This Document Contains Chapters 16 to 17 Chapter 16 Income, Welfare, and Education Policy: Providing for Personal Security Learning Objectives Having read the chapter, the students should be able to do each of the following: • Differentiate between poverty thresholds and poverty guidelines. • Describe the major income security programs. • Analyze education policy and the principle of education as equality of opportunity. • Describe the major national health care programs. • Summarize U.S. domestic policy. Chapter Outline I. Income Politics and Policies A. The Shifting Income Distribution B. Parallel Changes 1. Tax Policy and Income Inequality 2. Economic Change and Wage Stagnation C. The Partisan Divide II. Welfare Politics and Policies A. Public Assistance Programs 1. Expanding the Federal Role 2. Eligibility for Public Assistance B. Social Insurance Programs C. The Politics of Welfare Policy III. Education Politics and Policies A. Public Education: Leveling through the Schools B. The Federal Government’s Role in Education Policy 1. Federal Grants-in-Aid for Education 2. Partisan Conflict Over Education Policy IV. The American Way of Promoting Economic Security V. Summary Focus and Main Points At the writing of the Constitution, James Madison noted that no issue is more salient and likely to provoke conflict than the question of how society’s resources are distributed. And indeed, a host of government policies touch directly or indirectly on the distribution of resources and have rarely been resolved without a partisan fight. This chapter examines three such policy areas: income policy, which centers on the question of how taxes will be distributed; welfare policy, which addresses how those who are economically disadvantaged will be helped; and education policy, which includes the issue of how to prepare individuals for economically productive lives. The main points of the chapter are: • Tax policy and market changes have contributed to America’s widening income gap. Democrats and Republicans differ sharply in their tax policies and philosophies. • Welfare policy has been a partisan issue, with Democrats taking the lead on government programs to alleviate economic insecurity and Republicans acting to slow down or limit these initiatives. Social welfare programs are designed to reward and foster self-reliance or, when this is not possible, to provide benefits only to those individuals who are truly in need. • A prevailing principle in the United States is equality of opportunity, which in terms of policy is most evident in the area of public education. The United States invests heavily in its public schools and colleges. Chapter Summary The United States has several areas of policy that affect Americans’ economic well-being. Tax policy is one of these policy areas. In recent decades, taxes on higher incomes and capital gains have been lowered substantially, which has contributed to a dramatic increase in income inequality. For a time beginning in the 1930s, a range of government policies, everything from a high tax rate on upper incomes to the GI Bill, had the opposite effect, reducing the gap between the wealthy and the rest of America. Wage stagnation has been a persistent problem for a half century. In terms of real income, America’s lower- and middle-income workers are getting roughly the same real income as they did in 1970. Although government policy has played a part in this development, it is mainly a consequence of changes in the U.S. economy. In the period after World War II, America’s manufacturing sector was booming, providing millions of well-paying jobs, particularly for union workers. Since 1970, the manufacturing sector has shrunk dramatically, giving way to the service sector, where jobs on average pay less and have a lower economic multiplier. The United States has a complex social welfare system of multiple programs addressing specific welfare needs. Many social welfare problems are targeted for the poor. Roughly one in seven Americans falls below the government-defined poverty line, including a disproportionate number of children, female-headed families, minority- group members, and rural and inner-city dwellers. Public assistance programs, as antipoverty programs are called, are available only to individuals who qualify for benefits by meeting the specific eligibility criteria. Not all welfare programs are in the public assistance category. There are also social insurance programs, including Social Security and Medicare, which are funded by payroll taxes paid by potential recipients, who, in this sense, earn the benefits they later receive. Because of this arrangement, social insurance programs have broad public support. In contrast, public assistance programs are funded with general tax revenues and are targeted at individuals and families in financial need. Because of a widespread belief that many welfare recipients could get along without assistance if they tried, these programs do not have broad public support, receive only modest funding, and sharply divide the two parties. Democrats have taken the lead on public assistance programs while Republicans have sought to cut back or decentralize these initiatives. Compared to other democracies, the United States spends more heavily on public education, a policy consistent with its cultural emphasis on equality of opportunity. That policy is evident, for example, in standardized school curricula and the nation’s extensive system of public colleges and universities. Like social welfare, however, education is a partisan issue involving disputes over school choice, spending levels, and mandatory high-stakes testing. Major Concepts progressive income tax A tax on personal income in which the tax rate increases as income increases; in other words, the tax rate is higher for higher income levels. capital gains tax The tax that individuals pay on money gained from the sale of a capital asset, such as property or stocks. poverty line As defined by the federal government, the annual cost of a thrifty food budget for an urban family of four, multiplied by three to allow also for the cost of housing, clothes, and other expenses. Families below the poverty line are considered poor and are eligible for certain forms of public assistance. public assistance A term that refers to social welfare programs funded through general tax revenues and available only to those in financial need. Eligibility for such a program is established by a means test. means test The requirement that applicants for public assistance must demonstrate they are poor in order to be eligible for the assistance. in-kind benefit A government benefit that is a cash equivalent, such as food stamps or rent vouchers. This form of benefit ensures that recipients will use public assistance in a specified way. social insurance Social welfare programs are based on the “insurance” concept, requiring that individuals pay into the program in order to be eligible to receive funds from it. An example is social security for retired people. entitlement programs Any of a number of individual benefit programs, such as social security, that require government to provide a designated benefit to any person who meets the legally defined criteria for eligibility. equality of opportunity The idea that all individuals should be given an equal chance to succeed on their own. Lecture Outline This lecture outline closely follows the text in its organization. The instructor can use this outline as a lecture aid. The focus of this chapter is on U.S. social welfare policies. The author examines the government’s role in the provision of social welfare, while exploring issues of welfare costs and benefits. He argues that the welfare system is inherently conflicting, since it is the arena in which nearly all the contending forces of American politics collide. I. Income Politics and Policies A variety of societal changes have led to a shrinking American middle class, both numerically and financially. • Lower-class Americans are in even worse shape. In contrast, those in the upper class now account for about a fifth of the U.S. population but receive half the nation’s income. • This was not always the case. Following World War II, the progressive income tax enacted by Congress and a healthy manufacturing sector had contributed to a booming economy and a growing middle class. Other contributors included unions, a minimum wage, Social Security, and the GI Bill. • The gains, for most, came to an end in the 1970s. Changes in tax policy have chiefly benefited top earners. • In the period after World War II, tax policy had put downward pressure on high incomes, keeping the gap between high earners and others from growing. • The gap widened with the implementation of supply-side economics, with tax cuts for business and high-income earners, beginning with the presidency of Republican Ronald Reagan in the 1980s. Changes in the American economy, especially the decline in the manufacturing sector, are more to blame for the wage stagnation experienced by lower- and middle-income workers. • Beginning in the 1970s, the U.S. became a net importer, buying more goods from abroad than it was selling overseas. Millions of factory jobs have been lost. • Job growth since then has mainly been seen in the service sector. Service-sector jobs often pay less than manufacturing jobs; and they generate less economic activity overall. • Donald Trump has recently sought to shore up manufacturing jobs in the U.S. through the application of tariffs and withdrawal from free trade agreements, though the effects of these policies remain unclear. • Democrats and Republicans, both in Congress and among the larger population, are far apart on income policy. Democrats primarily support tax increases on the wealthy and corporations, along with expanded aid to the poor; while Republicans insist economic growth depends on the opposite approach. II. Welfare Politics and Policies The U.S. government defines the poverty line as the annual cost of a thrifty food budget, multipled by three to include the cost of housing, clothes, and other necessities; and families with incomes below that line are officially considered poor. Roughly one in seven American families lives in poverty—a higher level than found in other fully industrialized democracies. • Urban and rural dwellers, minorities, and women have higher poverty rates than suburbanites and white men. One in every five American children lives in poverty, most with a single parent—usually the mother. • The federal government’s welfare role expanded during the Great Depression; and expanded again in a wave of antipoverty programs launched in the 1960s. • Depression-era programs designed to last included Supplemental Security Income (SSI) for elderly and disabled people; and what became Aid for Families with Dependent Children (replaced in the 1990s by Temporary Assistance to Needy Families, or TANF). The 1960s wave of programs brought Food Stamps, subsidized housing, and Medicaid. • The largest of more recent programs is the 2010 Affordable Care Act, which expanded Medicaid eligibility and provides subsidies for lower-income families to buy health insurance. Republican leaders have tried unsuccessfully to repeal the law. • There have also been cutbacks in welfare programs, most notably through the 1996 Welfare Reform Act, which dramatically reduced the size of the welfare rolls. TANF, Medicaid, and food stamps are public assistance programs, funded with general tax revenues and available only to those in need, with eligibility determined by a means test. • Some programs involve direct cash payments, while others provide an in-kind benefit, such as coupons that can be spent only on specific items or services. • Most public assistance programs are administered by the states. Unlike public assistance programs, social insurance programs are based on the insurance principle, where eligibility is restricted to those who pay special payroll taxes while working. • Social insurance programs include unemployment insurance, Social Security, and Medicare. • These are entitlement programs, meaning anyone who meets the criteria is entitled to the benefit. Government cannot decide to cancel an entitlement program or deny the benfit to previously eligible recipients. Public assistance programs don’t have the same type of protection. • Administered entirely by the federal government, Medicare and Social Security are highly efficient programs, with only a tiny portion of spending taken up by administrative costs. A substantial number of Americans support social insurance programs but think too much is spent on public assistance programs (often mistaken in their estimation of how much is spent). The difference reflects America’s cultural values, with antipoverty programs widely seen as unearned “handouts.” • Social Security and Medicare assist retirees regardless of their other income. In fact, families in the top fifth of the income population receive more in Social Security and Medicare benefits than the government spends in total on programs for the poor. • Because they don’t have strong public support, public assistance programs are a political target; and poverty lobbies are relatively weak. • Americans see jobs rather than public assistance as the answer to poverty. The Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), first enacted in 1975, provides refundable tax credit to low-income wage earners and helps lift low-income workers above the poverty line. III. Education Politics and Policies Although Americans do not start life on an equal footing, nearly all Americans endorse the ideal of equality of opportunity—meaning that people have a reasonable chance to succeed if they make the effort. This ideal is the philosophical basis of public education, “the great leveler.” • America’s educational system is one of the few public policies that enhance equality of opportunity. American’s educational system is not class-based and is generally open to all. Rather than dividing children into different tracks that lead to different occupations, the curriculum is relatively standardized. • Public education has never, however, been a uniform experience. The quality of education depends significantly on the wealth of the community in which a child resides. This uneven quality is one reason U.S. students rank below Canadian and European students on standardized tests, even while the U.S. spends more per pupil on public education than many other countries. • Most school policies are set by state legislatures and local school boards. • The federal government began to provide financial assistance for education in the 1960s. Grants were designed to favor poorer school districts, but all states and districts were eligible for some funding. • Aimed at helping poor children at an early age, Head Start provides free preschool education to low-income children; but the program has never been fully funded. • The 1965 Higher Education Act is the basis for federal assistance to institutions of higher education. Pell Grants and federal student loans have helped millions of students. • Due to cuts primarily at the state level, student loan debt has reached a level that now exceeds that of credit card debt. As with federal welfare policy, Democrats and Republicans embrace markedly different approaches to education policy and federal spending. Republicans tend to favor market-like mechanisms such as achievement tests. • One example is charter schools, which have more latitude than most public schools in designing curricula and picking students. They are championed by many Republicans, but Democrats charge they siphon funds away from regular public education. • The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) was passed in 2015 with majority support from both Democrats and Republicans. It mandates standardized testing but gives states flexibility in determining the form of testing and what constitutes “success.” It is funded through $25 billion in federal assistance each year. IV. The American Way of Promoting the Economic Security • The American approach to welfare developed differently from that of Europe based on cultural and historical differences. Democracy in America grew out of a tradition of limited government that emphasized personal liberty, which included a belief in self-reliance. • The American preference for relying on the market to allocate resources among citizens has also resulted in a higher level of income inequality than in Europe. Complementary Lecture Topics Below are suggestions for lectures or lecture topics that will complement the text. In general, these topics assume that students have read the chapter beforehand. • Analyze the relationship between American values, particularly individualism, and the country’s approach to social welfare. • The United States has a greater number of welfare programs than the European democracies, and the eligibility criteria are more stringent. For example, European democracies provide government-paid health care for all citizens, while the United States provides it for only some elderly people and some poor people, all of whom must prove they are eligible in order to receive benefits. What are the benefits and costs of each system? • Speculate on how the United States would have evolved if it had adopted an educational system based on social class or the general principle of elitism. Class Discussion Topics 1. Poverty exists in almost every nation. Are there any features of this problem in the U.S. that differentiates its nature and its possible solutions from the type of poverty that exists in other parts of the world, especially the developing nations? Answer: Differences in Nature: • Economic Structure: • U.S.: The U.S. is a high-income country with a relatively advanced economy and social safety nets. Poverty in the U.S. often involves issues like income inequality, lack of affordable housing, and underemployment. • Developing Nations: Poverty in developing countries is often more severe and widespread, involving extreme deprivation, lack of basic services, and limited economic opportunities. Issues may include subsistence living, inadequate infrastructure, and high rates of malnutrition. • Social Safety Nets: • U.S.: The U.S. has various social safety programs like Social Security, unemployment benefits, and food assistance, though their effectiveness can be debated. • Developing Nations: Many developing countries lack extensive safety nets, and social services are often less comprehensive or accessible. Possible Solutions: • U.S.: Solutions might focus on improving access to education, increasing the minimum wage, enhancing affordable housing, and expanding healthcare coverage. • Developing Nations: Solutions may require international aid, improved infrastructure, economic development programs, and efforts to improve governance and institutional stability. Conclusion: • While poverty is a universal issue, its manifestations and solutions vary greatly between the U.S. and developing nations. Addressing poverty in the U.S. involves refining existing social programs and economic policies, while poverty in developing nations often requires broader systemic changes and international support. 2. Look at the types of people who are currently considered “homeless” or otherwise unemployable. After looking at their characteristics, talk about reasonable solutions for improving their status. Who should take responsibility for which sectors of the homeless and unemployable population? Answer: Characteristics of the Homeless and Unemployable: • Common Issues: Homelessness and unemployment often involve factors such as mental health issues, substance abuse, lack of education, and economic instability. The homeless population can include individuals with chronic illnesses, veterans, and families facing economic hardships. Reasonable Solutions: • Emergency Services: Immediate support such as emergency shelters, food assistance, and crisis intervention services. • Long-Term Solutions: • Affordable Housing: Expanding access to affordable housing and supportive housing programs. • Job Training: Providing job training, education programs, and employment assistance to improve employability. • Health Services: Offering integrated health services including mental health and substance abuse treatment. • Social Services: Strengthening social services to provide comprehensive support for those in need. Responsibility: • Government: Federal, state, and local governments should lead in creating and funding social programs and policies aimed at reducing homelessness and unemployment. • Nonprofits and Community Organizations: These groups can offer direct services, advocacy, and support programs tailored to specific needs. • Private Sector: Businesses can contribute through job creation, corporate social responsibility programs, and partnerships with social service organizations. Conclusion: • Addressing homelessness and unemployment requires a multi-faceted approach involving various stakeholders. Effective solutions should combine immediate relief with long-term strategies to address the underlying causes of these issues. 3. Describe the situation of the American “working poor” who are caught in economic and ideological situations that run counter to the belief in individualism and the ethic of equality of opportunity. Answer: Situation of the Working Poor: • Economic Challenges: The working poor are employed but earn wages insufficient to cover basic living expenses. This group often includes full-time workers who still struggle with housing costs, healthcare, and education. • Ideological Conflicts: The belief in individualism and equality of opportunity may clash with the reality that many working poor face systemic barriers such as low wages, inadequate benefits, and limited job security. Contradictions: • Individualism: The idea that individuals are solely responsible for their economic success does not always account for the structural challenges faced by the working poor, such as wage stagnation and high living costs. • Equality of Opportunity: Despite opportunities for employment, systemic issues like discrimination, educational disparities, and economic inequality can limit the effectiveness of the ideal of equal opportunity. Conclusion: • The working poor face a complex set of challenges that conflict with the ideological beliefs of individualism and equality of opportunity. Addressing their situation requires policies that not only support wage increases and job security but also address broader structural issues in the economy. 4. Many argue that all Americans should have a right to quality health care, whether they can afford it or not. Should health care be a fundamental right? Answer: Arguments for Health Care as a Fundamental Right: • Moral and Ethical Considerations: Many argue that access to quality health care is a basic human right, essential for dignity and well-being. Ensuring that all individuals can access necessary medical services regardless of their financial situation aligns with principles of equality and justice. • Public Health Benefits: Universal health care can improve overall public health, reduce disparities, and lower overall health care costs by preventing diseases and managing conditions effectively. Arguments Against: • Cost and Feasibility: Some argue that providing universal health care might be financially unsustainable and could lead to increased government spending and potential inefficiencies. • Individual Responsibility: Others believe that health care should be primarily a personal responsibility and that individuals should have the freedom to choose their level of coverage and care. Conclusion: • Whether health care should be considered a fundamental right involves weighing moral and ethical considerations against practical and economic challenges. Advocates for universal health care emphasize the importance of access to medical services for all, while critics highlight concerns about cost and individual responsibility. Chapter 17 Foreign Policy: Protecting the American Way Learning Objectives Having read the chapter, the students should be able to do each of the following: • Summarize the historic context of U.S. foreign policy. • Explain the tools of foreign policy. • Describe the roles of the various foreign policymakers. Chapter Outline I. The Pattern of U.S. Foreign and Defense Policy A. The Cold War and Its Lessons B. Multilateralism and Its Lessons C. War on Terrorism 1. The Afghanistan War 2. The Iraq War 3. The Islamic State and Syria D. Russia and China II. The Military Dimension of National Security Policy A. Military Power, Uses, and Capabilities 1. Nuclear War 2. Conventional War 3. Unconventional (Guerrilla) War 4. Transnational Terrorism B. The Politics of National Defense III. The Economic Dimension of National Security Policy A. Foreign Trade 1. Free Trade vs. Protectionism 2. Donald Trump’s “America First” Policy B. Assisting Developing Nations C. Protecting International Commerce IV. Summary Focus and Main Points The national security policies of the United States include an extraordinary array of activities. There are roughly 200 countries in the world, and the United States has relations of one kind or another—military, diplomatic, economic—with all of them. This chapter narrows the subject by concentrating on a few main ideas: • Since World War II, the United States has acted in the role of world leader, which has substantially affected its military, diplomatic, and economic policies. • The United States maintains a high degree of defense preparedness, which requires a substantial level of defense spending and a worldwide deployment of U.S. conventional and strategic forces. • Changes in the international marketplace have led to increased economic interdependence among nations, which has had a marked influence on the U.S. economy and on America’s security planning. Chapter Summary The chief instruments of national security policy are diplomacy, military power, economic exchange, and intelligence gathering. These are exercised through specialized agencies of the U.S. government, such as the Departments of State and Defense, that are largely responsive to presidential leadership. National security policy has also relied on international organizations, such as the United Nations and the World Trade Organization, that are responsive to the global concerns of major nations. From 1945 to 1990, U.S. foreign and defense policies were dominated by a concern with the Soviet Union. During most of this period, the United States pursued a policy of containment based on the premise that the Soviet Union was an aggressor nation bent on global conquest. Containment policy led the United States to enter into wars in Korea and Vietnam and to maintain a large defense establishment. A first response to the end of the cold war period was multilateralism—the idea that major nations could achieve common goals by working together, including the use of force to restrain regional conflicts. The interventions in the Persian Gulf and the Balkans during the 1990s are examples. They demonstrated that major nations can intervene with some success in global hot spots but also showed that the ethnic, religious, and national conflicts that fuel these conflicts are not easily resolved. The terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in 2001 led to broad changes in national security organization and strategy. Increased defense and homeland security spending has been coupled with a partial reorganization of U.S. intelligence, law enforcement, and immigration agencies, as well as new laws affecting the scope of their activities. An important policy change in the post–September 11 period came with America’s invasion of Iraq in 2003, which was rooted in President George W. Bush’s preemptive war doctrine and his willingness to commit the United States to unilateral action. America’s inability to create a stable regime in Iraq, in conjunction with Syria’s civil war, gave rise to the Islamic State, which has become a primary target of U.S. military action. Russian and China have also become of high concern to the U.S. in recent years, with both pursuing aggressive and expansionist foreign policies and military build-ups. A growing relationship between the two has increased worries for the U.S. U.S. military forces are trained for different types of war depending on the situation. Nuclear deterrence policy dominated U.S. foreign policy for some time, though the greater worry today is use of nuclear weapons by a non-state actor. The U.S. has not fought a conventional war since World War II, but remains in possession of the most powerful conventional military force by a wide margin. That conventional advantage often does little to help it, however, in the unconventional and anti-terrorism conflicts that it most often conducts in recent years. Many factors influence national defense policy, though the public is not informed or interested enough to weigh in on most issues. The public typically sides with its political leaders on the use of force. In recent decades, the United States has increasingly taken economic factors into account in its national security considerations, which has meant, for example, that trade has played a larger part in defining its relationships with other countries. The trading system that the United States helped erect after World War II has given way to one that is global in scale and more competitive. Changes in communication, transportation, and computing have altered the way large corporations operate, and as businesses have changed their practices, nations have had to adapt. The changes include the emergence of regional and international economic structures, such as the European Union and NAFTA. Nevertheless, nations naturally compete for economic advantage, including access to natural resources; accordingly, trade is a source of conflict as well as a source of cooperation. In the free trade vs. protectionism debate, the recent election of Donald Trump as president has tipped the scales in favor of protectionism, though his “America First” agenda is still in early stages and its results are still in question. Major Concepts bipolar (power structure) A power structure dominated by two powers only, as in the case of the United States and the Soviet Union during the cold war. Cold War The lengthy period after World War II when the United States and the USSR were not engaged in actual combat (a “hot war”) but were nonetheless locked in a state of deep-seated hostility. containment A doctrine, developed after World War II, based on the assumptions that the Soviet Union was an aggressor nation and that only a determined United States could block Soviet territorial ambitions. economic globalization The increased interdependence of nations’ economies. The change is a result of technological, transportation, and communication advances that have enabled firms to deploy their resources across the globe. free trade The condition in which tariffs and other barriers to trade between nations are kept to a minimum. internationalist The view that the country should involve itself deeply in world affairs isolationist The view that the country should deliberately avoid a large role in world affairs and instead concentrate on domestic concerns military-industrial complex The three components (the military establishment, the industries that manufacture weapons, and the members of Congress from states and districts that depend heavily on the arms industry) that mutually benefit from a high level of defense spending. multilateralism The situation in which nations act together in response to problems and crises. mutually assured destruction (MAD) The assumption that any nation will be deterred from launching a full-scale nuclear attack on the United States by the knowledge that, even if it destroyed the United States, it too would be destroyed. preemptive war doctrine The idea, espoused by President George W. Bush, that the United States could attack a potentially threatening nation even if the threat had not yet reached a serious and immediate level. protectionism The placing of the immediate interests of domestic producers (through, for example, protective tariffs) above that of free trade between nations. soft power An approach that places emphasis on diplomacy, economic sanctions, and foreign aid as the means of protecting U.S. interests, in contrast with the use of military force, or hard power. tariffs The taxes that a country levies on goods shipped into it from other countries. transnational terrorism Terrorism that transcends national borders and often targets people and locations other than the ones directly at issue. unilateralism The situation in which one nation takes action against another state or states. unipolar (power structure) A power structure dominated by a single powerful actor, as in the case of the United States after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Lecture Outline This lecture outline closely follows the text in its organization. The instructor can use this outline as a lecture aid. This chapter is focused on selected aspects of U.S. foreign and defense policy. The author examines the roots of American foreign and defense policy, while studying the policymaking process. He also discusses the economic dimension of national security policy, exploring both external and domestic challenges facing the United States’ future as a world leader. The chief instruments of national security policy are diplomacy, military power, intelligence gathering, and economic exchange. The lead agency in U.S. diplomatic efforts is the Department of State, which is headed by the secretary of state and coordinates the efforts of U.S. embassies abroad, each of which is directed by a U.S. ambassador. The U.S. also pursues its interests through various international organizations. The Department of Defense is the lead agency in military affairs; it is headed by the secretary of defense and oversees the military services—the army, air force, navy, and marine corps. Of the country’s military alliances, NATO is the most important. A large part of the responsibility to gather information on the actions and plans of other countries falls on specialized federal agencies, especially the CIA and NSA. Economic exchange, an important instrument of foreign affairs, involves both international trade and foreign aid. U.S. interests in this area are promoted by a range of U.S. agencies, such as the Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, and Treasury Departments, as well as specialty agencies such as the Federal Trade Commission; along with several important international organizations of which the U.S. is a member. I. The Pattern of U.S. Foreign and Defense Policy Before World War II, the U.S. was a mostly isolationist country intent on avoiding European entanglements. The U.S. after World War II became a fully internationalist country, deeply involved in world affairs. For nearly half a century, then, U.S. defense policy was defined by a bipolar global power structure and the country’s cold war with the Soviet Union. • The doctrine of containment was based on the American view that the Soviet Union was an aggressor nation that had to be stopped from achieving its territorial ambitions. • The term cold war refers to the fact that the two countries were not directly engaged in military conflict, but were locked into a deep-seated hostility. The United States pursued a policy of containment, aggressive use of American power to prevent Soviet expansion in the world. • The Vietnam War was a costly turning point in the application of containment, as it illustrated the limits to American power in the international arena. • The disintegration of the Soviet Union profoundly changed the shape and nature of international politics, posing new and different challenges to American policymakers. • With the end of the Cold Car, President George H. W. Bush called for a “new world order,” a concept emphasizing multilateralism—the idea that major nations should act together in response to crises and problems. Multilateralism defined the Gulf War and was continued by the Clinton administration, but multilaterialism has only been somewhat successful and may not work in areas of the world that suffer from intense nationalism or long-standing ethnic hatreds. • President George W. Bush entered the White House and repudiated the strategy of multilateralism, declaring that he would reduce U.S. military presence abroad but that the U.S. would also not participate in several major international treaties or mechanisms. • The war on terrorism followed the attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001. This war is unlike past wars because most of its targets are not nations but groups engaged in terrorism throughout the world. The American wars in Afghanistan and Iraq have resulted in substantial increases in spending on defense, intelligence gathering, and homeland security. • The Afghan invasion in 2001 marked the start of the longest war in U.S. history. In 2009 President Obama dispatched additional troops with the goal of stabilizing the government and reducing the power of the Taliban. Obama initially called for a withdrawal of all troops by 2014, but that timetable was later pushed back. • The Iraq War that began in 2003 was an exercise in unilateralism but also the preemptive war doctrine. Although initially popular, the war proved more difficult than expected, and public support began to wane as it stretched out over years. Age-old animosities between Sunni, Shiite, and Kurdish groups within Iraq blocked political compromise and fueled internal violence. The last of American’s combat units did not leave Iraq until late 2011. • America’s withdrawal from Iraq and a civil war in Syria created a power vacuum in which a radical Islamic group, the Islamic State (ISIS or ISIL), emerged. The group has succeeded in radicalizing disaffected youth outside the Middle East; and deadly terrorist attacks have taken place in Paris and Brussels. • Russia and China have risen as concerns in recent years. Both are pursuing an aggressive expansionist foreign policy, and China’s backing of the Russian annexation of Crimea has caused additional concern. II. The Military Dimension of National Security Policy U.S. military forces are trained or called on for different types of military action, ranging from nuclear conflict to guerrilla warfare. • The United States retains a nuclear arsenal designed to prevent nuclear war from ever happening. Deterrence policy is based on the notion that any nation would be deterred from launching a full-scale nuclear attack on the United States by the knowledge that, even if it destroyed the United States, it too would be obliterated. • Today a greater fear than nuclear war with Russia is the possibility that a terrorist group or rogue nation could smuggle a nuclear device into the United States and detonate it. The technology and materials necessary to build a nuclear weapon (or to buy one clandestinely) are more readily available than ever before. • The U.S. relies on an all-volunteer military force that is second to none in its destructive power. But this firepower is not a large advantage in so-called unconventional wars of the type in Afghanistan. • An unconventional war requires winning the support of the local population and is fought with small and highly mobile combat units that can provide support and training to local military and police forces. The U.S. military has had difficulty adapting and is gradually increasing its capacity to engage in unconventional warfare. • Terrorism has been a threat for centuries, but only recently has it developed into transnational terrorism. The U.S. has developed new strategies to combat transnational terrorism, but this kind of asymmetrical warfare against a group without borders or easily definable targets remains very difficult. The role of public opinion in national security changes based on the nature of the national security issue at hand. • Policy elites, public opinion, and special interests all play significant roles in national defense policy. The U.S. public usually supports the judgments of its political leaders on the use of military force, although more complex issues usually have little public participation and the public tends to defer to the president. • The military-industrial complex has also grown to a degree that much of its military expenditures are self-serving rather than targeted for the needs of national defense. III. The Economic Dimension of National Security Policy Economic strength is the prerequisite for military strength. In economic terms, the world is tripolar, divided among the United States, the European Union (EU), and the Pacific Rim (primarily Japan and China). • The U.S. is a powerful economic competitor, but it has a massive national debt and runs the largest trade deficits in the world. • In some ways, the U.S. is the most powerful of the three major economic centers of the world, including in technological innovation, financial institutions, extensive higher education system, and oil and natural gas production. • To meet Americans’ production and consumption needs, the country depends on other countries’ materials, goods, markets, and capital. • U.S. efforts in the world economy therefore include expanding foreign trade, providing foreign assistance, and ensuring global economic security. In the early 1950s, the U.S. was producing nearly as many goods and services as the entire rest of the world; but this advantage was unsustainable. In the 1970s, the U.S. balance of trade was leveling out; and each year since, it has had a negative balance-of-trade, consuming more goods from abroad than it has shipped overseas. • Economic globalization has meant vastly more market competition between countries. Large U.S. firms became multinational corporations that increasingly lobbied for free trade policies. • Free trade allows for trade with greatly reduced or no protective tariffs. The first major free-trade agreement was the 1993 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) among the United States, Canada, and Mexico. • By 2016, support for free trade had diminished among both Democrats and Republicans, and the election of Donald Trump as president brought an end to American involvement in the Trans Pacific Partnership (TPP). • The U.S. trade deficit with China is a growing concern, now surpassing $250 billion annually. However, some economists see the relationship as a net benefit, as China is a major market for U.S. agricultural goods and provides U.S. consumers with many affordable products. To encourage greater political stability and new markets for goods and services, the United States has a stake in helping developing nations grow. • Since World War II, the U.S. has been the top source of aid to developing nations. • Contributions include direct foreign aid and indirect assistance through international organizations such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. • Although the U.S. contributes the most in total dollars, Canada and European countries now spend more on a per-capita basis. Nevertheless most Americans believe the U.S. is spending too much on foreign aid. The U.S. protects international commerce both through use of its military forces to ensure the continued free flow of goods, especially in shipping; and through efforts to strengthen global financial markets. • In response to the global economic downturn of 2008, U.S. policymakers subjected America’s leading banks to a “stress test” to determine their ability to withstand defaults, and encouraged and assisted other nations to do the same. • Today, the United States operates in a global economy and depends on the economc health of other nations. Complementary Lecture Topics Below are suggestions for lectures or lecture topics that will complement the text. In general, these topics assume that students have read the chapter beforehand. • Military and economic powers have historically been closely linked. Yet the economic success of Japan and some other countries in recent decades suggests that the military-economic relationship is now less related. Has the world entered a new era in the relationships among nations? If so, is this global or does it apply only to first-world nations? What are the implications for the people of the United States? • What role should America’s ideals play in its national security policy? Include historical, current, and hypothetical cases in the analysis. • What are the respective arguments of those who support free trade versus those who argue for protectionism? What are the implications of each position for the global economy and America’s overall competitiveness in it? • How should the United States conduct its war on terrorism? What are the policy and budgetary implications? Class Discussion Topics 1. Following the end of World War II, the U.S. based much of its national security policy on containment of the Soviet Union. In view of the breakup of the Soviet Union and the emergence of autonomous nations in Eastern Europe, this policy is obviously obsolete. What policy adjustments should the U. S. make in its dealings with postcommunist European nations? Do students think the public can accept a rationale that economic interaction and cooperation with Russia is in the long-range best interests of both nations, or has recent Russian aggression changed American calculations radically? Answer: Historical Context: • Containment Policy: After World War II, U.S. national security policy was centered on containing Soviet influence to prevent the spread of communism. This strategy shaped U.S. interactions with Eastern European nations under Soviet control. Post-Soviet Policy Adjustments: • Focus on Partnership and Integration: With the breakup of the Soviet Union and the emergence of autonomous nations in Eastern Europe, U.S. policy should focus on partnership and integration rather than containment. This involves supporting democratic institutions, promoting economic development, and integrating these nations into Western structures like NATO and the European Union. • Economic Cooperation: Encouraging economic interaction and cooperation can be beneficial. For example, supporting trade and investment with postcommunist nations helps stabilize their economies and foster democratic values. However, this should be balanced with strategies to address potential risks from resurgent autocratic regimes. Recent Russian Aggression: • Impact on Calculations: Recent Russian aggression, including actions in Ukraine and other regions, has significantly altered American calculations. The U.S. and its allies have adopted a more cautious approach, emphasizing deterrence and defensive measures. This includes imposing sanctions, increasing military support to affected nations, and strengthening NATO’s eastern flank. Public Acceptance: • Economic Interaction vs. Aggression: While the rationale for economic interaction with Russia may be grounded in long-term strategic interests, recent aggression has led to a shift in public opinion. Many Americans now view Russia as a threat and support a more confrontational stance. The challenge is balancing cooperation with a firm stance on aggression. Conclusion: • The U.S. should adjust its policy to focus on partnership and integration with postcommunist European nations while remaining vigilant about Russian aggression. Economic cooperation can be part of a broader strategy, but it must be carefully managed to address security concerns and maintain public support. 2. Remind the class about basic U.S. ideals. What role should these ideals play in U.S. national security policy? You might want to mention American concerns about human rights around the world or how students would like to see the U.S. use its power. Include historical, current and hypothetical cases in your discussion. Answer: Basic U.S. Ideals: • Democracy and Human Rights: Fundamental U.S. ideals include the promotion of democracy, protection of human rights, and support for individual freedoms. These principles are central to American identity and policy. Incorporating Ideals into National Security Policy: • Human Rights and Global Responsibility: • Historical Cases: The U.S. has historically used its influence to promote human rights, as seen in interventions in the Balkans during the 1990s and efforts to support democratic movements during the Cold War. • Current Cases: In recent years, the U.S. has grappled with balancing human rights concerns with strategic interests, as seen in its responses to conflicts in Syria and Myanmar. • Hypothetical Cases: Future policies should consider how to address human rights violations while maintaining national security. For example, the U.S. could advocate for international sanctions against regimes that violate human rights while supporting humanitarian aid and diplomatic solutions. • Use of Power: • Historical Use: U.S. power has been used both to promote democratic values and to protect national interests. This includes military interventions, economic sanctions, and diplomatic efforts. • Current Strategies: The U.S. should strive to use its power in a way that upholds its ideals while addressing contemporary challenges. This involves balancing ethical considerations with practical realities, such as forming alliances that support democratic values and participating in international organizations that promote human rights. Conclusion: • U.S. national security policy should be guided by core ideals like democracy and human rights, influencing both historical actions and future strategies. While strategic interests are important, maintaining a commitment to American ideals helps build global credibility and support for U.S. policies. Instructor Manual for We The People: An Introduction to American Government Thomas L. Patterson 9781259912405
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