will receive more sympathy. A plausible demand does not preclude beginning with a demand that allows room for compromise and concession. 5. Make Small Concessions Gradually Making steady concessions leads to more mutually satisfying agreements in most situations. 6. Know Your Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement (BATNA). The goal of negotiating is not just to agree, but to reach an agreement more valuable than non-agreement. When you are aware of your best alternative to a negotiated agreement, it sets a floor to the agreement you are willing to accept. 7. Use Your Anger to Advantage. When a person becomes genuinely angry, the anger can energize him or her to be more resourceful and creative while bargaining. Yet anger can degenerate into incivility and personal insults. 8. Allow for Face-Saving Try to create circumstances that will enable you to continue working with that person if necessary. People prefer to avoid looking weak, foolish, or incompetent during negotiation when the process is completed. A major theme running through the various approaches to conflict resolution, including negotiating and bargaining, is that cooperating with the other side is usually preferable to competing. IV. COMBATING SEXUAL HARASSMENT: A SPECIAL TYPE OF CONFLICT Sexual harassment is generally defined as unwanted sexually-oriented behavior in the workplace that results in discomfort and/or interference with the job. It can include an action as violent as rape or as subtle as a sexually-oriented comment about a person's body or appearance. A. Types of Harassment The courts recognize two types of sexual harassment: (a) quid pro quo harassment is receiving an unfavorable employment action because sexual favors are refused, (b) hostile environment harassment created by sexually-oriented conduct. Women perceive a broader range of social-sexual behaviors as harassing. Sexual harassment is also regarded as an expression of power by one individual over another because the harasser has more formal power than the harassed. 1. Different Perceptions of Sexual Harassment An analysis of many studies indicated that women perceive a broader range of social-sexual behaviors as harassing. Men and women agree that sexual coercion is quid pro quo harassment. It is worth noting that not all sexually-oriented behavior, such as jokes or flirting, is offensive or unwanted. 2. Sexual Harassment as Power Sexual harassment is also regarded as an expression of power of one individual over another because the harasser has more formal power than the harassed. 3. Frequency and Setting of Sexual Harassment Sexual harassment is widespread in the U. S. and other countries. According to one large-scale study, when conclusions are based on more scientific studies, 58 percent of women have experienced potential harassment behaviors, and 24 percent report having experienced sexual harassment. Recent data suggest that sexual harassment directed at professional women by clients and customer is more frequent than harassment within the company. Women in nontraditional jobs (such as a welder) are especially likely to be harassed. Also, working in a male-dominated organization predisposes a woman to harassment. Although women in nontraditional jobs run a high risk of being sexually harassment, harassment also takes place in many other settings and at all levels. B. The Adverse Effects of Sexual Harassment Aside from being unethical, immoral, and illegal, sexual harassment is widely thought to have adverse consequences including job stress, lowered morale, severe conflict, and lowered productivity. C. Guidelines for Preventing and Dealing with Harassment A starting point in dealing with sexual harassment is to develop an awareness of the types of behaviors that are considered sexual harassment. Often the difference is subtle. Behaviors that might be interpreted as environmental harassment include the following: 1. Inappropriate remarks and sexual implications. 2. Terms of endearment. 3 . Suggestive compliments. 4. Physical touching. 5. Work-related kissing (but take into account cultural differences) 6. Sexually-oriented visual presentations. Several actions by management are the most critical in preventing and dealing with harassment. A building block is to create and widely disseminate a policy about harassment. Zero tolerance should be emphasized, and the company should have an open-door policy about sexual harassment. Frequent discussion about the problem is helpful. Two key strategies for the sexual harassment victim are to use either a formal complaint procedure or to resolve the problem on his or her own. Text Exhibit 9-4 provides the details. A major recommendation for documenting acts of sexual harassment is to keep a running diary of incidents against you. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 1. Several large companies dismiss each year the five percent of their workforce receiving the lowest performance evaluations. What kind of conflicts do you think this practice leads to? Answer: The “rank-and-yank” system leads to conflict between the manager and the person evaluated if the latter is informed of the ranking. The low-rated person is likely to defend himself or herself against the ranking. Employees are also likely to compete with each other to avoid the low ranking, and intense competition usually leads to conflict. 2. Suppose someone finds out that a coworker has an enormous collection of violent video games, leading the first person to conclude that the coworker is potentially violent. Describe whether you think the first worker should tell the supervisor that the coworker is potentially violent on the job. Answer: The informer is probably jumping too quickly to a negative conclusion about the collector of violent video games. It would be better to have at least one other observation about the other employee’s tendency toward violence, such as bragging about the use of weapons more making jokes about killing other workers. 3. What are the disadvantages of having an accommodative style of handling conflict? Answer: A major disadvantage of the accommodative style of handling conflict is that you might grant too large a concession to the other party, just to keep peace. An example might be giving way too high an evaluation to a subordinate just to stop the employee from keep writing e-mails about the low evaluation. Another key disadvantage the accommodative style is that you might neglect your own interests and suffer the consequences. An example would be not taking a deduction disputed by the Internal Revenue Service just because you did not want the hassle of trying to prove your case. 4. Luke and Lucy are a married couple both conducting a job search after graduation. Like receives a job offer in located in Anchorage, Alaska, whereas Lucy receives a job offer in Honolulu, Hawaii—and both agree that a commuter marriage would be out of the question. How can this couple find a win-win resolution of their conflict? Answer: A possible win-win solution to the conflict would be for the couple to move to the location where the other partner could most likely find a job. Perhaps Luke or Lucy have a skill set in high demand in the location chosen by the other. The couple then agrees should it ever become time to relocate again, the person who was the trailing spouse this time chooses the next location. For example, if Lucy agreed to move to Anchorage, should the couple relocate again, Luke would have to follow her. 5. Have you ever attempted to disarm the opposition? How effective was the tactic? Answer: Usually one or two class members can provide excellent examples of how disarming the opposition worked. An entertaining example is agreeing with a police officer after being pulled over for a traffic violation. Quite often the officer will not give a ticket. Instead the officer will say, "Just be careful next time." 6. How might a student use cognitive restructuring to get over the anger of having received a low grade in a course? Answer: The student who uses cognitive restructuring to the extreme might say, "I'm thankful for this wake-up call. Now I know that I have urgent developmental needs in this subject. I will study on my own to improve my deficiencies." A student can use cognitive restructuring by challenging negative thoughts about the low grade and reframing the situation. Instead of viewing it as a personal failure, they can see it as an opportunity for growth and learning. This shift in perspective can reduce anger and motivate them to seek feedback and improve their performance. 7. Visualize yourself buying a new vehicle of your choice. Which negotiating technique (or techniques) would you be the most likely to use? Answer: Buying a new or used vehicle is a wonderful laboratory for practicing most negotiating techniques. An especially powerful technique is to begin with a plausible demand or offer. The seller then takes you seriously and will work extra hard to accommodate you because you are a valid prospect. Although your offer is plausible, allow room for compromise. Internet information about vehicle prices has made it easier for customers to make a plausible offer. In general, offering about 12 percent below the sticker price is will placed a person in the plausible-offer zone, and pique the interest of the seller. 8. Suppose you believed that your workload was unreasonable, but you otherwise enjoyed working for your manager and your employer. Which approach to negotiation might you take to deal with the work overload problem? Answer: You might begin with a plausible offer of asking to have your workload cut by ten percent so you could do a higher quality job on the remaining 90 percent of your responsibilities. At the same time you bargain in good faith because you demonstrate that you have the good of the company in mind. In negotiating a solution to unreasonable workload, I would use a collaborative approach. I’d discuss my concerns openly with my manager, focusing on finding mutually beneficial solutions. Proposing specific adjustments or support, and highlighting how a balanced workload can enhance productivity and job satisfaction, would help in reaching a constructive agreement. 9. Sexual harassment involves an unwanted sexual advance, and people at worker have many different interpretations of an “unwanted sexual advance,” including asking a coworker to join you for lunch. So how can a career-minded person completely avoid any behavior that might be interpreted as an “unwanted sexual advance”? Answer: The super-cautious approach would be to scrupulously avoid any social-related comments will all employees, both men and women. The super-cautious approach would also mean never attempting to date a person working for the same employer. Yet, for many people it would make more sense just to be prudent. One of the benefits of working in a group environment is that it opens opportunities for social life. 10. The vast majority of working people know that sexual harassment is both illegal and immoral. Why then is sexual harassment of both types so widely practiced in the workplace? Answer: One reason that sexual harassment is so widely practiced in the workplace despite people knowing of its negative consequences is that the sex drive is so dominant. A major source of excitement and thrills for many people is satisfying their sex drive even in symbolic form such as displaying revealing photos of themselves to coworkers. Similarly, sexual harassment is a form of titillation much like shoplifting—and many people like to be titillated. ANSWERS TO CASE QUESTIONS Ashley Uses Passion as an Excuse This case illustrates how uncontrolled anger can create conflict within a company. 1. To what extent does Ashley being “passionate” justify her expression of anger toward coworkers? Answer: Being passionate has recently become an excuse for displaying uncontrolled anger as well as other forms of obnoxious behavior, both in the office and on the athletic field. In the interests of civility in the workplace, being passionate is not an excuse for emotional outbursts. 2. What do you recommend that Ashley’s manager and coworkers do to resolve conflict with her in the office? Or, should the manager and coworkers just ignore her? Answer: Confrontation and problem solving might work well in the situation with Ashley. She needs to be confronted about how uncomfortable she makes others feel, and then work out some solution to her expressing disagreement. 3. What career advice might you offer Ashley? (Or, does she need any advice?) Answer: Dear Ashley, allow me to suggest that you learn to keep your anger under control to both hold onto your job, as well as advancing in your career. You might read about anger management and try to apply the principles. I also recommend that your try a seminar on anger management to supplement your reading and study. The Uncomfortable Business Trip This case illustrates how challenging it can be for a woman who has to deal with sexual harassment by her boss. 1. Precisely which conflicts is Tammy facing? Answer: One conflict Tammy faces is the desire to have a calm work situation versus being harassed by her boss. Another conflict she faces is between wanting to advance in her career versus attempting to please her husband by not accepting a position that requires business travel. 2. Which on-the-spot tactic of conflict resolution can you recommend to Tammy? Answer: Perhaps Tammy’s best approach would be to use the competitive style of conflict resolution in which she states that mixing social life and professional life is unacceptable to her and walk away from the situation. Tammy should be polite yet firm. Politeness is recommended because Duane is her boss. 3. What should Tammy do as a long-range solution to the problem of men trying to convert business occasions into social occasions? Answer: Tammy needs to rehearse explaining that she does not mix professional life with social life, and also to mention her husband early and frequently when interacting with men in business situations that have a social aspect, such as a business dinner. Mentioning a partner in a positive way sends that message that one is not available for social or sexual activity with a work associate. 4. Explain which type of sexual harassment appears to be evident in this case? Answer: Because Duane has formal authority over Tammy, and that he hints about her getting choice assignments if the two of them are compatible, she is facing quid pro quo harassment. To identify the type of sexual harassment evident in a case, one would need specific details. However, common types include quid pro quo harassment (where job benefits are tied to sexual favors) and hostile work environment harassment (where inappropriate behavior creates an intimidating atmosphere). Analyzing the nature of the behavior and its impact on the work environment helps determine the type. COMMENTS ABOUT QUIZZES AND EXERCISES Self-Assessment Quiz 9-1: Collaborative versus Competitive Styles of Conflict Management This quiz is a good starting point in thinking about the difference between the collaborative versus the competitive approach to conflict resolution. The distinction is quit important because the common-sense approach to conflict resolution is to attempt to dominate the other side, and gain as much as possible for one’s side. A major variable in conflict resolution is whether people are looking to cooperate or to compete harshly. The results from this questionnaire can be related to the information about conflict management styles presented later in the chapter. Skill-Building Exercise 9-1: Win-Win Conflict Resolution Finding win-win solutions to conflicts (or options for mutual gain) is a cornerstone skill for conflict management. Here is one possibility for each option: 1. Establishing online marketing firm. A possible solution here is to explain that although you do not want to divert attention from your career by starting a small business, you would be able to spend a few hours per week helping them get started. Perhaps you can apply expertise they lack. Both sides would win a little with the compromised offered. 2. "William" problem. The workmates might prefer the diminutive "Will" or “Bill” because it is more informal, yet William prefers to be called "William." The coworkers might agree to call him "William" yet still use a nickname of their choosing from time to time that William finds acceptable. They might use the diminutive "W" occasionally. In this way William is not called Bill or Will, yet informality is preserved. 3. Transfer problem. You reach a win-win solution by training a replacement for yourself. You win by obtaining a transfer, and your manager wins by retaining your valuable skills. 4. Giant-screen television set problem. The business owner might strike a bargain with the employees. To pay for the giant-screen television set, or for a large part of the price, the employees can come up with equivalent amount of cost savings for the employer. Among the potential cost savers would be cutting back on energy costs until the set is paid for; decreasing waste; and cutting back on absenteeism that requires hiring a temporary worker. Finding a way to boost productivity would be another way to pay for the TV receiver. For the business owner, the TV set becomes cost neutral. Skill-Building Exercise 9-2: Disarming the Opposition The essential skill here is to agree with the criticizer and then work on a solution to the problem. The role-plays can be illuminating because people have to combat their natural tendency to simply enter into a debate. Skill-0Building Exercise 9-3: Reframing through Cognitive Restructuring Imagination and tolerance are required to do an effective job of cognitive restructuring. Possible positive responses to the two scenarios follow: Nancy. "Nancy is so thorough that it takes her two extra weeks to provide her input. Maybe I can work with Nancy to help her become less of a perfectionist." Rob: “Rob is a real productivity drain with his sports obsession. Yet he gives me an opportunity to practice my skills in diplomacy and tact. I will tell Rob gently that I prefer to talk sports on the way to the parking lot after work.” Boss. "My boss is such a devoted, dedicated person. He wants to make sure that I do every little detail correctly. Maybe I can find a way to prove to him that I am very thorough." Self-Assessment Quiz 9-2: The Negotiator Quiz Students might want to discuss the significance of individual items such as Number 15, "It's fun to haggle over price when buying a car." My experience is that this quiz adds value to the study of negotiation. A side discussion with possibilities is whether retail outlets with non-negotiable prices, such as CarMax and Sears have a firm policy of non-negotiable prices. Skill-Building Exercise 9-4: Negotiating a Starting Salary A person would usually have to feel in strong demand to negotiate a starting salary. One of the key behaviors to observe in the negotiation is whether the job applicant begins with a plausible demand, keeping in mind the salary data presented in the exercise. Visiting www.salalry.com will give the serious student more ammunition. We suspect that most students will use compromise to help complete the negotiations. Skill-Building Exercise 9-5: Combating Sexual Harassment Encouraging volunteers of different ages and work experience to enter into these role plays can be illuminating. (Having a woman in her 40s play Bertha, and a man in his 20s play Bert will work especially well.) These roles plays are likely to be effective because the content is inherently interesting, and they integrate many of the techniques of conflict resolution. My experience is that modern students are not particularly titillated by sexual content of exercises, and can therefore conduct these role plays professionally. Interpersonal Relations Role-Playing Exercise 9.1: Ashley Lashes Out Resolving conflict when the two parties have different objectives is a major workplace challenge. The more skilled role players will recognize that they must allow for face saving. Observers should look to see if the two role players carefully explain their side of the argument to the other. Conflict Resolution Role Play: Tammy Deals with Duane’s Advances At first students may find conducting a role play about sexual harassment in the workplace to be humorous. A few moments of reflection will prompt most students to recognize that they are dealing with an ever-present and serious workplace problems. Many women in the class have experienced sexual harassment frequently. We emphasize the voluntary nature of this role play because some students may object to acting out sexually-toned scenarios in front of the class. It is also possible that a handful of students will take offense that a sexual topic is given serious study. An important point for the person who plays the role of Tammy is to emphasize that she wants to keep their relationship on a professional level. Chapter 10 Becoming an Effective Leader The purpose of this chapter is to present information about leadership that students can apply to developing their leadership skills. As a consequence, we omit from consideration here the underlying leadership research and theory. Advanced students may want to read some of the underlying knowledge base on their own. The formal study of leadership has become has become an enormous field of its own. CHAPTER OUTLINE AND LECTURE NOTES To develop leadership capability a person needs the right personal characteristics, and must carry out the right actions. Leadership is the ability to inspire support and confidence among the people who are needed to achieve company goals. Leaders make a difference. Some leadership is expected of people throughout the organization. Leadership status can be derived from being appointed to a formal position or inspiring others through personal characteristics and actions. I. KEY LEADERSHIP TRAITS TO DEVELOP An important part of being an effective leader is to have the right stuff. Yet different situations may require a different set of personal characteristics for leadership effectiveness. Each of the nine leadership traits described next can be developed. A. Self confidence and Leadership Efficacy Realistic self confidence is required in virtually every leadership situation. The leader must also project self confidence to the group. Self confidence is also a behavior, such as being cool under pressure. Developing self confidence is a life long process of performing well in a variety of situations. Leadership efficacy is a form of efficacy associated with confidence in the knowledge, skills, and abilities associated with leading others. In essence, the leader is confident that he or she has the tools necessary to lead a group. As the person builds self-confidence in several situations, he or she will develop a strong sense of leadership efficacy. B. Positive Core Self-Evaluations The four components of the core self-evaluations are self-esteem, locus of control, self-efficacy, and emotional stability. Locus of control deal with the way people look at causation in their lives. An internal locus of control is better for leadership than an external one. High emotional stability is better for leadership than low emotional stability. A useful tactic for developing an internal locus of control is to examine challenging situations, and search for what aspects of those situations might be under your control. C. Assertiveness A widely recognized leadership trait is assertiveness, being forthright in expressing demands, opinions, feelings, and attitudes. Assertiveness helps leaders perform tasks and achieve goals such as confronting people about their mistakes, and setting high expectations. Assertiveness stands in contrast to aggressiveness and passivity. A series of three studies indicated that leaders with moderate assertiveness were the most effective. Developing assertiveness is much like attempting to become less shy. People must force themselves to take the opportunity to express their feelings and demands. Expressing demands is easier for most people than expressing feelings. D. Trustworthiness, Morality, and Authenticity Group members consistently believe that leaders must display honesty, integrity, and credibility—and therefore be trustworthy. A survey of 570 employees found that white collar workers value honesty and integrity in a manager more than any other trait. The two key meanings of integrity are (a) consistency of words and deeds, and (b) being true to oneself. Honesty with team members helps to build trust, which in turn leads to good cooperation and team spirit. Being moral is closely linked to trustworthiness because a moral leader is more likely to be trusted. A leader with high morality would perceive that he or she had an ethical responsibility to group members as well as outsiders. A highly recommended way of communicating trustworthiness is through setting a good example. Closely related to leadership trust and morality is authentic leadership. An authentic leader is genuine and honest about his or her personality, values, and beliefs, as well as having integrity. A study with Army action teams suggested that authentic leaders tend to serve as attractive role models that serve to motivate team members to emulate or model their exemplary conduct. E. Sense of Humor Whether a trait or a behavior, the effective use of humor is considered an important part of a leader's role. Self effacing humor is the choice of comedians and organizational leaders alike. Humor requires creativity. F. Self awareness and Self Objectivity Effective leaders are aware of their strengths and limitations, enabling them to capitalize upon their strengths and develop their weaknesses. Self-awareness and self-objectivity help a person become an authentic leader, and authenticity helps the leader be perceived as trustworthy. Sharing who you are helps build connections with group members. Self-awareness and self objectivity can be developed by asking for feedback from others regularly. Taking self examination exercises is also helpful. G. Cognitive Skills and Critical Assessment Mental ability as well as personality is important for leadership success. Problem solving and intellectual skills are referred to collectively as cognitive factors. 1. Knowledge of the Business. A major reason that cognitive skills have increased in importance for leadership is they enable to leader to acquire knowledge. The leader’s role is to both originate useful ideas and to collect them from smart people throughout the organization. An effective leader has to be technically or professionally competent in some discipline, particularly when leading a group of specialists. 2. Critical Assessments. Cognitive skills facilitate making critical assessments, or thinking critically, about challenges facing the group or entire organization. Making a critical assessment often boils down to sizing up a situation, and analyzing how the group can profit from the situation. 3. Independent Decision Making High intelligence is particularly important for leaders when they have the opportunity to make decisions by themselves and provide direction to group members. People can develop their cognitive skills by continuous study and by working on challenging problems. H. Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence also refers to the ability to work effectively with the emotions of others and to resolve problems, including listening and empathizing. Research by Daniel Goleman suggests that superb leaders all have superb emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence is also reflected in a leader who incorporates the human touch into business activities, such as building relationships with employees and customers. Leaders with emotional intelligence are in tune with the thoughts and emotions of their own and those of other people. To develop emotional intelligence, look to understand the feelings and emotions of people around you. I. Passion and Enthusiasm A prominent characteristic of effective leaders is the passion and enthusiasm they have for their work, much like the same quality in creative people. The passion is directed toward the business, customers, and employees. To display passion and enthusiasm for your work, you must first find work that creates an inner spark. J. Self-Sacrificing Personality A self-sacrificing personality is a tendency to be more concerned about the welfare and interests of others than of oneself. Such a leader acts in the best interests of group members. A servant leader has a self-sacrificing personality. II. SUGGESTIONS FOR DEVELOPING CHARISMA Much attention is being paid to the importance of inspirational leaders who guide others toward great heights of achievement. Charisma is a special quality of leaders whose purposes, powers, and extraordinary determination differentiate them from others. Charisma reflects a subjective perception on the part of the person being influenced. Leaders at all levels can project charisma. Following are suggestions for behaving in a charismatic manner. 1. Communicate a vision. (A vision describes an ideal version of the future.) 2. Make frequent use of metaphors and analogies. 3. Inspire trust and confidence. 4. Be highly energetic and goal oriented. 5. Be emotionally expressive and warm. (Smiling helps here.) 6. Make ample use of true stories. 7. Be candid and direct. 8. Make everybody feel that he or she is quite important. 9. Multiply the effectiveness of your handshake. 10. Stand up straight and also use other nonverbal signals of self-confidence. 11. Be willing to take personal risks. 12. Be self promotional. (Charismatic leaders toot their own horns.) An experiment with MBA students gave them an opportunity to learn characteristics of charisma through knowledge and practice. In terms of giving speeches before and after the training, the students were rated as more charismatic after the training. Caution: being excessively and flamboyantly charismatic can backfire because others may perceive you as self-serving. In recent years some overly-charismatic, rock-star-like leaders have been replace with those who concentrate more on the business. III. DEVELOPING TEAM LEADERSHIP SKILLS With the use of teams being so widespread, team leadership opportunities have increased. The team leader acts as a facilitator and coach who shares decision making with team members. A team leader practices participative leadership, or sharing authority with the group. However, research supports the idea that danger lurks in the hands of leaders who turn over all responsibility to the group. Suggestions for developing team leadership skills follow. A. Engage in Shared Leadership A major initiative for building teamwork is the for the team leader so share, or distribute, leadership responsibilities among group members depending on the task facing the group. So called collective leadership is important because few leaders have enough skills to provide effective leadership in all situations. B. Build a Mission Statement A mission should contain a specific goal, purpose, and be optimistic and uplifting. The leader can help develop the mission when the team is first formed or at any other time. Developing a mission for a long standing team breathes new life into its activities. C. Interact Frequently with Team Members A major strategy for being an effective team leader is to build positive relationships with team members, and relationships are built on conversations about meaningful topics. An effective way of interacting with team members is to hold question-and-answer sessions. D. Show Your Team Members that they Are Trusted An effective leader trusts team members, and recognizes and rewards ethical behavior particularly when there is a temptation to be dishonest. Avoid being a micromanager, one who closely monitors most aspects of group members’ activities, sometime to the point of being a control freak. E. Establish a Sense of Urgency and High Performance Standards To build teamwork, members need to believe that the team has urgent, constructive purposes. A demanding performance challenge helps create and sustain the team. F. Encourage Team Members to Recognize Each Other’s Accomplishments Members of a high-spirited team look for ways to encourage and praise each other, including the traditional “high five” signifying and important contribution to the team. G. Encourage Honest Criticism Being a good team player includes offering honest feedback on mistakes and flawed ideas. The team benefits from mutual criticism. H Use Team Symbols Symbols can be an effective team builder in sports as well as in business. The team leader, might therefore invest part of the team’s budget in an appropriate symbol. I. Use Peer Evaluations With peer evaluations systems the team members contribute to the evaluation by submitting evaluations of each other. Peer evaluations contribute to teamwork because team members realize that helping each other becomes as important as helping the boss. J. Help Team Members See the Big Picture The team is likely to work together more smoothly when members have a clear understanding of how their work contributes to the company. K. Minimize Formation of In Groups and Out Groups According to the leader exchange model, leaders establish unique working relationships with group members. Avoid allowing these relationships to develop into in-groups and out-groups, thereby hurting morale for some. IV. DEVELOPING YOUR LEADERSHIP POTENTIAL Here we describe five strategies for developing your leadership potential in addition to studying and participating in formal programs. We assume that leaders are both born and made, meaning that certain cognitive and personality characteristics are required, but the potential leader also needs experience and practice. 1. Acquire broad experience. (Because leadership varies somewhat with the situation, leadership effectiveness can be improved by gaining supervisory experience in different settings.) 2. Model effective leaders. (Observe capable leaders in action and then model some of their approaches.) 3. Self develop leadership traits and behaviors. (Identify several traits and behaviors that need development, and then work on them with a combination of determination and training.) 4. Become an integrated human being. (The model leader is first and foremost a fully functioning person. The process of becoming a leader is the process of becoming an integrated human being. Also, self-understanding is a major vehicle for leadership development.) 5. Practice a little leadership. (Look for opportunities to exert a small amount of helpful leadership in contrast to waiting for opportunities to accomplish extraordinary deeds.) 6. Help your leader lead. (When you help people above you avoid a mistake or capitalize upon an opportunity, you help the entire company. At the same time, you are developing your ability to take the initiative and lead.) ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1. People who were voted “the most likely to succeed” in high school are frequently found in leadership positions later in life. What explanation can you offer for these predictions about success so often being true? Answer: One strong possibility is that a person’s leadership traits have already started to develop in high school, such as being self-confident and passionate. Another is that being voted the most likely to succeed is a big self-confidence booster that helps propel the person into leadership positions later on in life. 2. A few years ago, the Boeing Co. appointed Ray Conner as the senior vice president of sales and customer support for the commercial airline division. Conner, who previously manage the company’s supply chain, began his employment with Boeing as an airplane mechanic. What relevance might his experience as a mechanic have for his effectiveness as a high-level leader in the organization? Answer: Conner’s experience as an airplane mechanic has substantial relevance for his executive role. Above all, he is an “airplane guy” who understands the company’s chief product in intimate detail which gives him credibility for many company employees. Also, being an airplane mechanic suggests a passion for the airplane business which can help him inspire others. 3. The average age of CEOs is declining. However, what would you regard as the minimum age acceptable for a man or woman to be the CEO if over 100,000 employees? Answer: All student input is welcome, but it probably would be difficult for a CEO to be under 30 for most large industrial companies. The reason is that a person needs at least 10 years of experience to develop the necessary wisdom and judgment to hold such a high-level executive position in most fields. An exception is the information technology field where a handful of CEOs of large companies are in their twenties. Facebook and Tumbler are two examples of large companies with very young CEOs. The minimum age acceptable for a CEO overseeing over 100,000 employees should ideally reflect significant experience and maturity, typically around 35-40 years. This age range suggests a balance of leadership skills, industry experience, and strategic insight necessary for managing a large organization effectively. 4. How can a person demonstrate to others in the community that he or she is trustworthy enough to be considered for a leadership position? Answer: The person should develop a positive reputation in such areas as following through on commitments, telling the truth, and not betraying confidences. Equally important the person who wants to become a leader should not be caught doing the opposite of the behaviors just mentioned. 5. Why does a leader need good emotional intelligence? Shouldn’t a leader be a take-charge person focused on obtaining results like many money or building a brand? Answer: A leader needs good emotional intelligence because in order to obtain results like making money or building a brand, you have to work effectively with the emotions of others was well as those of your own. One example is that if a leader has empathy for subordinates, they will perform better. Another is that dealing effectively with the anger of people will help them perform better. 6. What can you do this week to increase your charisma? Answer: The student can get started with any of the suggestions for developing charisma described in the text, even as modest as developing a self-confident handshake. Becoming more charismatic involves dozens of small, as well as large, habits and skills. The sooner a person starts working on charisma development, the better. This week is good, and today is even better. To increase charisma this week, focus on improving your active listening skills and showing genuine interest in others. Practice confident body language, such as maintaining eye contact and using open gestures. Additionally, work on expressing empathy and appreciation, which can enhance your personal presence and make interactions more engaging. 7. What is your impression of the usefulness of storytelling for being an effective leader? Answer: We suspect that most students of leadership will perceive that telling true stories enhances a leader’s effectiveness because (a) stories are an excellent vehicle for communicating a message, and (b) storytelling humanizes a leader. Storytelling is highly useful for effective leadership as it helps convey vision, values, and complex ideas in a relatable and memorable way. It can inspire and motivate teams, foster emotional connections, and simplify communication. Leaders who master storytelling can effectively engage their audience and drive their message home. 8. What might be the reason that small gestures such as saying thank you and writing notes of appreciation contribute to a leader’s effectiveness? Answer: The small gestures mentioned in this question contribute substantially to the leader’s capacity to build relationships with people. Relationship-building is a key part of leadership because people are likely to follow the thoughts and commands of somebody they like. 9. How might a person in a highly specialized field such as information technology or accounting, achieve broad experience in order to qualify for a leadership position? Answer: One possibility for achieving broad experience within a highly specialized field would be to work in different aspects of the field, such as cost accounting and tax accounting. Another possibility would be to apply the highly specialized skills in different companies or industries, such as an information technology specialist working in the food and automobile industries. 10. Assume that a student obtains a part time job as an assistant store manager. What can this person do to capitalize on this position for developing his or her leadership potential? Answer: To capitalize on the assistant manager position as leadership for developing leadership potential, the student should practice as many leadership behaviors as fit the situation. The student might also make an effort to exhibit leadership characteristics. ANSWERS TO CASE QUESTIONS Jeb Wants to Inspire His Team This case illustrates that a major challenge facing a team leader is to move a group of workers toward acting like an inspired team. 1. How can Jeb be a more effective team leader? Answer: We recommend that Jeb selectively try a few of the techniques for developing team work described in the chapter. It appears that his group could profit from building mission statement, establishing a sense of urgency and high performance standards, and helping team members see the big picture. 2. What can Jeb do to inspire his team? Answer: Helping the team members see the big picture, as just mentioned, could be inspiring. It appears that the team is trudging along without feeling they have a grand purpose. Some pointed story telling about the importance of customer service might be helpful also. 3. Based on whatever information you found in the case, what is your evaluation of Jeb’s charisma? Answer: There is no particular evidence in this case scenario that Jeb is charismatic. His description of his leadership activities include: “…I hold meetings. I post messages…I try to settle problems.” These statements suggest ordinary rather than charismatic leadership. What Kind of Leader is Ashley? This case illustrates an infrequently mentioned point about participative leadership: Not all employees care about being involved in decision making, and they therefore regard participative leadership as a waste of their time. 1. How do you explain the different perceptions Amy and Kent? Answer: Amy and Kent have different needs in terms of how much they want to participate in making management and leadership decisions. Amy perceives value in participative leadership, whereas Kent perceives it to be essentially a waste of time. 2. What might be wrong with the leadership development program? Answer: The program is strong in promoting the value of participative leadership, but it is weak in recognizing individual differences in terms of preference for this style of leadership. The program falls short in not emphasizing contingency factors. 3. What suggestions can you offer for making better use of participative leadership? Answer: A more effective use of participative leadership takes into account the needs of subordinates in terms of how much they want to participate in decision making, and also which types of decision merit group participation. 4. What would be the counterargument to Kent’s point of view about Ashley not justifying her pay? Answer: An important counterargument is that by practicing participative leadership, Ashley is carrying out one of the most important responsibilities of a leader—helping subordinates to grow and develop by making them more self-sufficient. COMMENTS ABOUT QUIZZES AND EXERCISES Self-Assessment Quiz 10-1: The Assertiveness Scale Lengthy experience with this scale suggests that it reasonably measures behavior on the assertiveness continuum. The scores obtained by students frequently match their self evaluation of their degree of assertiveness. The scale can be an effective developmental tool. Skill-Building Exercise 10-1: The Witty Leader An important byproduct of this exercise is that it points to the high level of skill required to make effective witty comments. Here are illustrative witty comments for the three exercises: Scenario 1 (Store Manager): The store manager explains to the group, "Our business has been declining 20 percent a week for three consecutive weeks. You must be as discouraged as I am. But do not despair. We can not get any lower than no business at all, and if the trend continues, we will hit that in two weeks." Scenario 2 (Frozen Salaries): The leader says to the group, "I have some good news and some bad news. The good news is that nobody will have to pay more taxes next year. The bad news is that nobody will get a salary increase either." Scenario 3 (Accessing Social Media): The manager says to the group, “Sorry folks, I guess I didn’t explain clearly enough the mission of our firm. We are teaching our clients to use social media for marketing. But it appears that many of you are developing expertise in using social media during working hours to research trivia.” Scenario 4 (Downsizing the Downsizers): The company founder explains to the group, “Finally, the world can no longer say that our firm fails to practice what it preaches. We are going to follow our own advice, and start downsizing ourselves.” Skill-Building Exercise 10-2: Creating a Vision Students enjoy developing visions, and can be counted on to develop sensible vision statements. The biggest problem is for the student groups to concisely state their visions. Some student groups develop vision statements of about 75 words. Another problem is that some student groups will develop vision statements that are simply sales forecasts. Skill-Building Exercise 10-3: Creating Stories for Being a Leader The stories developed by the students would be the most effective if they present a scenario describing how the company product or service made a difference in a person’s life. For example, the regional manager of the nation-wide trash removal company tells, the group this story: Just last month the office assistant told me there was a town supervisor in the office who had something to tell me. I was a little apprehensive because when a politician visits a trash-removal company, he or she usually has some major gripe to present. But I was absolutely wrong. The supervisor was so happy that she wanted to shake my hand and hug me in person. She explained that through our efforts the town no longer needed its ugly landfill. The way we recycle trash, there is much less need for landfills.” Self-Assessment Quiz 10-2: What Style Leader Are You or Would You Be? The quiz is designed to provide insights into the specific practices of participative management. Students carrying out leadership roles can practice some of these ideas. One reason a style quiz has relevance even for students without leadership experience, is that leadership style is based somewhat on personality traits. Natural inclinations in response to questions about leadership scenarios might therefore be an accurate measure of style. Skill-Building Exercise 10-4: Developing a Team Mission Statement The challenges of developing a mission statement are similar to those of developing a vision. My experience is that student teams consistently develop sensible mission statements in about 15 minutes. Students might be reminded that the mission statement identifies the team's place in the world, and describes what business the team is really in. Skill-Building Exercise 10-5: Recognizing Team Accomplishments Handing each other team member positive statements about his or her accomplishments can be both a real confidence builder, as well as a way to help bolster the self-esteem of classmates. A shrewd observer would make note of which compliments he or she did not receive, indicating that perhaps improvement is needed. For example, a student might say, “Nobody mentioned that I had some imaginative ideas. Do I have a problem here?” Skill-Building Exercise 10-6: My Personal Leadership Journal Maintaining a leadership journal is widely used as a leadership development technique for students. The journal helps the developing leader recognize when he or she has practiced leadership, or failed to capitalize on a potential leadership opportunity. We suspect that this exercise will appeal to students who are serious about becoming leaders, or enhancing their leadership traits, behaviors, and skills. For other students, the leadership journal might be perceived as busywork. Interpersonal Relations Role Play: Jeb Holds and Inspirational Meeting Here is a demanding role play in one student plays the role of a leader attempting to inspire and relatively uninspired team. It would be pleasant if a few of the role players acted as if they were inspired by Jeb. Chapter 11 Motivating Others The purpose of this chapter is to provide the student with concepts and skills for motivating others, particularly in a work environment. Instead of presenting an overview of the many motivation theories in vogue, we concentrate on a few techniques. In this way, skill development is enhanced. CHAPTER OUTLINE AND LECTURE NOTES Motivation has two meanings: (a) an internal state that leads to effort expended toward objective, and (b) an activity performed by one person to get another to accomplish work. To accomplish their work, people must motivate people who report to them, coworkers, bosses, or customers. I. WORK ENGAGEMENT AND THE MOTIVATION OF OTHERS A major thrust in motivation on the job is to get workers involved, or engaged in their work and committed to the company as well as the work group. Work engagement refers to high levels of personal investment in the work tasks performed on a job. Engagement often leads to commitment, a perceived psychological bond that employees have with some target associated with their jobs often another person. Motivational techniques often lead to the other person becoming engaged and committed to the cause. II. MOTIVATION SKILL BASED ON THE PRINCIPLE OF "WHAT'S IN IT FOR ME?" The most fundamental principle of human motivation is that people are motivated by self interest, the principle of "What's in it for me?" or WIIFM. 1. Why Help Others? Even people who perform acts of social good receive the reward of feeling better about themselves, thus, satisfying their needs for nurturing others. Many of the people who contribute to websites for free suggest that many of these volunteer are motivated by pride. 2. Applying the WIIFM Principle. To use the WIIFM principle you have to be aware of the intensity of the person's desire. You must also find out what needs, desires, or motives a person is attempting to satisfy. 3. The Importance of Needs. Needs are important because they lead to behavior, or what people actually do. A representative list of needs is as follows: achievement; power; affiliation; autonomy; esteem; safety and security; and equity. III. USING POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT TO MOTIVATE OTHERS A standard and widely accepted approach to motivating others is to reward them for achieving good results or behaving in a constructive manner. Positive reinforcement means increasing the probability that behavior will be repeated by rewarding people for making the desired response. Negative reinforcement (or avoidance motivation) means rewarding people by taking away an uncomfortable consequence of their behavior. Negative reinforcement is a reward, not punishment. Certain rules and procedures must be followed to use positive reinforcement effectively: 1. State clearly what behavior will lead to a reward. 2. Choose an appropriate reward. (An appropriate award is effective and feasible.) 3. Supply ample feedback. 4. Schedule rewards intermittently. 5. Make the rewards follow the observed behavior closely in time. 6. Make the reward fit the behavior. 7. Make the rewards visible. 8. Change the reward periodically. 9. Reward the group or team also. IV. USING RECOGNITION TO MOTIVATE OTHERS Although part of positive reinforcement, recognition is such a powerful motivator that it merits separate attention. Recognition programs in organizations are standard practice. 1. Why Recognition is an Effective Motivator. Recognition is a strong motivator because it is a normal need to crave recognition, yet most workers want more recognition. One survey indicated that only 46 percent of employees were satisfied with the recognition practices of their employers. Recognition is also an important motivator because it is often tied in with other motivators. For example, pay raises and promotions might be interpreted as positive reinforcement, but they also bring recognition. 2. Approaches to Giving Recognition To appeal to the recognition need of others, identify a meritorious behavior and then recognize the behavior with an oral, written, or material reward. E-mail and instant messaging can be useful for recognizing others. A hand-written note can make an employee feel valuable. Positing messages about coworkers on a company social media site is a new approach to recognition Statements of recognition tend to be more effective when they are expressed in specific, rather than general terms. A high-powered approach to employee recognition is for the person in charge to hold personal celebrations of outstanding accomplishment. 3. Fine Points about Using Recognition to Motivate Others An outstanding advantage of recognition, including praise, as a motivator is that it is no cost or low cost, yet powerful. Not everyone responds well to the same form of recognition, such as most technical people not liking general praise. Apply the rules for positive reinforcement. V. USING EXPECTANCY THEORY TO MOTIVATE OTHERS Expectancy theory is a comprehensive theory of motivation and is also helpful in diagnosing motivational problems. A. Capsule Overview of Expectancy Theory The expectancy theory of motivation is based on the premise that how much effort people expend depends on how much reward they expect to receive in return. The theory assumes that people are rational and logical, thus wanting to maximize gain and minimize loss. In a given situation, people choose an alternative with the biggest chance of a personal payoff. How intensely a person wants a given outcome is also important. B. Basic Components of Expectancy Theory All versions of expectancy theory have three major components. 1. Effort to Performance Expectancy. Effort to performance expectancy is the probability assigned by the individual that effort will lead to performing the task correctly. People want to know, "If I put in all this work, will I really get the job done properly?" Expectancies range from 0 to 1.0. The importance of having high expectancies for motivation fits the new thrust in work motivation that emphasizes the contribution of self-efficacy, the confidence in your ability to carry out a specific task. 2. Performance to Outcome Expectancy Performance to outcome expectancy is the probability assigned by the individual that performance will lead to certain outcomes or rewards. People want certain rewards from engaging in a particular behavior. Performance to outcome expectancies also range from 0 to 1.0.Performance-to-outcome expectancies are closely linked to trusting your manager and the company. 3. Valence. A valence is the value, worth, or attractiveness of an outcome. In each work situation there are multiple outcomes, each with a valence of its own. In the version of expectancy theory presented here, valences run from 100 to +100. A negative valence means a person will work to avoid an outcome. C. How Moods Influence Expectancy Theory Emotions play a key role in determining the impact of expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences. Moods are relatively long-lasting emotional states. A positive mood increases the perceived connection between effort and performance (E → P), between performance and desired outcomes (P → O), and in the valence attached to these outcomes. D. Diagnosing Motivation with Expectancy Theory Expectancy theory helps a person diagnose whether motivation is present, and the intensity of the motivation. Seek answers to the following questions: 1. Does the person I am attempting to motivate have the skills self confidence to do the job? 2. What assurance does the person have that if he or she performs the work, the promised reward will be forthcoming? 3. How badly does the person want the reward being offered in the situation? 4. Are there any zeroes in the first three questions? (If there are, motivation will be absent because a zero will be entered in the expectancy theory equation.) E. Guidelines for Applying Expectancy Theory In addition to the information about expectancy theory already presented, here are a few more guidelines. 1. Train and encourage people. 2. Make explicit the link between rewards and performance. 3. Make sure the rewards are large enough. 4. Understand individual differences in valences. 5. Use the Pygmalion effect to increase effort to performance expectancies. (The Pygmalion effect refers to the phenomenon that people will rise (or fall) to the expectations another person has of them.) V. TECHNIQUES FOR SELF-MOTIVATION Many people never achieve satisfying careers and never realize their potential because of low motivation. Here we describe seven techniques for self-motivation. 1. Set goals for yourself. 2. Find intrinsically motivating work. 3. Get feedback on your performance. 4. Apply behavior modification to yourself. 5 . Improve your skills relevant to your goal. 6. Raise your level of self-expectation. (The technical term for improving your performance through raising your own expectations is the Galatea effect. 7. Develop a strong work ethic. 8. Visualize attaining your goals and being successful. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 1. If people are already paid by their employer to carry out a job, why should it still be important for somebody to motivate them? Answer: Although people are already paid to carry out a job it does not necessarily follow that they will be strongly motivated. Studies about employee engagement suggest that about only one-third of workers feel committed to their employers. Also, an alarming number of workers do just enough work to avoid being fired. Another relevant observation is that many workers waste about one-third of the workday on personal tasks. Because of the observations just stated, many workers therefore need to be motivated. 2. Suppose a worker is much more interested in personal and family life than performing well or getting promoted. What approach might the worker’s supervisor use to motivate him or her toward high performance? Answer: To motivate a leisure-oriented person it would be helpful for the supervisor to focus on how hard work can lead to the outcome of a better personal and family life. A basic example is that to be able to pay for personal life necessities and luxuries, one needs a steady pay check. Reminders about the link between hard work and job security might be helpful in motivating the person. 3. For what purposes would someone need to motivate his or her supervisor? Answer: A person might want to motivate the supervisor for such reasons as obtaining a better assignment, performance evaluation, or salary increase. A person might also want to motivate a boss to carry a bigger share of the group's workload. 4. If people really live by the WIIFM principle, how can a leader still achieve teamwork? Answer: The WIIFM principle does not exclude teamwork. Team members can be shown that by working hard as a team member, they will achieve important personal gains such as a group bonus and high job satisfaction. 5. What evidence can you suggest that some people prefer exciting and interesting work over exceptional financial rewards? Answer: Scientists, researchers, and professors focus on the internal rewards in their work, although many people in these job categories wind up making a lot of money as a byproduct of their interest in their work. More on the business side, many software engineers are more excited about their work than financial rewards. 6. Identify several factors in text Figure 11 2 that you think would be particularly effective in motivating managers and professionals. Explain your reasoning. Answer: Managerial and professional workers would most likely be motivated by all the factors listed in Figure 11-2. Perhaps the most important factors would be (1) competitive salary, (2) flexible schedules, (3) good relationship with the boss, and (4) being treated with respect. Managers and professionals expect good pay. In addition, flexible schedules, good boss relationship, and receiving respect all appeal to high-level needs. 7. Answer question 6 for entry level service workers such as supermarket cashiers. Answer: More basic factors would generally be best for entry level service workers because they still have many basic needs to satisfy. The most suitable satisfiers would probably include competitive salary and healthcare coverage. Yet a compressed workweek and being treated with respect are also quite important to entry-level workers. A small advantage of the compressed workweek is that it cuts down on commuting time and costs. 8. How might a person’s high standing on any of the personality traits described in Chapter 2 be related to how easy it would be to motivate that person? Answer: Personality traits exert a strong influence on how easy it would be to motivate a particular individual. A conscientious person would be relatively easy to motivate. So would a person with a strong need for thrill seeking and risk taking because they person would be predisposed to take on a new, exciting task. Another example is that a strong self-monitor might be easy to motivate because that person is eager to please others. 9. How would you identify a reward for which you have a strong valence? And why would that information be useful to you? Answer: To answer this question accurately the student would have to reflect on what rewards he or she has pursued with vigor in the past. For example, perhaps the student put considerable effort into an internship during high school because it was an opportunity to learn a valuable technical skill. Or maybe a person took on a construction job because of the high pay, not necessarily because the work was enjoyable. Knowing which rewards have high valence for you is quite helpful in gearing yourself toward a successful career. For example, if a person places a high valence on working with a team, that person should seek teamwork assignments in order to perform well. To identify a reward with strong valence, assess what motivates you personally, such as recognition, financial bonuses, or career advancement. Understanding what you value highly helps align goals with incentives that drive your motivation and satisfaction. This information is useful for setting meaningful objectives and enhancing overall engagement and performance. 10. How might cultural differences affect the valence ratings in text Skill Building Exercise 11 3? Answer: Cultural differences can affect the valence ratings for job factors because people in different cultures attach different values to certain type of job outcomes. An example is that Mexicans highly value warm interpersonal relationships. A Mexican worker might therefore attach a higher valence to a "warm smile and word of appreciation." A recognition hungry American might give a higher rating to an "employee of the¬-month" designation. ANSWERS TO CASE QUESTIONS How Do You Motivate a Coupon Sorter? This case is important because it deals with the challenges of motivating employees who are performing routine, repetitive work. Despite the advances if various forms of technology, a large number of routine, repetitive jobs still exist in the economy. 1. Which motivational approach do you suggest be implemented to increase the productivity of these coupon sorters? Answer: A basic program of positive reinforcement might work the best in this situation. For example, workers who met quota might be eligible to place their names in a pool. A worker from the pool might be chosen each week to win a gift certificate for a fast-food restaurant. (Of course, the reward should not resemble too closely a coupon!) 2. Why not just fire the poor performers? Answer: There are several problems associated with just firing poor performers in basic jobs. One problem is that their replacements might not be more production. Another problem is that the company could develop the reputation of one that readily fires people in basic jobs. Furthermore, it is certainly not very moral to keep firing poor performers. 3. Putting on your information technology hat for a moment, how could the job of coupon sorter be automated? Or is this a job like that of a cake decorator or brain surgeon that cannot be automated to a large extent? Answer: It could be that by now most of the coupon-sorting jobs are automated. A machine that scans and sorts paper currency is a relevant example. The job of a coupon sorter can be automated using optical character recognition (OCR) and machine learning algorithms to scan, categorize, and process coupons. Unlike highly specialized roles like cake decorators or brain surgeons, which require intricate human skills and creativity, coupon sorting involves repetitive tasks that are well-suited for automation to enhance efficiency and accuracy. The Home-Retention Consultant Blues This case illustrates how self-motivation can be a problem even when a person is performing well and earning a satisfactory income. 1. What recommendations do you have for Alicia to help her increase her level of self-motivation? Answer: Alicia may have given us a hint as to what she likes about her job—the financial incentives as well as helping a lot of people keep a roof over their heads. Helping people stay in their homes is an intrinsic motivator, so perhaps Alicia can keep reminding herself of the reward she is receiving from her work. 2. To what extent do you think it might be advisable for Alicia to simply switch fields, such as going into traditional real-estate selling, so she can stay better self-motivated? Answer: Alicia is receiving good financial rewards from her work. If she switches fields, there is no guarantee that she will be able to duplicate these rewards. A small percentage of people in traditional real-estate selling are able to match the kind of financial rewards Alicia is earning. It would therefore be better for Alicia to see if she can elevate her motivation in her present job. 3. What suggestions can you offer Alicia’s manager at Magnum Properties to help her stay motivated? Answer: Words of appreciation and recognition are always helpful. Alicia’s manager might also review with her how many people she has helped recently, because she derives satisfactions from helping people stay in their homes. COMMENTS ABOUT QUIZZES AND EXERCISES Self-Assessment Quiz 11-1: My Approach to Motivating Others An advantage of this self assessment exercise is that it points toward the specific type of actions required to motivate others in a work environment. Most of the items make good material for discussion and explanation. Number 6 is one example: Why is giving lots of feedback motivational to a person performing a task? Skill-Building Exercise 11-1: Background Work for the WIIFM This group activity is essentially a needs analysis, thus reflecting a sophisticated approach to motivation. The lesson to be learned from this activity is that it is better to investigate what motivates people than to assume that the right motivators are known in advance. The exercise also highlights the importance of understanding individual differences and being a good listener. Skill-Building Exercise 11-2: Positive Reinforcement An important lesson to be learned from this exercise is that implementing positive reinforcement requires several skills. The implementer must be able to hold candid discussions with another person, choose an appropriate reward, and then administer the reward. With the boss, the reward administered will have to be much more spontaneous because it would be awkward to interview the boss about desired rewards. Skill-Building Exercise 11-3: Estimating Valences for Applying Expectancy Theory Students typically enjoy quantifying interesting aspects of human behavior. The across group comparisons, and the comparisons with the class, can be particularly enlightening. Skill-Building Exercise 11-4: Applying Expectancy Theory A key behavior expected from the manager in applying expectancy theory to a fledgling telemarketer is to help give him or her confidence or training needed to do a good job. The manager must also give assurances about rewards, and choose rewards of high valence. Skill-Building Exercise 11-5: Motivating an Undermotivated Coworker A big challenge in this role play is that the person attempting to motivate Clyde has no formal authority over him. The person attempting the motivation would do well to try several techniques, such as appealing to Clyde’s pride, or pointing how why performing well on this assignment might lead to positive outcomes for him. Skill-Building Exercise 11-6: Working on My Own Motivators This exercise provides an opportunity for the student to apply motivation theory to self-motivation. Too often the study of motivation is about motivating others not the self. Knowing what motivates a person can be a real boost to career success, and even choosing a career. Interpersonal Skills Role Play: Motivating a Coupon Sorter Here is a role play with a lot of fun and a lot of value. Many students are, have been, or will be supervisors, and motivating the lowly motivated worker is a frequent challenge. The student who plays Jennie would do well to begin by attempting to find out which rewards at her disposal have high valence for Clancy. For example, if Clancy highly values leisure time he might be rewarded with the promise of a little time off from work if he consistently meets quota. Solution Manual for Human Relations: Interpersonal Job-Oriented Skills Andrew J. DuBrin 9780133506822, 9781292059365
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