CH-9-10 Communicating in Teams and Organizations – Organisational Behaviour: Emerging Knowledge, Global Insights : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 9 to 10 9 Communicating in Teamsand Organizations LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Explain why communication is important in organizations and discuss four influences on effective communication encoding and decoding. 2. Compare and contrast the advantages of and problems with electronic mail, other verbal communication media, and nonverbal communication. 3. Explain how social acceptance and media richness influence the preferred communication channel. 4. Discuss various barriers (noise) to effective communication, including cross-cultural and gender-based differences in communication. 5. Explain how to get your message across more effectively, and summarize the elements of active listening. 6. Summarize effective communication strategies in organizational hierarchies, and review the role and relevance of the organizational grapevine. CHAPTER GLOSSARY communication -- the process by which information is transmitted and understood between two or more people. emotional contagion -- the nonconscious process of ‘catching’ or sharing another person’s emotions by mimicking that person’s facial expressions and other nonverbal behavior grapevine -- an unstructured and informal network founded on social relationships rather than organizational charts or job descriptions information overload – a condition where the volume of information received exceeds the person’s capacity to process it. management by walking around (MBWA) -- A communication practice in which executives get out of their offices and learn from others in the organization through face-to-face dialogue. media richness -- the medium’s data-carrying capacity, that is, the volume and variety of information that can be transmitted during a specific time. persuasion -- using facts, logical arguments, and emotional appeals to change another person’s beliefs and attitudes, usually for the purpose of changing their behavior Chapter Summary by Learning Objective 9-1 Explain why communication is important in organizations and discuss four influences on effective communication encoding and decoding. Communication refers to the process by which information is transmitted and understood between two or more people. Communication supports work coordination, organizational learning, decision making, changing others’ behavior, and employee well-being. The communication process involves forming, encoding, and transmitting the intended message to a receiver, who then decodes the message and provides feedback to the sender. Effective communication occurs when the sender’s thoughts are transmitted to and understood by the intended receiver. The effectiveness of this process depends on whether the sender and receiver have similar codebooks, the sender’s proficiency at encoding that message to the audience, the sender’s and receiver’s motivation and ability to transmit messages through that particular communication channel, and their common mental models of the communication context. 9-2 Compare and contrast the advantages of and problems with electronic mail, verbal communication media, and nonverbal communication. The two main types of communication channels are verbal and nonverbal. Various forms of Internet-based communication are widely used in organizations, with e-mail being the most popular. Although efficient and a useful filing cabinet, e-mail is relatively poor at communicating emotions; it tends to reduce politeness and respect; it is an inefficient medium for communicating in ambiguous, complex, and novel situations; and it contributes to information overload. An emerging set of communication channels is social media, which are Internet- or mobilebased channels that allow users to generate and interactively share information. Social media are more conversational and reciprocally interactive than traditional channels. They are “social” by encouraging collaboration and the formation of virtual communities. Nonverbal communication includes facial gestures, voice intonation, physical distance, and even silence. Unlike verbal communication, nonverbal communication is less rule-bound and is mostly automatic and nonconscious. Some nonverbal communication is automatic through a process called emotional contagion. 9-3 Explain how social acceptance and media richness influence the preferred communication channel. The most appropriate communication medium partly depends on its social acceptance and media richness. Social acceptance refers to how well the communication medium is approved and supported by the organization, teams, and individuals. This contingency includes organization and team norms, individual preferences for specific communication channels, and the symbolic meaning of a channel. A communication medium should also be chosen for its data-carrying capacity (media richness). Nonroutine and ambiguous situations require rich media. However, technology-based lean media might be almost as effective as rich media for transferring information. This particularly occurs where users can multi-communicate and have high proficiency with that technology, and where social distractions of high media richness channels reduce the efficient processing of information through those channels. These contingencies are also considered when selecting the best channels for persuasion. 9-4 Discuss various barriers (noise) to effective communication, including cross-cultural and gender-based differences in communication. Several barriers create noise in the communication process. People misinterpret messages because of misaligned codebooks due to different languages, jargon, and the use of ambiguous phrases. Filtering messages and information overload are two other communication barriers. These problems are often amplified in cross-cultural settings, where these problems occur, along with differences in the meaning of nonverbal cues, silence, and conversational overlaps. There are also some communication differences between men and women, such as the tendency for men to exert status and engage in report talk in conversations, whereas women use more rapport talk and are more sensitive than are men to nonverbal cues. 9-5 Explain how to get your message across more effectively, and summarize the elements of active listening. To get a message across, the sender must learn to empathize with the receiver, repeat the message, choose an appropriate time for the conversation, and be descriptive rather than evaluative. Listening includes sensing, evaluating, and responding. Active listeners support these processes by postponing evaluation, avoiding interruptions, maintaining interest, empathizing, organizing information, showing interest, and clarifying the message. 9-6 Summarize effective communication strategies in organizational hierarchies, and review the role and relevance of the organizational grapevine. Some companies try to encourage communication through workspace design, as well as through Internet-based communication channels. Some executives also meet directly with employees, such as through management by walking around (MBWA) and town-hall meetings, to facilitate communication across the organization. In any organization, employees rely on the grapevine, particularly during times of uncertainty. The grapevine is an unstructured and informal network founded on social relationships rather than organizational charts or job descriptions. Although early research identified several unique features of the grapevine, some of these features may be changing as the Internet plays an increasing role in grapevine communication. ® Lecture Outline (with PowerPoint slides) Communicating Organizations Slide 1 Opening Vignette – BC Hydro Promotes Effective Communication BC Hydro designs communication technology to enhance Opening Vignette - BC employee interaction Hydro Promotes Effective • BC Hydro implemented an extranet site to help employees Communication and experts to connect more seamlessly – facilitates idea Slide 2 sharing, knowledge of new technologies, and best practices in real time on users’ computers or mobile devices Communication: Definition and Importance  Process by which information is transmitted and understood between people Communication: Definition and Importance Slide 3 Transmitting intended meaning (not just symbols)  Importance of communication Coordinating work activities Organizational learning Better decision making Changing others’ behavior Employee well-being Communication Process Model 1. Sender forms and encodes message into words, gestures, voice intonations, and other symbols or signs through one or more communication channels (media) Communication Process Model Slide 4 3. Receiver senses the incoming message and decodes it into something meaningful (ideally, the decoded meaning is what the sender had intended) 4. Sender looks for evidence that the other person received and understood the transmitted message e.g. formal or indirect Noise 1. Psychological, social, and structural barriers that distort and obscure the sender's intended message 2. Encoded message is transmitted to the intended receiver Improving Communication: Encoding and Decoding Four main factors that influence the effectiveness of the encoding-decoding process: • Similar codebooks Improving Communication: Encoding and Decoding Slide 5 • Dictionaries of symbols, language, gestures, etc. • Message encoding proficiency • Some people are better than others at communicating the message • Communication channel motivation and ability • Depends on the sender’s and receiver’s motivation and ability to use the selected communication channel • Shared mental models of the communication context • Potentially increase the accuracy of the message content and reduce the need for communication about context Communication Channels Slide 6 written channels. Spoken and written channels are very different from each other and have different strengths and weaknesses. Communication Channels Verbal Verbal communication uses words, so it includes spoken or How Email Has Altered Communication Slide 7 Written mail has generally been a slower medium however, transmitting messages through email, tweets etc. has improved written communication efficiency. Non-verbal Non-verbal communication is any part of communication that does not use words. It includes facial gestures, voice intonation, physical distance, and even silence. How Email Has Altered Communication • Preferred medium for well-defined information for decisionmaking, also central for coordinating work • Increased the volume of communication • Significantly altered the flow of information within groups and throughout the organization • Reduced some face-to-face and telephone communication • Increased communication with people up the hierarchy • Social and organizational status differences are somewhat less apparent than in face-to-face communication • Reduces stereotype biases (hides age, race, etc.), however, it also tends to increase reliance on stereotypes when we are already aware of the other person’s personal characteristics Problems with Email Poor medium for communicating emotions • Email lacks the parallel communication channel that conveys Problems with Email the emotional meaning of words e.g. facial expression Slide 8 Reduces politeness and respect • Email messages are often less diplomatic e.g. “flaming” • People are more likely to write things they would not say in a face-to-face conversation Poor medium for ambiguous, complex, and novel situations • Satisfactory for well-defined situations, email can be cumbersome in ambiguous, complex, and novel situations Contributes to information overload • Messages are created and copied to many people without much effort Communication Through Social Media Social media are internet or mobile-based channels that allow users to generate and interactively share information • More conversational and reciprocally interactive Communication • Enable users to develop a public identity Through Social Media • Encourage formation of communities Slide 9 Serves several functions • Presenting individual’s identity; enabling conversations; sharing information; sensing others’ online presence; maintaining relationships; revealing reputation/status; supporting communities • Offer considerable versatility and potential Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal Communication Slide 10 2. Like a parallel conversation, nonverbal cues signal subtle information to both parties 3. Less rule-bound than verbal communication 4. More ambiguous and susceptible to misinterpretation Includes facial gestures, voice intonation, physical distance and even silence 1. Most information is communicated nonverbally 5. Most is automatic and nonconscious 6. Can communicate the same meaning across cultures e.g. smiling Emotional Contagion The automatic process of sharing another person’s emotions by mimicking their facial expressions and other nonverbal behavior Emotional Contagion Slide 11 Serves three purposes: • Provides continuous feedback to speaker • Increases emotional understanding of the other person’s experience • Communicates a collective sentiment -- sharing the experience as part of drive to bond Choosing The Best Channel: Social Acceptance and supported: Choosing The Best Channel: Social Acceptance Slide 12 0. Organizational, team, and cultural norms regarding the use of specific communication channels • e.g. email or text messaging is the medium of choice in some organizations, wheras meeting face-to face may be the norm elsewhere 1. Individual preferences for specific communication channels • e.g. some co-workers ignore (or rarely check) voice mail, but quickly respond to text messages 2. Symbolic meaning of a channel • e.g. some may be considered professional vs. casual Which communication channel is most appropriate in a particular situation? Social acceptance refers to how well the medium is approved Choosing Channels: Media Richness Media richness – a medium’s data-carrying capacity i.e. the volume and variety of information that can be transmitted during a specific time Communication channel has high richness when: • It is able to convey multiple cues e.g. both verbal and Choosing Channels: nonverbal information Media Richness Slide 13 Allows timely feedback from receiver to sender • • Allows the sender to customize the message • Makes use of complex symbols e.g. words with multiple meanings Note: Use rich media when the communication situation is nonroutine and ambiguous Hierarchy of Media Richness Slide 14 Lowest for lean media e.g. financial statements, newsletters, email Contingencies of media richness: • Routine situations – lean media works because the sender and receiver have common expectations through shared mental models • Ambiguous situations – requires rich media because the parties must share large amounts of information with immediate feedback to resolve multiple and conflicting interpretations Hierarchy of Media Richness 1. Highest for face-to-face – transmit verbal and nonverbal, get almost immediate feedback from the receiver, quickly adjust message and style, use complex language Exceptions to Media Richness Theory Ability to multi-communicate • Multi-tasking in communication – some people may be able to exchange as much information through two or more lean media as through one high media richness channel e.g. Exceptions to Media Richness Theory write text message while listening to a discussion at a large Slide 15 meeting Communication proficiency • People with high proficiency can “push” more information through the channel e.g. experienced smartphone users can deal with messages quickly Social presence effects • Channels with higher media richness tend to have more social presence Persuasive Communication Slide 16 • • • accompanied by nonverbal communication has high quality immediate feedback has high social presence Persuasive Communication Changing another person’s beliefs and attitudes. Spoken communication is more persuasive because: Written communication can also persuade to some extent. • Written messages have the advantage of presenting more technical detail than can occur through conversation. 1. Receivers don’t listen as well as senders assume Communication Barriers 2. Senders overestimate how well other people understand the Slide 17 message Language issues 3. Jargon – specialized words and phrases may become a source of noise when transmitted to people who do not have the same codebook • Ambiguity – language has built-in ambiguities that cause misunderstandings; may be used to minimize the risk of conflict e.g. using a phrase such as “rightsizing” Filtering messages 4. May involve deleting or delaying negative information or using less harsh words so the message sounds more favourable Information Overload • The volume of information received exceeds the person’s capacity to process it Information Overload • Information processing capacity – the amount of information an employee is able to process in a fixed unit of time • Information load – the amount of information to be processed per unit of time • Information overload creates noise in the communication system – information gets overlooked or misinterpreted when Information Overload people can’t process it fast enough, resulting in poorer quality Slide 18 decisions and higher stress Two sets of solutions: • Increase information processing capacity Examples: Learn to read faster, remove distractions • Reduce information load Cross-Cultural Communication Slide 19 • Silence and conversational overlaps Nonverbal differences • Nonconscious or involuntary nonverbal cues tend to have the same meaning (e.g. smiling) but deliberate gestures often have different interpretations Gender Communication Differences Gender Communication Differences Slide 20 • Dominate the talk time in conversations with women • Report talk – impersonal and efficient information exchange Women: • Engage in more “rapport talk” – relationship building • Make more use of indirect requests; apologize more often; seek advice from others more quickly than do men • More sensitive than men to nonverbal cues in face-to-face meetings • More likely to visit social networking sites, spend more time online, more active participants in photo sharing, etc. Men more likely than women to view conversations as negotiations of relative status and power • Give advice directly Getting Your Message Across • Empathize with the receiver • e.g. being sensitive to words that may be ambiguous or trigger the wrong emotional response • Repeat the message e.g. rephrase the key points a couple of times • Getting Your Message • Use timing effectively Across Slide 21 • Find a time when the receiver is less likely to be distracted • Focus on the problem not the person • When communicating bad news or criticism Active Listening Process & Strategies Sensing • Postpone evaluation – not forming an opinion until the speaker has finished • Avoid interrupting the speaker’s conversation Active Listening Process & Strategies • Remain motivated to listen to the speaker Slide 22 Evaluating • Empathize – try to understand and be sensitive to the speaker’s feelings, thoughts, and situation • Organize the speaker’s ideas during the communication Responding • Show interest e.g. maintain sufficient eye contact and send back signals e.g. “I see” • Clarify the message—rephrase speaker’s ideas at appropriate breaks e.g. “So you’re saying that….” Communicating in Hierarchies Workspace design • Open space arrangements – increase communication; potentially increases noise, distractions, loss of privacy • Cloister employees into team spaces Communicating in Internet-based organizational communication Hierarchies Slide 23 • Internal blogs and wikis – collaborative document creation • E-zines – rapid distribution of company news Direct communication with top management • Management by walking around (MBWA) • Town hall meetings/roundtable forums to hear opinions Organizational Grapevine Organizational Grapevine Slide 24 Early research findings • Transmits information very rapidly in all directions • Follows a cluster chain pattern • More active where employees have similar backgrounds • Transmits some degree of truth Grapevine – an unstructured and informal network founded on social relationships rather than organizational charts or job descriptions Changes due to internet • Email, social networking sites, tweets becoming the main grapevine mediums • Social networks are now global 2. Communicates the organization’s culture e.g. stories Grapevine Benefits and Limitations 3. Relieves anxiety – most active during times of uncertainty Slide 25 4. Associated with drive to bond – drive for social interaction Limitations 5. Distortions might escalate rather than reduce anxiety 6. Employees develop more negative attitudes toward the organization when management is slower than the grapevine What should corporate leaders do with the grapevine? 7. Listen to the grapevine as a signal of employee anxiety, then correct the cause of this anxiety 8. Step in to correct blatant errors and fabrications 9. Directly inform employees of news before it spreads throughout the grapevine Communicating Organizations Communicating Organizations Slide 26 10 in the WorkplacePower and Influence LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Describe the dependence model of power and the five sources of power in organizations. 2. Discuss the four contingencies of power. 3. Explain how people and work units gain power through social networks. 4. Describe eight types of influence tactics, three consequences of influencing others, and three contingencies to consider when choosing an influence tactic. 5. Identify the organizational conditions and personal characteristics associated with higher organizational politics, as well as ways to minimize organizational politics. CHAPTER GLOSSARY centrality – a contingency of power referring to the degree and nature of interdependence between the powerholder and others. charisma -- A personal characteristic or special “gift” that serves as a form of interpersonal attraction and referent power over others. coalition -- A group that attempts to influence people outside the group by pooling the resources and power of its members. countervailing power -- The capacity of a person, team or organization to keep a more powerful person or group in the exchange relationship. impression management -- the practice of actively shaping our public images. influence -- any behavior that attempts to alter someone’s attitudes or behavior. inoculation effect -- A persuasive communication strategy of warning listeners that others will try to influence them in the future and that they should be wary about the opponent’s arguments. legitimate power -- an agreement among organizational members that people in certain roles can request certain behaviors of others. Machiavellian values -- The belief that deceit is a natural and acceptable way to influence others and that getting more than one deserves is acceptable. norm of reciprocity -- A felt obligation and social expectation of helping or otherwise giving something of value to someone who has already helped or given something to you. organizational politics -- Behaviors that others perceive as self-serving tactics at the expense of other people and possibly the organization. persuasion -- the use of facts, logical arguments, and emotional appeals to change another person’s attitudes, usually for the purpose of changing the person’s behavior. power -- the capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others. referent power -- The capacity to influence others based on an identification with and respect for the powerholder. social capital -- The knowledge and other resources available to people or social units (teams, organizations) from a durable network that connects them to others. social networks -- Social structures of individuals or social units that are connected to each other through one or more forms of interdependence. structural hole -- An area between two or more dense social network areas that lacks network ties. substitutability – a contingency of power referring to the availability of alternatives. upward appeal -- A type of influence in which someone with higher authority or expertise is called upon in reality or symbolically to support the influencer’s position. CHAPTER SUMMARY BY LEARNING OBJECTIVE 10-1 Describe the dependence model of power and the five sources of power in organizations. Power is the capacity to influence others. It exists when one party perceives that he or she is dependent on the other for something of value. However, the dependent person must also have countervailing power—some power over the dominant party—to maintain the relationship, and the parties must have some level of trust. There are five power bases. Legitimate power is an agreement among organizational members that people in certain roles can request certain behaviors of others. This power has restrictions, represented by the target person’s zone of indifference. It also includes the norm of reciprocity (a feeling of obligation to help someone who has helped you), as well as control over the flow of information to others. Reward power is derived from the ability to control the allocation of rewards valued by others and to remove negative sanctions. Coercive power is the ability to apply punishment. Expert power is the capacity to influence others by possessing knowledge or skills that they value. An important form of expert power is the (perceived) ability to manage uncertainties in the business environment. People have referent power when others identify with them, like them, or otherwise respect them. 10-2 Discuss the four contingencies of power. Four contingencies determine whether these power bases translate into real power. Individuals and work units are more powerful when they are non-substitutable, such that there is a lack of alternatives. Employees, work units, and organizations reduce substitutability by controlling tasks, knowledge, and labor and by differentiating themselves from competitors. A second contingency is centrality. People have more power when they have high centrality, which means that many people are quickly affected by their actions. The third contingency, visibility, refers to the idea that power increases to the extent that a person’s or work unit’s competencies are known to others. Discretion, the fourth contingency of power, refers to the freedom to exercise judgment. Power increases when people have the freedom to use their power. 10-3 Explain how people and work units gain power through social networks. Social networks are social structures of individuals or social units (e.g., departments, organizations) that connect to one another through one or more forms of interdependence. People receive power in social networks through social capital, which is the goodwill and resulting resources shared among members in a social network. Three main resources from social networks are information, visibility, and referent power. Employees gain social capital through their relationship in the social network. Social capital tends to increase with the number of network ties. Strong ties (close-knit relationships) can also increase social capital because these connections offer more resources more quickly. However, having weak ties with people from diverse networks can be more valuable than having strong ties with people in similar networks. Weak ties provide more resources that we do not already possess. Another influence on social capital is the person’s centrality in the network. Network centrality is determined in several ways, including the extent to which you are located between others in the network (betweenness), how many direct ties you have (degree), and the closeness of these ties. People also gain power by bridging structural holes—linking two or more clusters of people in a network. 10-4 Describe eight types of influence tactics, three consequences of influencing others, and three contingencies to consider when choosing an influence tactic. Influence refers to any behavior that attempts to alter someone’s attitudes or behavior. The most widely studied influence tactics are silent authority, assertiveness, information control, coalition formation, upward appeal, impression management, persuasion, and exchange. “Soft” influence tactics such as friendly persuasion and subtle ingratiation are more acceptable than “hard” tactics such as upward appeal and assertiveness. However, the most appropriate influence tactic also depends on the influencer’s power base; whether the person being influenced is higher, lower, or at the same level in the organization; and personal, organizational, and cultural values regarding influence behavior. 10-5 Identify the organizational conditions and personal characteristics associated with higher organizational politics, as well as ways to minimize organizational politics. Organizational politics refer to influence tactics that others perceive to be self-serving behaviors, sometimes contrary to the interests of the organization. It is more common when ambiguous decisions allocate scarce resources and when the organization tolerates or rewards political behavior. Individuals with a high need for personal power and strong Machiavellian values have a higher propensity to use political tactics. Organizational politics can be minimized by providing clear rules for resource allocation, establishing a free flow of information, using education and involvement during organizational change, supporting team norms and a corporate culture that discourages political behavior, and having leaders who role model organizational citizenship rather than political savvy. ® Lecture Outline (with PowerPoint slides) Power and Influence in the Workplace Slide 1 Opening Vignette Power and Politics at Toronto City Hall Slide 2 Opening Vignette – Power and Politics at Toronto City Hall In a landslide election, Rob Ford was elected mayor with the highest voter turnout the City of Toronto had ever seen. Ford used his power to appoint chairs of city committees to select individuals who would endorse his agenda. The mayor’s office frequently used aggressive tactics to bring votes on side. Although Ford’s persuasive hold over Council was successful for a time, his conduct and ensuing criminal investigation resulted in Ford being stripped of many of his mayoral powers. The Meaning of Power  Potential to change attitudes and behavior (not actual Slide 3 change)  People may be unaware of their power  Perception – target perceives powerholder controls a valuable resource  Power involves unequal dependence  Countervailing Power: The capacity of a person, team or organization to keep a more powerful person or group in the exchange relationship. Power and Dependence The less powerful party still has some degree of power – called countervailing power: • Capacity of a person, team, or organization to keep a more powerful person or group in the exchange relationship Power and Dependence Slide 4 • Person A dominates the power relationship, but Person B has enough countervailing power to keep Person A in the exchange relationship • Power relationships depends on some minimum level of trust Model of Power in Organizations Slide 5 Deference to Authority: Le Jeu de la Mort A French television program recently revealed how far people are willing to follow orders. As a variation of the 1960s experiments conducted by Stanley Milgram, only 16 of the 80 contestants refused to administer the strongest shocks (460 volts) when another contestant gave the wrong answers. Deference to Authority: Fortunately, the other contestant was an actor whose screams Le Jeu de la Mort were fake; he did not actually receive the shocks. Slide 6 Legitimate Power  Agreement that people in certain roles can request certain behaviors of others  Zone of indifference -- range of behaviors for deference to authority Legitimate Power Slide 7  Norm of reciprocity -- felt obligation to help someone who has helped you  Information control -- right to distribute information to others Other Sources of Power  Referent power Slide 8 Capacity to influence others through identification with and respect for the power holder Associated with charisma Expert Power • Capacity to influence others by possessing knowledge or skills valued by others – originates from within the power holder • Perceived ability to manage uncertainties • Three types of expertise that cope with uncertainty: Expert Power Slide 9 1. Prevention – e.g. financial experts acquire power by preventing the organization from experiencing a cash shortage 2. Forecasting – e.g. marketing specialists gain power by predicting changes in consumer preferences 3. Absorption – e.g. ability of maintenance crews to come to the rescue when machines break down Contingencies of Power Sources of power generate power only under certain conditions – four important contingencies of that effect to what degree power can be invoked or used Contingencies of Power Slide 10 Increasing Nonsubstitutability Substitutability – a contingency of power referring to the availability of alternatives Nonsubstitutability – few/no alternatives to the resource: • Power is strongest when someone has a monopoly over a Increasing valued resource Nonsubstitutability Slide 11 • Increase nonsubstituability by controlling access to the resource • Medical profession is powerful because it controls who can perform specific medical procedures • Labour unions that dominate an industry control access to labour needed to perform key jobs • Employees become nonsubstituable when they possess knowledge that is not documented or available to others Differentiate resource from others • e.g. some claim that consultants use this tactic Other Contingencies of Power  Centrality Degree and nature of interdependence with powerholder Higher centrality when (a) many people affected and (b) quickly affected  Visibility Centrality You are known as holder of valued resource Slide 12 Increases with face time, display of power symbols  Discretion The freedom to exercise judgment Rules limit discretion Discretion is perceived by others Power of Social Networks Social networks – social structures of individuals or social units that are connected to each other through one or more forms of interdependence Social networks generate power through social capital • Social capital – the goodwill and resulting resources shared Power of Social among members in a social network Networks Slide 13 Social networks offer resources which enhances power: • Knowledge sharing – information received from other network members, which improves the individual’s expert power • Increased visibility – other network members think more readily of you and mention your name when asked to identify people with expertise • Referent power – people gain referent power because network members identify more with (or at least have greater trust in) each other • Close-knit relationships – frequent interaction, share resources, multiple relationships e.g. friend and co-worker Social Network Ties Slide 14 • Advantage – offer resources more quickly and plentifully • Less unique – not diverse source of information/connections Weak ties: • Acquaintances • Offer resources we do not possess – serve as a “bridge” to unique resources not held by us or people in our networks – highly effective for job hunting and career development Many ties: • Resources increase with number of ties • Limits on number of weak/strong ties one can create Social Network Centrality Three factors in centrality: 1. Betweenness – how much you are located between others in the network e.g. gatekeeper who controls the flow of information to and from many people in the network Social Network Centrality 2. Degree centrality – number or percentage of connections Slide 15 you have to others in the network 3. Closeness – high closeness occurs when a member has a shorter, more direct, and efficient path or connections with others in the network Structural Hole and the Dark Side of Social Networks Structural Hole: An area between two or more dense social network areas that lacks network ties. Structural Hole and the Dark Side of Social Social Networks are natural elements of all organizations, yet networks they can create a formal barrier to those who are not actively Slide 16 connected to it. Consequences of Power  Empowerments tends to increase: Motivation Consequences of Power Slide 17 Job satisfaction Organizational commitment Job performance  People who feel powerful: Are more likely to rely on stereotypes Have difficulty empathizing Have less accurate perceptions  When an individual has power over others: It produces a sense of duty or responsibility for the people over whom she/he has the power. These individuals tend to be more mindful of their actions and engage in less stereotyping Influencing Others Influence is any behaviour that attempts to alter someone’s attitudes or behaviour – influence is power in motion 1. Applies one or more power bases 2. Process through which people achieve organizational objectives Influencing Others Slide 18 3. Operates down, across, and up the corporate hierarchy e.g. executives ensure that subordinates complete tasks, employees influence co-workers to help them; employees engage in upward influence so leaders make desired decisions Types of Influence Tactics 1. Silent authority • Person complies with request without overt influence due to requester’s legitimate power as well as the target person’s role Types of Influence Tactics Slide 19 expectations • Most common form of influence in high power distance cultures 2. Assertiveness • Vocal authority – actively applying legitimate and coercive power to influence others • e.g. persistently reminding the target of his or her obligations; using threats of sanctions; frequently checking target’s work Types of Influence (cont’d) 3. Information control • Selectively distributes information so that it reframes the situation and causes others to change their attitudes and/or Types of Influence (cont’d) Slide 20 behaviour e.g. withholding information, distributing information to some but not to others 4. Coalition formation • Pools power and resources of many people Symbolizes legitimacy – represents broad support Taps into social identity process – informal group advocates a new set of norms and behaviours Types of Influence (cont’d) 5. Upward appeal • Calling upon higher authority or expertise or symbolically relying on these sources to support the influencer’s position Types of Influence (cont’d) Slide 21 • Relying on the authority of the firm’s policies or values • Reminding others that your request is consistent with the organization’s goals – implying support from senior executives 6. Persuasion • Ability to present facts, logical arguments, and emotional appeals to change another person’s attitudes and behaviour • Effectiveness depends on characteristics of the persuader, message content, communication medium, and the audience being persuaded e.g. people are more persuasive when listeners believe they have expertise and credibility • Limit message to a few strong arguments, use emotional appeals in combination with logic and recommendations • Inoculation effect – persuasive communication strategy to warn listeners others will try to influence them in the future and they should be wary about the opponent’s arguments Types of Influence (cont’d) 7. Impression management (including ingratiation) Impression management – actively shaping the perceptions and attitudes that others have of us – mostly through self- Types of Influence (cont’d) Slide 22 presentation Ingratiation – any attempt to increase liking by, or perceived similarity to a targeted person e.g. flatter their boss in public 8. Exchange Promise of benefits or resources in exchange for compliance Negotiation is an integral aspect Norm of reciprocity – reminding the target of past benefits or favours Networking – active networkers build up “exchange credits” Consequences of Influence Tactics • Resistance • People oppose the behaviour desired by the influencer • Refuse, perform poorly or continue to complain • Compliance Consequences of • Motivated to implement the influencer’s request for poorly Influence Tactics instrumental reasons Slide 23 • Compliance would not occur without external sources to prompt the behaviour • Commitment • Strongest outcome of influence • People identify with the influencer’s request and are highly motivated to implement – even when extrinsic sources of Consequences of Soft influence tactics Influence Tactics Slide 24 • Rely on personal sources of power i.e. expert and referent – which tend to build commitment to the influencer’s request Contingencies of Influence Tactics “Soft” tactics generally more acceptable than “hard” tactics Appropriate influence tactic depends on: 1. Influencer’s power base – e.g. people with expertise may be successful using persuasion; people with strong legitimate Contingencies of power base may be successful using silent authority Influence Tactics Slide 25 2. Organizational position – whether person being influenced is higher, lower or at the same level in the organization e.g. employees may face consequences by being too assertive with their boss 3. Personal, organizational, and cultural values • People with a strong power orientation might feel more comfortable using assertiveness • Organization with a learning orientation would likely encourage influence through persuasion • Societal culture determines preferred influence tactic e.g. ingratiation is much more common in Canada than Hong Kong (expectation of more distant roles in Hong Kong) Organizational Politics  Behaviors that others perceive as self-serving tactics for personal gain at the expense of other people and Organizational Politics possibly the organization. Slide 26  Employees who experience organizational politics have lower job satisfaction organizational commitment organizational citizenship task performance. Minimizing Organizational Politics  Need to minimize scarce resources  Resource allocation decisions are clear and simplified  Need to diagnose and alter systems and role modeling that support self-serving behavior Minimizing  Machiavellian Values: The belief that deceit is a natural and Organizational Politics Slide 27 acceptable way to influence others and that getting more than Power and Influence in the Workplace Slide 28 Instructor Manual for Organisational Behaviour: Emerging Knowledge, Global Insights Steven McShane, Mara Olekalns, Alex Newman, Angela Martin 9781760421649, 9780071016261