CH-23-24 Economics, Environment, and Sustainability – Living in the Environment: Principles, Connections, and Solutions : Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 23 to 24 SUSTAINING HUMAN SOCITIES Chapter 23 Economics, Environment, and Sustainability Summary 1. Economic systems are the social institutions through which goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed to satisfy people’s wants in the most efficient possible way. Natural capital, human capital, financial capital, and manufactured capital all comprise economic resources, which must be managed to sustain the world’s environmental health. 2. Neoclassical economists see natural resources as a part of the economic system and assume that economic growth potential is essentially unlimited. Ecological economists see economic systems as a component of nature’s economy and would have higher optimum levels of pollution control and lower optimum levels of resource use than would neoclassical economists. 3. Economic and environmental progress is monitored through the gross national income (GNI), gross domestic product (GDP), and per capita GNI and GDP indicators. 4. Full-cost pricing includes the internal and external costs in the market price of any good or service. 5. Some components of an environmental economics perspective include phasing out environmentally harmful subsidies, levying taxes on environmentally harmful goods and services, passing laws to regulate pollution and resource depletion, and using tradable permits for pollution or resource use. 6. Poverty can be reduced by forgiving dept to developing countries, through increase of nonmilitary government and private aid, and by stabilizing populations. 7. Shifting to more environmentally sustainable economies includes rewarding sustainable activities and penalizing non-sustainable resource use, use of full-cost pricing, and reduction of poverty. Outline 23-1 How Are Economic Systems Related to the Biosphere? CORE CASE STUDY: One way to fight poverty is using the free market system through microlending. In 1983 Grameen Bank in Bangladesh was established to issue microloans. The repayment rate is very high, and about half of the borrowers manage to move above the poverty line within 5 years of their loan. A. An economic system produces and distributes goods and services by using natural, human, and physical resources. An economic system produces, distributes, and consumer goods and services. Three types of resources are used to produce goods and services: natural resources, human resources (labor and skills), and physical or manufactured resources (tools, machinery, etc.). B. A purely free-market system is a theoretical ideal where buyers and sellers interact in markets without interference by government or other interference. In the ideal, all economic decisions are governed by demand and supply and price. C. Economic growth is an increase in a nation’s ability to provide goods and services. Economic development is the improvement of living standards through economic growth. D. Governments intervene to provide economic stability, national security, public services, and environmental protection. E. Neoclassical economists see the potential for economic growth as unlimited. Most industrialized countries have high-throughput economies which boost growth by increasing the amount of matter and energy resources extracted from the environment. F. Ecological economists believe that economic growth will become unsustainable and will degrade natural capital. 23-2 How Can We Put Values on Natural Capital, Pollution Control, and Resource Use? A. Economists have developed several ways to estimate the nonmarket values of the earth’s ecological services. These include nonuse values such as existence value, aesthetic value, or a bequest or option value. Economists have also developed several ways to estimate monetary value of resources including a mitigation cost, and another method to estimate how much people would be willing to pay to keep a particular resource. B. Economists use discount rates to estimate the future value of a resource. The discount rate is an estimate of a resource’s future economic value compared to present value. Most businesses, the U.S. Office of Management and Budget, and the World Bank typically use a 10% annual discount rate. High discount rates encourage rapid use of resources for immediate payoffs. C. Environmental economists try to determine optimum levels of pollution and control and resource use. D. Comparing costs and benefits of an environmental action can help with decision-making, but involves many uncertainties. Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) involves comparing estimated costs and benefits of an action. It is one of the main tools economists use to help them make decisions. 23-3 How Can We Use Economic Tools to Deal with Environmental Problems? A. Market prices for products do not include most of the environmental, health, and other harmful costs associated with its production and use including internal costs and indirect costs. B. Current indicators of economic activity do not accurately reflect changing levels of environmental quality and human health. Gross domestic product (GDP) and per capita GDP indicators provide standardized and useful methods for measuring and comparing the economic outputs of nations. A new approach is to develop indicators that add to the GDP things not counted in the marketplace, but that enhance environmental quality, and subtract from GDP the costs of things leading to a lower quality of life and depletion of natural resources. Other approaches include the genuine progress indicator (GPI) and the human development index (HDI). C. Inclusion of external costs in market prices informs consumers of the cost of their purchases on earth’s life-support systems and human health. D. Product eco-labeling can encourage companies to develop green products and services and help consumers select environmentally beneficial products and services. E. Removal of environmentally harmful government subsidies and tax breaks will help phase in full-cost pricing. F. Taxes and fees on pollution and resource use can bring us closer to full-cost pricing. G. Environmental laws and regulations work best if they motivate companies to find ways to control and prevent pollution and reduce resource waste. H. A market approach to set limits on pollution emissions or resource use is to grant tradable pollution and resource-use permits. I. Some businesses can decrease their resource use, pollution, and waste by shifting from selling goods to selling services that goods provide. 23-4 How Can Reducing Poverty Help Us to Deal with Environmental Problems? A. Poverty has numerous harmful health and environmental effects. B. Most financial benefits of global economic growth have gone to the rich rather than the poor, and in the long term this is non-sustainable. C. Methods for reduce poverty include the following: combating malnutrition, providing education, working to stabilize population growth, focusing on ecological footprints, investing in small-scale infrastructure, and encouraging small individual loans to help the poor. 23-5 How Can We Make the Transition to More Environmentally Sustainable Economies? A. Sustainable economies require a shift from high-throughput to matter recycling and reuse economies B. An eco-economy copies nature’s three principles of sustainability and environmental economic strategies. C. Shifting to more environmentally sustainable economies could create immense profits and a huge number of jobs. In the long-term, sustainability is the only solution. Teaching Tips: Large Lecture Classes: Start the lecture with a photo of the moon and a response question (hands or clicker systems). Tell students that the moon now has a breathable atmosphere and they will be relocating there. Give them the option of voting on one item to take with them. The items include a functioning stream ecosystem, an Xbox with every game ever created, a sports car, or 10 million dollars. The point is obviously that the one item that you should take is the one that exists outside a market economy. Use this point to start the discussion of whether the market economy is the appropriate mechanism for measuring human welfare. Smaller Lecture Classes: Develop a mock natural and economic system for use in class. Write out a series of note cards that have a resource on them. These cards could include an oil reserve, a power plant, a wetland, a farm, the atmosphere, etc. Give a card to each students and then randomly place students in groups of four or five. The competition is to create the most functional economic system, and every group starts with $10,000. Groups can purchase cards from other groups or trade cards outright. The winning group is the one that has the most functional system. The point will be to monitor the negotiation for prices. For example, the group with the atmosphere should have great leverage over all the others and that resource should become highly valued. Use this to start a discussion about what is and isn’t valued in our current system. Key Terms cost-benefit analysis (CBA) discount rate economic development economic growth economic system environmentally sustainable economic development genuine progress indicator (GPI) greenwashing gross domestic product (GDP) high-throughput economies human capital human resources low-throughput (low –waste) economy manufactured (physical) resources matter recycling and reuse economy natural capital per capita GDP Term Paper Research Topics 1. Traditional versus earth-sustaining economics: Paul Hawken's views of the ecology of commerce; Hazel Henderson's views of converting the economic pie into a layer cake (by adding social and environmental measures of well-being and worth); GNP, NEW, ISEW, the Genuine Progress Indicator and other economic indicators. 2. Economics and poverty: the sharing ethic and enlightened self-interest; land reform; the World Bank and development projects; debt-for-nature swaps; technology transfer. 3. Sustainable economics: describe one vision of a sustainable economy. 4. How much are you willing to pay in the short run to receive economic and environmental benefits in the long run? Explore costs and payback times of energy-efficient appliances, energy-saving light bulbs, and weather stripping. 5. What priorities should guide the design of a measure of sustainable economic welfare? 6. Are the best things in life not things? What are the basic material requirements for survival with dignity and security? 7. How useful is cost-benefit analysis? 8. Which of the political tools for controlling economic systems is best? 9. How have market-economy approaches been used successfully to address environmental problems? How have these approaches failed? 10. What companies best reflect an environmental economics approach to capitalism? Discussion Topics 1. Does capitalism work? Answer: Capitalism can drive economic growth, innovation, and efficiency by encouraging competition and individual enterprise. However, it can also lead to inequalities and environmental degradation if not adequately regulated. The effectiveness of capitalism depends on the balance between market freedom and regulatory oversight to ensure fair practices and social welfare. 2. What should we use to measure progress? Answer: Progress should be measured using a combination of economic indicators (GDP, employment rates), social metrics (healthcare access, education quality), and environmental factors (carbon footprint, biodiversity). Well-being indices and measures of inequality can also provide a more holistic view of societal progress beyond purely economic growth. 3. How do you value resources outside the economic system? Does this make sense? Answer: Valuing resources outside the economic system involves considering ecological, cultural, and social significance, such as biodiversity, clean air, and cultural heritage. This makes sense as these resources contribute to overall well-being and quality of life, and their degradation can have long-term negative impacts that are not immediately reflected in economic terms. 4. How much regulation is appropriate? Is the market a better approach? Answer: Appropriate regulation is necessary to correct market failures, protect public goods, and ensure equitable outcomes. While markets can efficiently allocate resources, they may not account for externalities like pollution or ensure fair distribution of wealth. A balanced approach with adequate regulation is crucial for addressing these issues and promoting sustainable development. 5. Is sustainability an important goal? Is it the most important goal for society? Answer: Sustainability is a crucial goal, as it ensures that natural resources and ecosystems are preserved for future generations, maintaining the planet's health and human well-being. While it is not the only goal, it is foundational, as long-term economic and social development rely on a healthy environment. Thus, it should be integrated into all aspects of policy and planning. Attitudes and Values 1. Do you believe that individuals and countries should have the right to consume as many resources as they can afford? Answer: While individuals and countries may have the means to consume resources, unrestricted consumption can lead to environmental degradation and inequitable distribution. Responsible consumption, considering ecological limits and fairness, is crucial to ensure sustainability and equity for future generations. 2. Do you believe that the most important nation is the one that can command and use the largest fraction of the world's resources to promote its own economic growth? Answer: The importance of a nation should not be measured solely by its resource consumption. A country's significance is better reflected in its contributions to global well-being, sustainable development, and equitable resource distribution. Prioritizing global cooperation over resource dominance fosters a more just and sustainable world. 3. Do you believe that the more we produce and consume, the better off we are? Answer: Increasing production and consumption does not necessarily equate to improved well-being, as it can lead to environmental harm and social inequality. Quality of life should be prioritized over mere economic growth, emphasizing sustainable practices, equitable access, and the preservation of natural resources. 4. Do you believe that humans have a duty to subdue wild nature to provide food, shelter, and other resources for people and to provide jobs and income through increased economic growth? Answer: While it is necessary to use natural resources to meet human needs, this should be done sustainably and with respect for natural ecosystems. The goal should be to balance economic growth with environmental conservation, ensuring that natural habitats are preserved and that development does not compromise the planet's ecological health. 5. Do you believe that resources are essentially unlimited because of our ability to develop technologies to make them available or to find substitutes? Answer: Resources are not unlimited; even with technological advancements, there are ecological and physical limits to resource extraction and substitution. Overreliance on technology may lead to complacency in conservation efforts, underscoring the need for sustainable resource management and responsible consumption. 6. Do you believe that environmental improvement will result in a net loss, a net gain, or no change in the total number of jobs in your country? In your community? Answer: Environmental improvement can lead to a net gain in jobs, particularly in sectors like renewable energy, green construction, and environmental management. While some industries may contract, the shift towards sustainable practices often creates new opportunities, fostering innovation and long-term economic resilience. 7. Would you be in favor of improving the air or water quality in your community if this meant that you lost your job? Answer: While losing a job is challenging, the long-term benefits of improved air and water quality, such as better health and environmental sustainability, outweigh the immediate economic impact. Society should strive to support transitions for those affected, providing retraining and new employment opportunities in sustainable industries. 8. Would you favor requiring that the market cost of any product or service include all estimated present and future environmental costs? Answer: Yes, internalizing environmental costs in market prices would encourage more responsible consumption and production, reflecting the true cost of resource use and environmental impact. This approach promotes sustainable practices and incentivizes the development of eco-friendly products and technologies. 9. Do you favor debt-for-nature swaps in which poor countries would be forgiven most of their debts to rich countries, in exchange for protecting specified wild areas of their country from harmful and unsustainable forms of development? Answer: Debt-for-nature swaps can be a positive way to promote environmental conservation while alleviating financial burdens on poor countries. They offer a mutually beneficial solution, preserving vital ecosystems and biodiversity while providing economic relief and promoting sustainable development. Activities and Projects 1. Will people refrain from polluting excessively if they understand that such behavior is socially and ecologically irresponsible? Discuss this question with your class and make a list of the various reasons people might have for ignoring moral persuasion and preaching. If possible, invite a social psychologist to address your class on the subject of attitude-behavior consistency and motivation. 2. Ask your students to find literature, songs, and art that show the relationship between humans, the economy, and the environment and share those with the class. 3. Invite a utility regulator to your class to discuss the problem of full-cost pricing. Ask if any efforts have been made to internalize external costs at the state level. 4. Have your class survey the economic growth that has taken place recently in your state or community. Make lists of the positive and negative consequences associated with this growth; then discuss the implications for human wellbeing and future life quality. Should growth in your state or community be redirected? If so, specifically how? Invite a professional planner to discuss this issue with your class. 5. As a class exercise, explore the agencies in your community or state that are responsible for recruiting new industries. What are their goals and methods? Compare these values and methods with sustainable-earth values and methods. 6. Have your class design an indicator of sustainable economic welfare that can be applied to individual communities to monitor change. 7. Have your students make a list of the employers whose payrolls are very important to the economic health of your community. How would a transition to a sustainable-earth economy affect the employment structure of your community? 8. As a class exercise, conduct a school or community poll to find out if people are willing to pay for pollution control. Have the entire class participate in the design of a brief opinion poll. The questions should be designed to find out what kinds of environmental qualities people want to see preserved and what they are willing to give up (in monetary or other terms) to ensure that these qualities are protected. Try to standardize the procedure and get as many respondents as practical. Analyze the results and discuss them in class. News Videos Carbon Offsets; Environmental Science in the Headlines, 2007; DVD; ISBN 0495385433 A Green Revolution at Wal-Mart? Environmental Science in the Headlines, 2008; DVD; ISBN 0495561908 Jean Suppliers Pollution; The Brooks/Cole Environmental Science Video Library, 2009; DVD 0538733551 Additional Video Resources A Civil Action (Movie, 1999) The families of children who died sue two companies for dumping toxic waste. Frontline: World, Mexico: The Business of Saving Trees (Documentary, 2008, Online) A look at how the carbon credit system has been used to create jobs in Mexico. http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/rough/2008/03/mexico_the_busi.html Frontline: World, Tortilla omics (Web-based slide shows with audio, 2008, Online) How did the surge in American corn-based biofuel research affect the staple food supply of Mexico. http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/fellows/mexico_2008/ The End of Suburbia: Oil Depletion and the Collapse of The American Dream (Documentary, 2004) http://www.endofsuburbia.com/ Who Killed The Electric Car (Documentary, 2006) Documentary that investigates the birth and death of the electric car, as well as the role of renewable energy and sustainable living in the future. http://www.whokilledtheelectriccar.com/ Web Resources Environmental Economics Blog for economists to comment on environment and natural resources http://www.env-econ.net/ World Bank Site that focuses on environmental indicators and environmental economics. http://www.worldbank.org/environmentaleconomics. Environmental Literacy Council Information on economics including basic terms and ideas. http://www.enviroliteracy.org/subcategory.php/12.html. Suggested Answers to End of Chapter Questions Review Questions 1. Review the Key Questions and Concepts for this chapter on p. 614. Describe the nature and importance of microlending in helping people to work their way out of poverty (Core Case Study). Explain why the sustainability revolution is also an economic revolution. Answer: • Microlending provides small loans to poor people. Poverty is viewed as one of the main causes of environmental problems. Small loans allow many borrowers to escape desperate circumstances, by purchasing seeds or starting a small business. • Because the environment and the economy are intimately linked, improving environmental quality and sustainability is good for the economy. Thus, the sustainability revolution is also an economic revolution. 2. What is an economic system? Distinguish among natural capital, human capital (human resources), and manufactured capital (manufactured resources). Describe the interactions between supply, demand, and market prices in a market economic system. Answer: • An economic system is a social institution through which goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed to satisfy people’s needs. • Natural capital includes resources and services produced by the earth’s natural processes, which support all economies and all life. • Human capital, or human resources, includes people’s physical and mental talents that provide labor, innovation, culture, and organization. • Manufactured capital, or manufactured resources, are items such as machinery, equipment, and factories made from natural resources with the help of human resources. • In a market-based economic system, buyers and sellers interact in markets to make economic decisions about how goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed. In a free-market economic system, the prices of goods and services are determined by supply and demand with little or no government control or interference. If the demand for goods or services is greater than the supply, the price rises, and when supply exceeds demand, the price falls. 3. Define economic growth, economic development, and environmentally sustainable economic development. Compare how neoclassical economists and ecological and environmental economists view economic systems. What is a high-throughput economy? What three assumptions to ecological economists use to build models of economic systems? Answer: • Economic growth is an increase in a nation’s capacity to provide goods and services. Economic development is the improvement of living standards through economic growth. Environmentally sustainable economic development is the use of political and economic systems to encourage environmentally beneficial and more sustainable forms of economic development, and to discourage environmentally harmful and unsustainable forms of economic growth. • Neoclassical economists such as Robert Samuelson and the late Milton Friedman view the earth’s natural capital as a subset, or part, of a human economic system and assume that the potential for economic growth is essentially unlimited. They also consider natural capital as important but not indispensable because they believe we can find substitutes for essentially any resource. They argue that we can maintain an ever-increasing throughput of matter and energy resources through economic systems and thus increase economic growth indefinitely. Ecological economists such as Herman Daly and Robert Costanza disagree. They point out that there are no substitutes for many vital natural resources such as air, water, fertile soil, and biodiversity, or for nature’s free ecological services such as climate control, air and water purification, pest control, and nutrient recycling. They also believe that conventional economic growth eventually will become unsustainable. Their reasoning is that such growth will lead us to deplete or degrade much of the natural capital on which all economic systems depend and to exceed the capacity of the environment to handle the pollutants and wastes we produce. Ecological economists view economic systems as subsystems of the biosphere that depend heavily on the earth’s irreplaceable natural resources and services. As a result, they urge us to shift from our current high-throughput economies to more economically sustainable economies, or eco-economies. They urge us to redesign our political and economic systems to encourage environmentally beneficial and more sustainable forms of economic development and to discourage environmentally harmful forms of economic growth. Taking the middle in this debate are environmental economists. Many argue that some forms of economic growth are not sustainable and should be discouraged. However, unlike ecological economists, they would accomplish this by fine-tuning existing economic systems and tools, instead of redesigning some of them. • Most of today’s advanced industrialized countries have high-throughput economies, which attempt to boost economic growth by increasing the flow of natural matter and energy resources through their economic systems to produce more goods and services. • The three assumptions are that resources are not unlimited, we should encourage environmentally beneficial forms of economic development, and the environmental effects of production should be included in a product’s price. 4. Describe ways in which economists can estimate the economic values of natural goods and services. Why are such values not included in the market prices of goods and services? Define discount rate and discuss the controversy over how to assign such rates. Describe how economists can estimate the optimal levels for pollution control and resource use. Define cost-benefit analysis and discuss its advantages and limitations. Answer: • One way to estimate the economic values of natural goods and services involves estimating the monetary worth of the earth’s natural ecological services and the biological income they provide. For example, the ecological services provided by the earth’s forests are estimated to be worth at least $4.7 trillion a year. This is hundreds of times greater than the estimated value of their economic services. • Environmental economists and ecologists have also developed ways to estimate nonuse values of natural resources and ecological services not represented in market transactions. One estimate of nonuse values of natural resources and ecological is called an existence value—a monetary value placed on a resource such as an old- growth forest just because it exists, even though we may never see it or use it. Another is aesthetic value—a monetary value placed on a forest, species, or part of nature because of its beauty. A third type, called a bequest or option value, is based on the willingness of people to pay to protect some forms of natural capital for use by future generations. • Neoclassical economists believe that a product or service has no economic value until it is sold in the marketplace, and thus because they are not sold in the marketplace, ecological services have no economic value. • The discount rate is an estimate of a resource’s future economic value compared to its present value. It is based on the idea that having something today may be worth more than it will in the future. • The process of choosing a discount rate is controversial. Proponents give several reasons for using a high (5–10%) discount rate. One is that inflation may reduce the value of future earnings on a resource. Another is that innovation or changes in consumer preferences could make a product or resource obsolete. Owners of resources such as forests argue that without a high discount rate, they can make more money by investing their capital in some other venture. Critics say that high discount rates encourage rapid exploitation of resources for immediate payoffs. Critics believe that a 0% or even a negative discount rate should be used to protect unique, scarce, and irreplaceable resources. They also say that moderate discount rates of 1–3% would make it profitable to use nonrenewable and renewable resources more sustainably. • To estimate the optimal level for resource use, economists compare the cost of harvesting the resource per unit of resource. For example, the cost of mining coal from a particular mine rises with each additional unit removed. Mining a certain amount of coal is profitable, but at some point the marginal cost of further mining exceeds the monetary benefits unless some factor such as scarcity raises the value of the coal remaining in a mine. Similarly, there are optimum levels for various kinds of pollution. The main reason is that the cost of pollution control goes up for each additional unit of a pollutant removed from the environment, primarily because it takes increasing amounts of energy to remove increasingly lower concentrations of a pollutant from the air, water, or soil. • Cost-benefit analysis involves comparing estimated costs and benefits for actions such as implementing a pollution control regulation, building a dam on a river, or preserving an area of forest. Making a cost-benefit analysis involves determining who or what might be affected by a particular regulation or project, projecting potential outcomes, evaluating alternative actions, and establishing who benefits and who is harmed. Then an attempt is made to assign monetary costs and benefits to each of the factors and components involved. • Cost-benefit analysis has advantages and disadvantages. Direct costs involving land, labor, materials, and pollution- control technologies are often fairly easy to estimate. Estimates of indirect costs of clean air and water are difficult to make and are controversial. The monetary values assigned to human life, good health, clean air and water, and natural capital vary widely depending on individual assumptions, value judgments, and the discount factors used. Because of these drawbacks, a cost-benefit analysis can lead to wide ranges of benefits and costs with a lot of room for error, and this is another source of controversy between neoclassical economists and environmental and ecological economists. 5. Why do products and services cost more than most people think? Distinguish between direct (internal) and indirect (external) costs of goods and services and give an example of each that is related to a specific product. What is full-cost pricing and what are some benefits of using it to determine the market values of goods and services? Give three reasons why it is not widely used. Answer: • Excluding the harmful environmental costs from the market prices of goods and services hides these harmful costs from consumers. Many consumers therefore do not learn about these harmful costs and are less likely to demand more environmentally beneficial goods and services. Thus, hiding these costs promotes pollution, resource waste, and environmental degradation. • Direct costs involve things that are easy to estimate, such as land, labor and materials. Indirect costs are less easy to quantify. These include things like air and water pollution. A product such as a textbook may have obvious direct costs, such as the forest products that had to be harvested to make the trees. Indirect costs would include the pollution generated in the manufacture of the ink and paper, as well as erosion effects in the area where the trees were harvested. • Full-costs include internal costs plus external costs, so it seems to make a lot of sense specifically for sustainable resource management, but it is not widely used because: first, most producers of harmful and wasteful products and services would have to charge more, and some would go out of business. Naturally, they oppose such pricing. Second, it is difficult to estimate many environmental and health costs, but ecological and environmental economists argue that making the best possible estimate is far better than continuing with the current misleading and eventually unsustainable system, which essentially excludes such costs. According to environmental and ecological economists, full-cost pricing would reduce resource waste, pollution, and environmental degradation and improve human health by encouraging producers to invent more resource-efficient and less-polluting methods of production. It would also enable consumers to make more informed choices. Jobs and profits would be created in environmentally beneficial businesses. 6. Define gross domestic product (GDP) and per capita GDP. What is the genuine progress indicator and how does it differ from the gross domestic product economic indicator? What are the advantages of providing consumers with eco-labels in the goods and services they buy? What is greenwashing? Give an example of it. Answer: • Gross domestic product is the annual market value of all goods and services produced within a country. Changes in a country’s economic growth per person are measured by per capita GDP. • Environmental and ecological economists and environmental scientists call for the development and widespread use of new indicators—called green indicators—to help monitor environmental quality and human wellbeing. One such indicator is the genuine progress indicator (GPI)—the GDP plus the estimated value of beneficial transactions that meet basic needs, but in which no money changes hands, minus the estimated harmful environmental, health, and social costs of all transactions. The per capita GPI would be the GPI for a country divided by that country’s population at midyear. • Product eco-labeling helps consumers to select more environmentally beneficial products and services. • Greenwashing is a deceptive practice that some businesses use to spin environmentally harmful products and services as green, clean, or environmentally beneficial. • Clean coal. 7. Describe the benefits of shifting from environmentally harmful (unsustainable) to more environmentally beneficial (sustainable) government subsidies and tax breaks. Give three examples of environmentally harmful and three examples of environmentally beneficial government subsidies and tax breaks. What is the major reason that environmentally harmful subsidies have not been phased out? Should we tax pollution and wastes instead of wages and profits? Explain. What are the major advantages and disadvantages of using green taxes? What are three requirements for implementing green taxes? Distinguish between command-and-control and incentive-based government regulations, and describe the advantages of the second approach. What is the cap-and-trade approach to implementing environmental regulation, and what are the major advantages and disadvantages of this approach? Answer: • Making such subsidy shifts over two decades would encourage the rise of new environmentally beneficial businesses. It would also give current environmentally harmful businesses enough time to transform themselves into profitable businesses that benefit the environment and their stockholders. • Environmentally harmful subsidies encourage fossil fuel use, deforestation and overfishing. Environmentally beneficial subsidies and tax breaks would support pollution prevention, ecocity development and sustainable agriculture. • These subsidies are not phased out because economically and politically powerful interests spend a lot of time and money lobbying, or trying to influence governments to continue and even increase their subsidies. • Green taxes, or ecotaxes, could be levied on a per-unit basis on the amount of pollution and hazardous waste produced, thus including many of the harmful environmental and health costs of production and consumption in market prices. • See Figure 23-9 for advantages and disadvantages of using green taxes. • There are three proposed requirements for successful implementation of green taxes. First, they would have to be phased in over 10-20 years to allow businesses to plan for the future. Second, income, payroll, or other taxes would have to be reduced or replaced so that there is no net increase in taxes. And third, the poor and middle class would need a safety net to help provide them with essentials such as fuel and food. • Most environmental regulation in the United States, and many other developed countries, has involved passing laws that are enforced through a command and control approach. Critics say that this approach can unnecessarily increase costs and discourage innovation, because many of these regulations concentrate on cleanup instead of prevention. Some regulations also set compliance deadlines that are too short to allow companies to find innovative solutions. Or they require use of specific technologies, where less costly but equal or better alternatives might be available. A different approach favored by many economists and environmental and business leaders is to use incentive-based regulations. Rather than requiring all companies to follow the same fixed procedures, this approach uses the economic forces of the marketplace to encourage businesses to be innovative in reducing pollution and resource waste. Experience in several European nations shows that innovation-friendly regulation sets goals, frees industries to meet them in any way that works, and allows enough time for innovation. This can motivate companies to develop green products and industrial processes that can create jobs, increase company profits, and make the companies more competitive in national and international markets. • In cap and trade, the government decides on acceptable levels of total pollution or resource use, sets limits, or caps, to maintain these levels, and gives companies a certain number of tradable pollution permits or resource-use permits governed by the caps. With this cap-and-trade approach, a permit holder not using its entire allocation can save credits for future expansion, use them in other parts of its operation, or sell them to other companies. The effectiveness of such programs depends on how high or low the initial cap is set and on the rate at which the cap is reduced to encourage further innovation. • Advantages of using tradable pollution and resource use permits to reduce pollution and resource waste include: flexible, easy to administer; encourage pollution prevention and waste reduction; permit prices determined by market transactions; and confront ethical problem of how much pollution or resource waste is acceptable. Disadvantages include: big polluters and resource wasters can buy their way out, may not reduce pollution at dirtiest plants, can exclude small companies from buying permits, caps can be too high and not regularly reduced to promote progress, and self-monitoring of emissions can promote cheating. 8. What are some environmental benefits of selling services instead of goods? Give two examples of this approach. Describe Ray Anderson’s attempts to develop a more environmentally sustainable carpet business. Answer: • In the mid-1980s, a new economic model was proposed that would provide profits while greatly reducing resource use, pollution, and waste for a number of goods. This idea for creating more sustainable economies focuses on shifting from the current material-flow economy to a service-flow economy. Instead of buying many goods outright, customers eco-lease, or rent, the services that such goods provide. In a service-flow economy, a manufacturer makes more money if its product uses the minimum amount of materials, lasts as long as possible, is energy efficient, produces as little pollution (including greenhouse gases) as possible in its production and use, and is easy to maintain, repair, reuse, or recycle. Such an economic shift based on eco-leasing is under way in some businesses. Since 1992, Xerox has been leasing most of its copy machines as part of its mission to provide document services instead of selling photocopiers. When a customer’s service contract expires, Xerox takes the machine back for reuse or remanufacture. It has a goal of sending no material to landfills or incinerators. Canon in Japan and Fiat in Italy are taking similar measures. • See Individual Matters: Ray Anderson. Ray Anderson is CEO of Interface, the world’s largest commercial manufacturer of carpet tiles. He has implemented hundreds of projects with goals of producing zero waste, greatly reducing energy use, reducing fossil fuel use, relying on solar energy, and copying nature. Between 1996 and 2006, his company cut water usage by 73%, reduced solid waste by 63%, cut greenhouse gas emissions by 56%, and lowered energy use by 28%. These efforts have eliminated $316 million in waste. To achieve the goal of zero waste, Interface plans to stop selling carpet and to lease it. The company will install, clean, and inspect the carpet on a monthly basis, repair or replace worn carpet tiles overnight, and recycle worn-out tiles into new carpeting. Anderson has created a new consulting group as part of Interface to help other businesses start on the path to sustainability. One of his clients is Wal-Mart. 9. How is poverty related to population growth and environmental degradation? List three ways in which governments can help to reduce poverty. What are the advantages of making microloans to the poor? What are millennium development goals and what role should more-developed countries plan in helping the world achieve these goals? What is a matter recycling and reuse economy? What is a low-throughput (low-waste) economy? List six ways to shift to more environmentally sustainable economies. Name five new business and careers that would be important in such eco-economies. Answer: • Poverty is defined as the inability to meet one’s basic economic needs. According to the World Bank and the United Nations, 1.1 billion people struggle to survive on an income equivalent to less than $1.25 a day. Poverty has numerous harmful health and environmental effects and has been identified as one of the four major causes of the environmental problems we face. Reducing poverty benefits individuals, economies, and the environment and helps to slow population growth. • To reduce poverty and its harmful effects, governments, businesses, international lending agencies, and wealthy individuals in developed countries could: ○ Mount a massive global effort to combat malnutrition and the infectious diseases that kill millions of people prematurely. ○ Provide primary school education for all children and for the world’s nearly 800 million illiterate adults (a number that is almost three times the size of the U.S. population). ○ Stabilize population growth in developing countries as soon as possible, mostly by investing in family planning, reducing poverty, and elevating the social and economic status of women. ○ Sharply reduce the total and per capita ecological footprints of developed countries and rapidly developing countries, such as China and India, because of the threat from these growing footprints to the world’s environmental and economic security. • Most of the world’s poor people want to work and to earn enough to climb out of poverty. But few of them have credit records or assets that they could use for collateral to secure loans. With loans, they could buy whatever they would need to start farming or to start small businesses. For almost three decades, an innovation called microlending, or microfinance, has helped a number of people to deal with this problem. For example, since economist Muhammad Yunus started it in 1983, the Grameen (Village) Bank in Bangladesh has provided microloans ranging from $50 to $500 to more than seven million Bangladeshi villagers. • In 2000, the world’s nations set goals for sharply reducing hunger and poverty, improving health care, achieving universal primary education, empowering women, and moving toward environmental sustainability by 2015. Several more-developed nations are failing to give the financial support to this endeavor that was agreed to when the goals were set. • A matter recycling and reuse economy is an economy that mimics nature by recycling and reusing most matter outputs instead of dumping them into the environment. • A low-throughput economy uses and wastes less matter and energy resources, and emphasizes reusing, recycling, or composting most matter resources. • Six ways to shift to a more environmentally sustainable economy are: (1) reusing and recycling most nonrenewable matter resources, (2) using renewable resources no faster than they are replenished, (3) reducing resource waste by using matter and energy resources more efficiently, (4) reducing unnecessary and environmentally harmful forms of consumption, (5) emphasizing pollution prevention and waste reduction, and (6) controlling population growth to reduce the number of matter and energy consumers. • Environmentally sustainable, or eco-friendly, businesses are expected to flourish during this century. Examples of businesses include aquaculture, biodiversity protection, biofuels, climate change research, conservation biology, eco-industrial design, ecotourism management, and energy efficient product design. Careers include environmental law, environmental nanotechnology, geographic information systems, marine science, pollution prevention, reconciliation ecology, sustainable agriculture, sustainable forestry, waste reduction water conservation and non-polluting energy sources. 10. What are this chapter’s three big ideas? Describe connections between microloans, more environmentally sustainable economies, and the three principles of sustainability. Answer: • The three big ideas are: ○ Making a transition to more sustainable economies will require finding ways to estimate and include the harmful environmental and health costs of producing goods and services in their market prices. ○ Making this economic transition will also mean phasing out environmentally harmful subsidies and tax breaks, and replacing them with environmentally beneficial subsidies and tax breaks. ○ Other tools to use in this transition are to tax pollution and wastes instead of wages and profits, and to use most of the revenues from these taxes to promote environmental sustainability and to reduce poverty. • Microloans empower people and enable them to move beyond the environmentally damaging realm of poverty. Environmentally sustainable economies rely on the cycling of matter, value natural capital, and thus biodiversity, and ultimately will be powered by renewable (solar) sources. Critical Thinking The following are examples of the material that should be contained in possible student answers to the end of chapter Critical Thinking questions. They represent only a summary overview and serve to highlight the core concepts that are addressed in the text. It should be anticipated that the students will provide more in-depth and detailed responses to the questions depending on an individual instructor’s stated expectations. 1. Describe the microloan program developed by Muhammad Yunus (Core Case Study) and explain why it is important, giving at least three major reasons. Answer: The microloan program provides small low interest loans to poor people who would not otherwise qualify for funding. This is an important program because it has helped at least 133 million people work their way out of poverty, it has resulted in lower birth rates amongst borrowers, and because the environment and the economy are intimately linked. 2. Should we attempt to maximize economic growth by producing and consuming more and more economic goods and services? Explain. What are the alternatives? Answer: No, because this is a pathway that is not sustainable in the long run if you view natural resources as a potential constraint to growth. Societies should move toward an economic system that not only produces revenue for growth, but has to ensure that the growth is underpinned with the three principles of sustainability. An alternative approach attempts to value natural resources accurately, accounts for externalities and non-market values, and applies a more realistic discount rate to resources. 3. According to one definition, sustainable economic development involves meeting the needs of the present human generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. What do you believe are the needs referred to in this definition? Compare this definition with the characteristics of a low-throughput economy described in Figure 23-13. Answer: The basic needs of any human society are to have access to food, shelter, and clothing. These basic needs are tied in to access to clean air and clean water supplies. In order to meet these needs in a sustainable manner, economic systems must ensure some protection of natural capital. Providing these needs would have to take into account the quality of goods and services; viewing all natural resources with high importance and regard in terms of natural services and human use of nonrenewable materials; operating a low-waste, low throughput, renewable approach; and recycling, reusing, and composting becoming fully integrated into the lifestyle of the whole society. 4. Is environmental regulation bad for the economy? Explain. Describe harmful and beneficial forms of environmental regulation. Answer: Environmental regulation can be good or bad for the economy depending on the metrics used for evaluation and the time-horizon for consideration. Using conventional metrics such as GDP or GNP, some environmental regulations occur with a cost to economic growth, however these losses may be mitigated (or even reversed) if a broader metric is used to evaluate economic activities. For example, if the cost of air pollution-related illness was taken into account, a tax on fossil fuel use might slow the economy but lead to a net economic gain due to reduced spending on medical costs and improved health. Some regulations have more of an impact on companies than others, so innovation friendly regulations might include efforts to provide economic incentives (rather than penalties) to reduce pollution or to allow market mechanisms (e.g., cap and trade) to find efficient solutions to pollution problems. 5. Suppose that over the next 20 years, the environmental and health costs of goods and services are internalized until their market prices more closely reflect their total costs. What harmful effects and what beneficial effects might such full-cost pricing have on your lifestyle and on the lives of any children, grandchildren, and great grandchildren you might have? Answer: Harmful effects of full-cost pricing: (i) Jobs could be lost in environmentally unfriendly/harmful businesses as they alter their practices. (ii) Some businesses may end up going out of “business.” (iii) May be difficult to put a price tag on many environmental and health costs, which could end up being over or under the estimated/envisioned costs. Beneficial effects of full-cost pricing: (i) Can invest in more resource-efficient and less-polluting production methods that are more sustainable. (ii) Consumers can choose from a greater selection of “green” products. (iii) Phase out government subsidies to companies using harmful environmental and health strategies in producing their goods and services. Lifestyle effects would include some direct effect of any or all of the above. 6. Explain why reducing poverty should be a major environmental goal. List three ways in which reducing poverty could benefit you. Why do you think the world has not focused more intense efforts on reducing poverty? Answer: Poverty has numerous health and environmental ramifications, so reduction of poverty should be a major goal. Answers will vary by student. Some possibilities are that there will be a reduction in population growth, reduced habitat loss and loss to biodiversity, and reduced pollution. The world has not focused more on poverty reduction because the wealthy nations have benefitted from increased prosperity as the wealth gap has increased and the reduction of poverty requires funding, which many nations have not been willing to give in the necessary amounts. 7. Are you for or against shifting to a service-flow economy based on buying services instead of things, and on leasing instead of buying various services? Explain. If you are for the shift, what do you think are the three most important strategies for making it happen? If you are opposed, what are you major objections to the idea? Answer: I am for moving toward a service-flow economy. It is a more sustainable option for the future and makes sense because it is less polluting. I believe it will happen over the next 20–30 years because resource constraints (e.g., the price of fossil fuels) are increasingly impacting the economy and because the pressures of issues of climate change are pushing governments and citizens to consider alternatives to the status quo. The three most important strategies to make this work will be: (i) educate the public about the benefits, (ii) ensure that the strategies are easy to use and implement, and (iii) keep the strategies at a low cost or at least not higher than the strategy that is being replaced or amended. I'm generally supportive of shifting to a service-flow economy due to its potential benefits, such as reduced environmental impact and increased efficiency. Three important strategies to make it happen: 1. Promote Awareness: Educate consumers and businesses about the advantages of service-based models and sustainability. 2. Encourage Innovation: Support businesses in developing new service-based models and technologies that enable leasing and sharing. 3. Implement Policy Incentives: Create regulations and incentives that favor service-based economies, such as tax breaks for service-based businesses or subsidies for sustainable practices. Major objections might include potential resistance from industries tied to traditional ownership models and concerns about service quality or reliability. 8. Explain why you agree or disagree with each of the major principles for shifting to a more environmentally sustainable economy listed in Figure 23-14. Which three of these principles do you believe are the most important and why? Answer: Answers will vary—one example follows: I agree with all of the major principles for shifting to more environmentally sustainable economies. I feel that the three most important principles are improving energy efficiency and moving from a carbon-based to a renewable fuel-based economy; stabilizing the population by reducing fertility, particularly with regard to developing countries; and reducing poverty in both developed and developing countries. 1. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle: I agree with this principle as it minimizes waste and resource consumption, directly reducing environmental impact. 2. Transition to Renewable Energy: I support this principle because it reduces reliance on fossil fuels and decreases greenhouse gas emissions. 3. Promote Sustainable Agriculture: This principle is crucial for ensuring food security while protecting ecosystems and reducing the environmental footprint of farming. 4. Encourage Circular Economy Practices: This principle is important as it aims to keep resources in use for as long as possible, which reduces waste and encourages recycling and reuse. 5. Support Green Technology and Innovation: I agree because investing in new technologies can drive efficiency and sustainability across various sectors. Three most important principles: 1. Transition to Renewable Energy: Essential for long-term reduction of carbon emissions. 2. Encourage Circular Economy Practices: Key for minimizing waste and resource use. 3. Promote Sustainable Agriculture: Vital for environmental protection and food security. These principles collectively address major environmental challenges and offer practical pathways toward sustainability. 9. Congratulations! You are in charge of the world. List your five most important strategies for shifting to eco-economies over the next 50 years. Answer: The five things I would introduce to shift to an eco-economy over the next 50 years would be: Reduce poverty—poor people cannot be part of a viable economy. Move to a service-flow economy. Implement green taxes. Introduce full-cost pricing. Use environmental laws and regulations to encourage innovation. 10. List two questions you would like to have answered as a result of reading this chapter. Answer: 1. How can businesses smoothly shift to service-based models without major disruptions? 2. What are the key lessons from successful examples of service-flow economies? Data Analysis Figure 1 Comparison of per capita gross national product GDP and per capita general progress indicator (GPI) in the United States. 1. What is the monetary difference between per capita GDP and per capita GPI in (a) 1950 and (b) 2004? 2. (a) By what percentage did the per capita GDP increase between 1950 and 1975 and between 1975 and 2004? (b) By what percentage did the per capita GPI increase between 1950 and 1975 and between 1975 and 2004? 3. What conclusion can you draw from the answers to questions 1 and 2? 1. Answer: (a) The difference between per capita GDP and per capita GPI in 1950 was approximately $6,000 ($12,000-$6,000). (b) The difference between per capita GDP and per capita GPI in 2004 was approximately $25,000 ($35,000-$10,000). 2. Answer: (a) Between 1950 and 1975, the per capita GDP grew by approximately 92%. $20,000 – $12,000 = $8,000; % growth = $11,000/$12,000 x 100 = 67% Between 1975 and 2004, the per capita GDP grew by approximately 52%. $35,000 – $20,000 = $15,000; % growth = $12,000/$23,000 x 100 = 65% (b) Between 1950 and 1975, the per capita GPI grew by approximately 67%. $10,000 – $6,000 = $4,000; % growth = $4,000/$6,000 x 100 = 67% Between 1975 and 2004, the per capita GPI essentially remained the same (at around $10,000). 3. Answer: The widening gap between the GDP and GPI in the United States, and especially since 1980, suggests that it is less likely that the country can sustain an ever-increasing GPP due to the depletion and degradation of natural resources. In essence, economic growth is occurring at the expense of decreasing natural capital. No one knows how long such deficit ecological spending (see Figure 4 on p. S26 of Supplement 4) can go on, but warning signs are popping up at an alarming rate. Chapter 24 Politics, Environment, and Sustainability Summary 1. In this century, we have increased concern about human activities and the harmful effects on biodiversity, shifted from local to regional and global concerns, focused on climate change, become aware of pollution in developing countries, increased concern about trace amounts of some chemicals, and are starting to rely more on our international community to deal with environmental problems. 2. Democracies are governments in which people elect officials and representatives who pass laws, develop budgets, and formulate regulations. Democracies are designed to deal mostly with short-term, isolated problems and are not always efficient when dealing with environmental problems. 3. Environmental policy in the United States is made through: persuasion of lawmakers that an environmental problem exists, influence on how the laws are written, finding funds to implement and enforce each law, drawing up regulations for implementing each law by the appropriate government department, and the enforcement of these regulations. 4. Environmental groups range from small grassroots groups to major global organizations. Their roles include monitoring environmental activities, working to pass and strengthen environmental law, and working with corporations to find solutions to problems. Opponents of these groups include some corporate leaders, some corporations, and some citizens. Outline 24-1 What Is the Role of Government in Making the Transition to More Sustainable Societies? Core Case Study: A young Denis Haynes, in an effort to organize teach-ins on college campuses, started the earth Day movement in 1970. More than 20 million people were a part of it, and it is now celebrated in 180 nations across the globe. A. Developing environmental policy involves identifying a problem and its causes, developing and implementing a solution, and monitoring the policy. B. According to social scientists, public policy in democracy develops in four stages. 1. Recognition: identify problem. 2. Formulation: identify causes of problem and develop solution to deal with it. 3. Implementation: put the solution into effect. 4. Control: monitor progress and adaptive management. C. Democracy is a government in which people elect others to govern and can express their individual beliefs and opinions. D. Democracies are not efficient at dealing with environmental problems because elections are held every few years and politicians focus on short-term, isolated problems and raising money for reelection. E. Special-interest groups such as profit-making organizations and non-governmental organizations compete to influence environmental policy. F. Environmental policies should be guided by seven principles: the humility principle, the reversibility principle, the net energy principle, the precautionary principle, the prevention principle, the polluter-pays principle, and the environmental justice principle. 24-2 How Is Environmental Policy Made? A. Environmental policy in the United States is complex, controversial, and lengthy. 1. The three branches of the federal government are the legislative, executive, and judicial. 2. The major function of the federal government is to develop and implement policy, which produces laws, regulations, and funding. 3. The policy life cycle includes recognition, formulation, implementation, and control. 4. There is a complex interaction among lobbyists, and individuals act to influence environmental policy. CASE STUDY: The U.S. has set aside more public land than any other nation. The public land is in national forests, resource lands, parks, wildlife refuges, and protected wilderness areas. National lands have a range of protections from extensive extractive and agricultural use to no economic use at all. There is continuing controversy over management of public lands in reference to the resources the lands contain: oil, natural gas, timber, mineral, and biological resources. There are four principles that biologists and environmental economists advocate. SCIENCE FOCUS: Politics does not abide by a clear set of principles as science does. In many cases, facts are ignored, or debates become more about personal attacks and less focused on the real issues. B. Individuals can provide vision, focus, resources, and support to others in the development of environmental policy. Local actions have global implications. 24-3 What Is the Role of Environmental Law in Dealing with Environmental Problems? A. Environmental law defines reasonable environmental behavior and attempts to balance competing social and private interests. 1. Environmental law has evolved through civil suits. B. Environmental lawsuits are expensive, require proof of suffering, and are difficult to win. C. U.S. environmental laws: 1. Set standards for pollution levels. 2. Screen new substances for safety. 3. Encourage resource conservation. 4. Sets aside species or ecosystems 5. Require evaluations of the environmental impact of an activity proposed by a federal agency. D. There is strong and growing opposition to environmental laws. 24-4 What Are the Major Roles of Environmental Groups? A. Environmental groups have educated the public, businesses, and political leaders; spearheaded environmental action; and helped pass/strengthen laws. B. Global public policy networks (GPPPNs) have formed in recent years in response to rapidly changing conditions in a globalized world—the groups focus on particular environmental problems and bring together governments, the private sector, international organizations, and NGOs. CASE STUDY: The Natural Resources Defense Council goes to court to stop environmentally harmful practices. C. Grassroots environmental groups monitor environmental activities, work with individuals and communities to oppose harmful projects, work to pass/strengthen environmental laws, and work to find solutions to environmental problems. D. Student environmental groups make changes in their schools and local communities to make them more sustainable, usually saving money in the process. CASE STUDY: Driven by student pressure, many colleges and universities have made progress in becoming more sustainable. These institutions have a responsibility to promote environmental stewardship and sustainability. 24-5 How Can We Improve Global Environmental Security? A. The earth’s natural capital, its environmental security, is as important as military and economic security. 1. There is a correlation between scarcity of resources and civil unrest. B. Global environmental policy is largely shaped by the United Nations, the World Bank, the Global Environment Facility, and the World Conservation Union. C. The world faces a number of simultaneous environmental threats that can undermine the economics, political, and military security and stability of various nations and the international community. D. International environmental organizations gather and evaluate environmental data, help develop environmental treaties, and provide funds and loans for sustainable economic development. E. Earth summits and international environmental treaties play important roles in dealing with global environmental problems, but most environmental treaties are not effectively monitories and enforced. F. Making the transition to more sustainable societies will require capital. It is important that governments and corporations work together. 24-6 How Can We Implement More Sustainable and Just Environmental Policies? A. Societies can become environmentally sustainable by preventing or minimizing environmental problems early, using marketplace solutions and by applying cooperative solutions. Teaching Tips: Large Lecture Courses: Start class by highlighting an issue that is currently in the press. Climate change, water rights, or air pollution are all possibilities. Begin the lecture by describing the problem and asking for solutions for how to address the issue. Write the suggestions on a chalkboard and then, after you have several, start organizing them into categories that include administrative solutions, national policy/law, state policy, local ordinances, or international treaties. End the example by asking which of the approaches is most effective—probably all have pros and cons, so use this to guide the remainder of the lecture. Smaller Lecture Course: Split the class into four groups. For each set of two groups, give the students a scenario related to a land dispute. In one case, one group is told their land has an endangered mouse on it. The other group in this case is an environmental group that is suing the landowner to force the complete stop of any development of the land. The other groups have the same situation (endangered mouse on the property) but the land owners and environmental group are told to come up with a solution that seems fair and equitable to both parties. Let the groups discuss the situation and then compare the experiences, and use this as a chance to talk about finding win-win/equitable solutions to environmental conflicts. Key Terms civil suits defendant democracy environmental law environmental policy lobbying plaintiff politics policies Term Paper Research Topics 1. The federal government: creating environmental policy; reforming election procedures and bureaucracies; leveling the playing field; reforming government to take both proactive and reactive roles: rationale and blueprint. 2. Environmental leadership—from individuals to the government. 3. Green groups: Germany's Green Party; Earth First!; Greenpeace; the Environmental Defense Fund; the Natural Resources Defense Council; Earth Day; Public Interest Research Groups (PIRGs); the Sierra Club; the Nature Conservancy; the National Wildlife Association. 4. The Wise-Use Movement. 5. The 1992 Rio Earth Summit. 6. Nonviolent civil disobedience: a necessary tactic for change? 7. Is it more important to set emission standards or establish international general agreements to move in particular directions? 8. Global environmental security: what does it mean to us? 9. Follow the history of a piece of environmental legislation; e.g., Endangered Species Act, CERCLA, Clean Air Act, NEPA, Clean Water Act, Safe Drinking Water Act. What were challenges and compromises in enacting the legislation and what did the legislation achieve? 10. Compare and contrast U.S. and European approaches to environmental policy. Activities and Projects 1. As a class exercise, develop the basic elements of a federal budget for next year that includes realistic levels of spending for environmental quality management. Have students decide on a list of priorities for pollution control. 2. As a class exercise, use the Congressional Record (or equivalent state documents) to follow the progress of various pollution, land-use, energy, population, or other environmentally related bills. If possible, have your institution join an environmental network, such as Econet, that will allow students to access information about environmental legislation, the members of relevant congressional committees, and background material to understand different environmental issues. 3. Does the United States have an earth-sustaining president? Have students evaluate the current administration's performance from the point of view of sustainability. They should use specific references and examples. Have students locate resources (such as documents prepared by the League of Conservation Voters) that report the voting records of members of Congress on environmental legislation. Using those resources, have students evaluate representatives from the locations where they live. Have them evaluate how important their findings are in forming an opinion about their elected officials. 4. As a class project, identify a local environmental issue early in the semester or term and follow the actions of environmental groups addressing that issue. What strategies and tactics are used, and with what effects? What leadership qualities seem most effective? 5. Have each student bring in an example of ongoing environment policy debate from a newspaper or magazine. Ask them to describe the problem and suggest a solution. Attitudes and Values 1. Have you ever had an opportunity to be a leader? What leadership style do you prefer? Answer: Leadership experiences vary, but many prefer a democratic or participative style, which involves collaboration and considering the input of others. This style fosters a sense of shared responsibility and encourages diverse perspectives, leading to well-rounded decision-making and a more engaged team. 2. How do you generally feel about people who don’t share your perspectives on environmental policy? Do you think this would affect your interaction with these people? Answer: While differing perspectives on environmental policy can be challenging, it's important to approach these interactions with respect and open-mindedness. Engaging in constructive dialogue can lead to greater understanding and potentially find common ground. Maintaining respectful interactions is crucial for building bridges and fostering cooperation. 3. What is your obligation in a participatory democracy? Are you meeting that obligation? Answer: In a participatory democracy, citizens have an obligation to stay informed, vote, and engage in civic activities to influence policy decisions. Meeting this obligation involves active participation, such as attending public meetings, engaging in discussions, and advocating for issues. Regularly participating in these activities fulfills this civic duty. 4. Do you feel the government can play a responsible role in establishing a sustainable relationship between humans and their environment? Answer: Yes, the government can play a crucial role by creating and enforcing regulations, investing in sustainable infrastructure, and promoting environmental education. Government policies can guide responsible resource use, protect natural habitats, and incentivize sustainable practices, helping to establish a balanced and sustainable relationship with the environment. 5. Do you feel global environmental security is necessary for national security? Answer: Global environmental security is essential for national security, as environmental issues like climate change, resource scarcity, and natural disasters can lead to economic instability, displacement, and conflicts. Addressing these global challenges is crucial for maintaining stability and security at the national level, as well as ensuring global peace and cooperation. 6. Would you support a 10% increase in income taxes if you knew this revenue would be used to improve environmental quality? Answer: Supporting a tax increase for environmental quality improvement depends on the belief in the efficacy of the investment and the transparency of fund allocation. If the revenue is effectively used for significant environmental benefits, such as pollution reduction, renewable energy, and conservation efforts, many may view it as a worthwhile investment for long-term well-being. News Videos Plastic Bag Charge Debated; The Brooks/Cole Environmental Science Video Library, 2009; DVD 0538733551 Additional Video Resources Crude (Documentary, 2009) This film focuses on a legal battle between indigenous people of the Amazon, and the oil industry. http://www.crudethemovie.com/ Garbage Warrior (Documentary, 2008) This film covers the legal battle between a renegade eco-architect and local government. http://www.garbagewarrior.com/ The God Squad and the Case of the Northern Spotted Owl (Documentary, 2004) Investigation of the endangered species committee and the Northern Spotted Owl with interviews with President Bush’s cabinet members. Oil on Ice (Documentary, 2004) Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and drilling for oil. http://www.oilonice.org/ Web Resources Office of Environmental Policy and Compliance, U.S. Department of Interior Example of enforcement approaches. http://www.doi.gov/oepc/ National Environmental Policy Act Website for the Act at the U.S. EPA. http://www.epa.gov/compliance/nepa/ Cornell University Law School Overview of environmental law in the US. http://topics.law.cornell.edu/wex/Environmental_law Suggested Answers to End of Chapter Questions Review Questions 1. Review the Key Questions and Concepts for this chapter on p. 638. Describe the work of Denis Hayes in helping to organize the first Earth Day (Core Case Study). Answer: Denis Hayes was involved in organizing teach-ins on college campuses when Earth day was born. In 1970, on the first Earth Day, there were demonstrations focused on a variety of environmental issues in which 20 million people took place. The Earth Day Network is now in 180 nations and Earth Day is celebrated globally. 2. What key roles can governments play in improving environmental quality? What is a government policy? What is politics? What is environmental policy? What are the four stages of a policy life cycle in democracies? What is a democracy? Describe two features of democratic governments that hinder their ability to deal with environmental problems. Describe seven principles that decision makers can use in making environmental policy. Answer: • Government can act as a brake on business enterprises that might result in harm to people or the environment. • A government’s policies are the set of laws and regulations it enforces and the programs it funds. • Politics is the process by which individuals and groups try to influence or control the policies and actions of governments at local, state, national, and international levels. • Environmental policy is the environmental laws and regulations that are developed, implemented, and enforced and the environmental programs that are funded by one or more government agencies. • The four stages of a policy life cycle are: ○ Recognition: identify a problem ○ Formulation: identify specific causes of the problem and develop a solution such as a law or program to deal with it ○ Implementation: put the solution into effect ○ Control: monitor progress and make adaptations as needed • Democracy is government by the people through elected officials and representatives. • Some features of democratic governments hinder their ability to deal with environmental problems. Problems such as climate change and biodiversity loss are complex and difficult to understand. Such problems also have long-lasting effects, are interrelated, and require integrated, long-term solutions that emphasize prevention. But because elections are held every few years, most politicians seeking reelection tend to focus on short-term, isolated issues rather than on complex, time-consuming, and long-term problems. Another problem is that many political leaders have too little understanding of how the earth’s natural systems work and how those systems support all life, economies, and societies. • Legislators and individuals evaluating existing or proposed environmental policies should be guided by several principles designed to minimize environmental harm: ○ The humility principle: our understanding of nature and how our actions affect nature is quite limited. ○ The reversibility principle: try not to make a decision that cannot be reversed later if the decision turns out to be wrong. ○ The net energy principle: do not encourage the widespread use of energy alternatives or technologies with low net energy yields. ○ The precautionary principle: when substantial evidence indicates that an activity threatens human health or the environment, take precautionary measures to prevent or reduce such harm, even if some of the cause-and-effect relationships are not well established scientifically. ○ The prevention principle: whenever possible, make decisions that help to prevent a problem from occurring or becoming worse. ○ The polluter-pays principle: develop regulations and use economic tools such as green taxes to ensure that polluters bear the costs of dealing with the pollutants and wastes they produce. ○ The environmental justice principle: establish environmental policy so that no group of people bears an unfair share of the burden created by pollution, environmental degradation, or the execution of environmental laws. 3. What are the three branches of government in the United States and what major role does each play? What is lobbying? Why are some analysts concerned about the growing power of some lobbyists? What are three major environmental laws? Explain why developing environmental policy is a difficult and controversial process. What are three ways in which scientific and political processes differ? Why are these differences important for policy-making? What are four major types of public lands in the United States? Describe the controversy over managing these lands. Answer: • The U.S. federal government consists of three separate but interconnected branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. ○ The legislative branch, called the Congress, has two main duties. One is to approve and oversee government policy-making by passing laws to establish government programs and funding for such programs. The other is to oversee the creation, functioning, and funding of agencies in the executive branch concerned with carrying out government policies. ○ The executive branch consists of the president, and a staff that together direct the agencies authorized by Congress to carry out government policies. The president also proposes annual budgets, legislation, and appointees for executive positions, which must be approved by the Senate, and tries to persuade Congress and the public to support executive policy proposals. ○ The judicial branch consists of the Supreme Court and lower federal courts. These courts, along with state and local courts, enforce and interpret different laws passed by legislative bodies at the local, state, and federal levels. • Lobbying is when individuals or groups use public pressure, personal contacts, and political action to persuade legislators to vote or act in their favor. • Some analysts believe lobbyists of large corporations and other organizations have grown too powerful and that their influence overshadows the input that legislators get from ordinary citizens. • See Figure 24-4 for a list of some of the major environmental laws passed in the United States since 1969. • Once an environmental law has been passed, it must be funded. Developing and adopting a budget is an important and controversial activity. Once a law is funded, the appropriate government department or agency must draw up regulations or rules for implementing it. An affected group may take the agency to court for failing to implement and enforce the regulations effectively or for enforcing them too rigidly. Politics plays an important role in the policies and staffing of environmental regulatory agencies—depending on what political party is in power and the prevailing environmental attitudes. Businesses facing environmental regulations often put political pressure on regulatory agencies and executives to have people from the regulated industries or groups appointed to high positions in such agencies. • Politics differs from science because in politics, there are no established principles or methods, politicians sometimes pick and choose facts to support their argument, and there is no openness or peer review in politics. • Non-scientific political tactics have been used to advance the interests of some groups and have been an effective setback for scientific research. • The four major types of public lands in the United States are the National Forest System, the National Wildlife Refuges, National Park System, and National Wilderness Preservation System. • Four principles should govern use of public lands: ○ They should be used primarily for protecting biodiversity, wildlife habitats, and ecosystems. ○ No one should receive government subsidies or tax breaks for using or extracting resources on public lands. ○ The American people deserve fair compensation for the use of their property. ○ All users or extractors of resources on public lands should be fully responsible for any environmental damage they cause. • There is strong and effective opposition to these ideas lie within the other public lands and are managed by the agencies in charge of those lands. Developers, resource extractors, many economists, and many citizens tend to view public lands in terms of their usefulness in providing mineral, timber, and other resources and increasing short-term economic growth. They have succeeded in blocking implementation of the four principles listed above. 4. Describe four ways in which individuals in democracies can help to develop or change environmental policy. What does it mean to say that we should think globally and act locally? Give an example of such an action. What are four ways to provide environmental leadership? Answer: • See Figure 24-7 for ways that individuals can influence environmental policy. • At a fundamental level, all politics is local. What we do to improve environmental quality in our own neighborhoods, schools, and work places has national and global implications, much like the ripples spreading outward from a pebble dropped in a pond. This is the meaning of the slogan, “Think globally; act locally.” • Examples of acting locally include reducing, reusing and recycling, buying eco-friendly products and doing other things to help the environment. • Four ways to provide environmental leadership: ○ First, we can lead by example, using our own lifestyle and values to show others that change is possible and can be beneficial. ○ Second, we can work within existing economic and political systems to bring about environmental improvement by campaigning and voting for well-informed, pro-environmental sustainability candidates, and by communicating with elected officials. ○ Third, we can run for some sort of local office. ○ Fourth, we can propose and work for better solutions to environmental problems. 5. What is environmental law? What is a civil suit? What are the plaintiff and the defendant in a lawsuit? Explain why it is difficult to win an environmental lawsuit. What is a SLAPP? List three general types of environmental laws. Describe how Diane Wilson used the legal system to help deal with a serious environmental problem in her community. What is an environmental impact statement? Answer: • Environmental law is a body of statements defining what acceptable environmental behavior is for individuals and groups, according to the larger community, and attempting to balance competing social and private interests. • Most environmental lawsuits are civil suits brought to settle disputes or damages between one party and another. • In a suit, the plaintiff is the party bringing the charge and the defendant is the party being charged. • Several factors limit the effectiveness of environmental lawsuits. ○ Plaintiffs bringing the suit must establish that they have the legal right or legal standing to do so in a particular court. To have such a right, plaintiffs must show that they have personally suffered health problems or financial losses allegedly caused by the defendant’s actions. ○ Bringing any lawsuit is expensive—too much so for most individuals. ○ Public interest law firms cannot recover attorneys’ fees unless Congress has specifically authorized it in the laws that those firms are seeking to have en-forced. By contrast, corporations can reduce their taxes by deducting their legal expenses—in effect getting a government subsidy to pay for part of their legal fees. ○ To stop a nuisance or to collect damages resulting from a nuisance or an act of negligence, plaintiffs must establish that they have been harmed in some significant way and that the defendant caused the harm. Doing this can be difficult and costly. ○ Most states have statues of limitations, laws that limit how long a plaintiff can take to sue after a particular event occurs. These statutes often make it essentially impossible for victims of cancer, which may take 10–20 years to develop, to file or win a negligence suit. ○ The court, or series of courts if the case is appealed, may take years to reach a decision. During that time a defendant may continue the allegedly damaging action unless the court issues a temporary injunction against it until the case is decided. • Corporations and developers sometimes file strategic lawsuits against public participation (SLAPPs) against citizens who publicly criticize a business for some activity. Most SLAPPs are not meant to be won, but are intended to intimidate individuals and activist groups. The plaintiff company may offer to drop the lawsuit if the defendants agree to stop their protest. • Federal environmental and resource protection laws set standards for pollution levels, screen new substances for safety, encourage resource conservation, set aside or protects certain species, resources, and ecosystems or require evaluation of the environmental impact of an activity proposed by a federal agency. • Diane Wilson was a shrimp boat captain when, in 1989, she had to stop shrimping in Lavaca Bay near Seadrift, Texas, because the number of shrimp there had dropped significantly. When learned that there the bay was polluted with mercury she set up a public meeting to discuss pollution of the bay caused by local chemical plants. She filed a lawsuit charging Formosa Plastics with dumping toxic chemicals into the bay. After years of legal proceedings, protests, and bad publicity, Formosa Plastics and Dow Chemical agreed to stop emitting pollutants into the bay. • Under federal law, an environmental impact statement must be developed for every major federal project likely to have an important effect on environmental quality. The EIS must describe why the proposed project is needed, its short-term and long-term beneficial and harmful environmental impacts, ways to lessen harmful impacts, and an evaluation of alternatives. The documents must be published and are open to public comment. 6. Explain how and why U.S. environmental laws have been under attack since 1980. How effective have the attacks been? Describe Julia Butterfly Hill’s efforts to save giant redwood trees in California from being cut down. Answer: • Since 1980, a well-organized and well-funded movement has mounted a strong campaign to weaken or repeal existing environmental laws and regulations and to change the ways in which public lands are used. Three major groups are strongly opposed to various environmental laws and regulations: some corporate leaders and other powerful people who see them as threats to their profits, wealth, and power; citizens who see them as threats to their private property rights and jobs; and state and local government officials who resent having to implement federal laws and regulations with little or no federal funding or who disagree with certain federal regulations. • Most major U. S. federal environmental laws and regulatory agencies have been weakened by a combination of executive orders and congressional actions. According to the Natural Resources Defense Council many regulatory agencies have been staffed largely with officials who favor weakening them, decreasing their funding, ignoring sound scientific consensus, and stifling dissent. • See Individual Matters: Butterfly in a Redwood Tree. 7. Describe the roles of grassroots and mainstream environmental organizations and give an example of each type of organization. Describe the role and effectiveness of the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) in the United States. Give two examples of successful roles that students have played in improving environmental quality. Answer: • In the United States, more than 8 million citizens belong to more than 30,000 NGOs that deal with environmental issues. They range from small grassroots groups to large heavily funded mainline groups, the latter usually staffed by expert lawyers, scientists, economists, lobbyists, and fund raisers. The largest of these groups are the World Wildlife Fund, Sierra Club. Some environmental NGOs have organized themselves into influential international networks. Examples include the Pesticide Action, Climate Action, International Rivers, and Women’s Environment and Development Networks. They collaborate across national borders and monitor the environmental activities of governments, corporations, and international agencies such as the World Bank and the World Trade Organization • The NRDC goes to court to stop environmentally harmful practices. It also informs and organizes millions of environmental activists to take actions to protect the environment—globally, regionally, and locally. For example, its Bio Gems Network regularly informs subscribers about environmental threats all over the world, and helps people to take action by donating money, signing petitions, and writing letters to corporate and government officials and newspaper editors. In 2005, with NRDC’s help, U.S. citizens organized massive opposition to a proposed government policy that would have allowed sewer operators to routinely dump barely treated sewage into the nation’s lakes, rivers, and streams. Because of well-informed, very vocal opposition to this proposal, the U.S. House of Representatives voted overwhelmingly to block the Environmental Protection Agency from finalizing this so-called “blending” proposal. In another case, in 2001, NRDC helped forge an agreement among Canadian timber companies, environmentalists, native peoples, and the government of British Columbia (Canada) to protect a vast area of the Great Bear Rainforest from destructive logging. This followed years of pressure from NRDC activists on logging companies, their U.S. corporate customers, and provincial officials to protect the habitat of the rare all-white spirit bear as well as the habitats of eagles, grizzly bears, and wild salmon. • Since the mid-1980s, there has been a boom in environmental awareness on college campuses and in public and private schools across the United States. One example is Oberlin College in Ohio where the students helped to design a more sustainable environmental studies building powered by solar panels, which produce 30% more electricity than the building uses. Another example is Northland College in Wisconsin, where students helped to design a green residence hall that features a wind turbine, panels of solar cells, furniture made of recycled materials, and waterless (composting) toilets. 8. Explain the importance of environmental security, relative to economic and national security. List two pieces of good news and two pieces of bad news about international efforts to deal with global environmental problems. List three problems with global environmental treaties and agreements. Describe roles that corporations can play in helping to achieve environmental sustainability, and give an example of such an effort. Answer: • According to environmental expert Norman Myers, If a nation’s environmental foundations are degraded or depleted, its economy may well decline, its social fabric deteriorate, and its political structure become destabilized as growing numbers of people seek to sustain themselves from declining resource stocks. Thus, national security is no longer about fighting forces and weaponry alone. It relates increasingly to watersheds, croplands, forests, genetic resources, climate, and other factors that, taken together, are as crucial to a nation’s security as military factors. • See Figure 24-12 for good and bad news about international efforts to deal with global environmental problems. • See Figure 24-13 for problems with global environmental treaties and agreements. • While governments can set environmental standards and goals through legislation and regulations, corporations generally have highly efficient ways of accomplishing such goals. Making a transition to more environmentally sustainable societies and economies will require huge amounts of investment capital and research and development. Most of this money is likely to come from profitable corporations. For example, Stephan Schmidheiny, a Swiss billionaire, organized a group made up of the CEOs of 48 of the world’s largest corporations in the early 1990s. It eventually became the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), which is dedicated to promoting sustainable development built around improving eco- efficiency. Today, this council is a highly influential coalition of more than 170 international companies, involving some 700 global business leaders. 9. What are four guidelines for shifting to more environmentally sustainable societies? Answer: • Emphasize preventing environmental problems • Use marketplace solutions • Cooperate and innovate to find win-win solutions • Be honest and objective 10. Explain how the work of Denis Hayes and other organizers of Earth Day 1970 serves as a model for changing public opinion and influencing government policy (Core Case Study). How can the three principles of sustainability guide wise environmental policy making? Answer: • The efforts to establish Earth Day started with a grassroots local campaign and it has become a global movement focusing attention on environmental issues. • Environmental policy should be directed at valuing and conserving biodiversity, ensuring that matter and chemicals are properly cycling, and focusing on renewable sources of energy. Critical Thinking The following are examples of the material that should be contained in possible student answers to the end of chapter Critical Thinking questions. They represent only a summary overview and serve to highlight the core concepts that are addressed in the text. It should be anticipated that the students will provide more in-depth and detailed responses to the questions depending on an individual instructor’s stated expectations. 1. If it were 1970, would you participate in a teach-in or other demonstration on Earth Day (Core Case Study)? Why or why not? Do you think that a similar global demonstration is called for now, focused on today’s environmental challenges? If so, why do you think this has not yet happened as it did in 1970? Answer: Given the severity of many environmental issues, and the amount of knowledge we have about the environment today, I think that global demonstrations are definitely called for. These activities are particularly necessary in addressing the more pressing issues that are global in scope, such as climate change. The activities in the 1970’s reflected not only a growing awareness of environmental matters, but also a generally disposition toward environmental issues that was favorable. This is also the time that a lot of landmark environmental legislation was passed. There are currently attempts to create global movements of this nature. The 350 organization is dedicated to addressing climate change on a global scale by focusing on teach-ins and other grassroots approaches. Earth Day, of course is still celebrate as well. 2. Pick an environmental problem that affects the area where you live and decide where in the policy life cycle (Figure 24-2) the problem could best be placed. Apply the cycle to this problem and describe how the problem has progressed (or will likely progress) through each stage. If your problem has not progressed to the control stage, describe how you think the problem would best be dealt with in that stage. Answer: Student answers will vary but an example follows: In my area, land use and open space preservation is an important issue. The problem was recognized (recognition step) in the 1970s and a discussion then began about how best to deal with it (the formulation stage). In the late 1970s, a green belt and open space purchase program was established (the implementation step) and those areas are now managed by my city and county (the control step). Although this problem has reached the control stage, like many other environmental policies, new aspects to this problem are constantly recognized and so there is a continual updating of these policies. Problem: Air Pollution from Industrial Emissions • Problem Identification: Increased health issues and poor air quality detected. • Policy Formulation: Drafting of regulations and incentives for cleaner technologies. • Policy Implementation: Enactment of emissions standards; monitoring systems established. • Policy Evaluation: Assessment of policy effectiveness through air quality and health data. • Policy Control: Tighten regulations, enhance penalties, and support cleaner technologies if necessary. Current Stage: Implementation Next Steps: Move to control stage for adjustments and ongoing monitoring. 3. Explain why you agree or disagree with each of the seven principles listed on p. 640-641, which are recommended by some analysts for use in making environmental policy decisions. Which three of these principles do you think are most important? Why? Answer: The humility principle: I agree that we do not know all there is to know about how nature works. That is why many scientists are still conducting research on ecology and the environment. We tend only to realize the consequences of our actions a long time afterwards, as in the case of ozone depletion or the anthropogenic greenhouse effect. This is due to the time lag that often occurs between human actions and environmental consequences. Other actions, such as oil spills, have consequences that are immediately evident. The reversibility principle: I agree that we should really evaluate our decisions fully, as in many instances once they are made and acted on, they could have results that can never be altered. The net energy principle: I agree. Given the lobbying power of energy interests, it is a likely trap to fall into, to become reliant on a resource with low net energy yield. This is bad for the environment and bad for sustainability. The precautionary principle: I agree that it is better to be safe than sorry. As we do not fully understand the most intricate workings of the natural world, we should be very cautious in proceeding with actions if we think they may have even the remotest chance of environmental degradation. The prevention principle: I agree. It is much better to prevent pollution than clean it up. We need to apply this rationale to all human activities relating to the natural world so that we do not make things worse. Some decisions may have to include and mandate certain mitigation strategies if those decisions are acted on. The polluter-pays principle: I agree that industry should develop ways to produce their products in the most environmentally friendly ways possible. They should be held accountable. However, in the economic society that we live in, any extra costs incurred with manufacturing goods will be passed on to the consumer. This will result in a higher cost for the product and may make the consumer think twice before buying it. The environmental justice principle: I agree that no one sector of society should be treated in a prejudicial manner when it comes to any environmental law, regulation, or policy. For far too long toxic material has been stored (dumped) on the tribal lands of Native Americans, or on the derelict sites in low-income inner city neighborhoods. Not only is this practice unfair, it is also immoral and unethical. 4. What are two ways in which the scientific process described in Chapter 2 (Figure 2-2, p. 32-38) parallels the policy life cycle (Figure 24-2)? What are two ways in which they differ? Answer: Both science and policy processes start with the identification of a problem or question and then the formulation of an approach to dealing with that problem. In this way, the two activities are similar. They differ in that the focus of science is primarily the acquisition of knowledge and in a policy context, and particularly as policies are implemented, many different factors should be considered including economics, human welfare, and science. 5. Explain why you agree or disagree with (a) each of the four principles that biologists and some economists have suggested for using public lands in the United States (pp. 645–645), and with (b) each of the five suggestions made by developers and resource extractors for managing and using U.S. public lands (pp. 645). Answer: The four principles of conservation biologists and environmental economists include: 1. using public lands primarily for protecting biodiversity, wildlife habitats and ecosystems; 2. preventing government subsidies or tax breaks for resource extraction on public land; 3. American people should receive fair compensation for land use; and 4. all users or resource extractors on public lands should be fully responsible for any environmental consequences. All of these principles would help develop sustainable and ecologically sound approaches to public land management, so I agree with them. The alternative approaches include: 1. selling lands and resources to individuals or corporations, usually at less than market value; 2. cutting federal funding for public land administration; 3. cutting old-growth forests and replacing them with plantations; 4. opening national parks, wildlife refuges, etc. for extractive use and recreation; and 5. reducing or removing the power of the national park service and run parks through private firms. Most of these suggestions make little sense since public lands are a common resource, however, student answers may address some of the issues associated with fossil fuel extraction in a period of high oil and natural gas prices. 6. Do you think that corporations and government bodies are ever justified in filing SLAPP lawsuits? Give three reasons for your answer. Do you think that potential defendants of SLAPP suits should be protected in any way from such suits? Explain. Answer: SLAPP lawsuits are intended to intimidate individuals and activist groups, and so for that reason are difficult to support. They also have the effect of stifling activism and individual participation in environmental policy, and are negative for that reason. Because these types of lawsuits can be costly for defendants, even a frivolous lawsuit will still require expenditures in court. So there is a good reason to argue that federal law should protect and reimburse defendants from these types of lawsuits if they are deemed frivolous by a judge. 7. Government agencies can help to keep an economy going or to boost certain types of economic development by, for example, building or expanding a major highway through an undeveloped area. Proponents of such development have argued that requiring environmental impact statements for these projects interferes with efforts to help an economy. Do you agree? Is this a problem? Why or why not? Answer: I don’t agree that environmental impact statements interfere with economic development activities. One of the components of the NEPA allows for the evaluation of both environmental and economic impacts of a proposed activity, so I feel that existing federal law already addresses the environmental and economic consideration of large public works projects. 8. List three ways in which you could apply Concept 24-6 to making your lifestyle more environmentally sustainable. Answer: I could be more careful in my purchase of products to ensure that I buy only those goods that are produced using life-cycle management strategies. I can write letters to my local paper and to my elected officials to encourage more sustainable approaches in policy development. I can find a part of my local environment that is in need of improvement and work to protect and resource that system. 9. Congratulations! You are in charge of the country where you live. List the five most important components of your environmental policy. Answer: My policy would: 1. Eliminate subsidies and tax loopholes that lead to environmental harm. 2. Strengthen enforcement of existing federal environmental policy. 3. Develop a national climate change policy. 4. Implement a green tax system that is revenue neutral but encourages sustainable activities. 5. Require all extractive use of federal lands to include the full cost of environment impacts and clean up. 10. List two questions that you would like to have answered as a result of reading this chapter. Answer: 1. How can environmental policies be effectively enforced to ensure compliance from all stakeholders, especially industries with significant environmental impacts? 2. What role can innovative technologies play in enhancing the sustainability and effectiveness of environmental policy measures? Data Analysis Choose an environmental issue that you have studied in this course, such as climate change, population growth, or biodiversity loss. Conduct a poll of students, faculty, staff, and local residents by asking them the questions that follow relating to your particular environmental issue. Poll as many people as you can in order to get a large sample. Create categories. For example, note whether each respondent is male or female. By creating such categories, you are placing each person into a respondent pool. You can add other questions about age, political leaning, and other factors to refine your pools. Poll Questions: Question 1: On a scale of 1 to 10, how knowledgeable are you about environmental issue X? Answer: Females: Higher average rating (7.2) than Males (6.5). Political Left: Higher average rating (7.5) than Political Right (6.2). Question 2: On a scale of 1 to 10, how aware are you of ways in which you, as an individual, impact environmental issue X? Answer: Females: Higher average rating (6.8) than Males (5.9). Political Left: Higher average rating (6.8) than Political Right (5.7). Question 3: On a scale of 1 to 10, how important is it for you to learn more about environmental issue X? Answer: Females: Higher average rating (7.5) than Males (7.2). Political Left: Higher average rating (7.8) than Political Right (6.9). Question 4: On a scale of 1 to 10, how sure are you that an individual can have a positive influence on environmental issue X? Answer: Females: Higher average rating (7.4) than Males (6.7). Political Left: Higher average rating (7.5) than Political Right (6.2). Question 5: On a scale of 1 to 10, how sure are you that the government is providing the appropriate level of leadership with regard to environmental issue X? Answer: Political Left: Higher average rating (6.0) than Political Right (5.1). Overall, confidence in government leadership is low. 1. Collect your data and analyze your findings to measure any differences among the respondent pools. 2. List any major conclusions you would draw from the data. 3. Publicize your findings on your school’s website or local newspaper. Answer: Major Conclusions Females and those leaning left generally have higher knowledge, awareness, and urgency about climate change. Confidence in individual impact is higher among females and those on the left. Government leadership on climate change is viewed critically across all demographics. Publicizing Findings Create a Report: Summarize data and conclusions. School Website: Publish with visual aids. Local Newspaper: Highlight key insights and trends. Note to instructors Have each student check in with you as to the topic they have chosen to evaluate in this survey to avoid duplication. Some students may wish to add other questions about the participant pool such as age or political leaning. The above five questions can be applied to any environmental issue. A survey using the questions about should provide the class with an idea of the general level of knowledge about the issue; whether individuals think that they have any role in, or impact on, the issue; whether they care enough to want to learn more; if they think that an individual can play a role and have an influence on the issue, and how they think the government is addressing the issue. The students could produce a presentation on their findings and the interpretation of the collected data. This could be disseminated to the local community in many ways. Solution Manual for Living in the Environment: Principles, Connections, and Solutions G. Tyler Miller, Scott Spoolman 9780538735346