This Document Contains Chapters 3 to 4 Chapter 3 Learning and Motivation Essential Outcome After completing the lesson on this chapter, if nothing else, students should have a grasp on what learning is and how it occurs. They should be able to identify and describe the stages of learning and appreciate how learning styles and preferences impact training effectiveness. Chapter Learning Outcomes By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: • describe how to classify learning outcomes • explain how people learn using the three stages of learning and resource allocation theory • use Kolb’s learning styles to distinguish the different ways people learn • compare and contrast the different theories of learning and motivation • explain why training motivation is important for learning • describe the model of training effectiveness Key Concepts: HOW DOES THIS CHAPTER CONNECT TO THE WORLD OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT? 1. As students learned in the previous chapter, organizations can only learn when their employees do, therefore it is vital for training and development professionals to have a firm grasp of how learning occurs. 2. Training is not a goal in and of itself—learning, and the development of skills and behavioural changes that result, are the goals of training. Learning outcomes helps trainers target training to achieve specific learning goals. Classifying learning outcomes using a model like Gagné’s (described on page 74-75 and illustrated in Table 3.1) provides trainers with a useful framework for selecting appropriate outcomes, whether they be verbal (declarative knowledge), intellectual (procedural), cognitive, motor skills, or attitudinal. 3. Learning is a process, and happens in stages. Learning theories such as ACT (Adaptive Character of Thought) or Resource Allocation Theory provide insight into how these stages work, and have real-world application for trainers in designing effective learning programs. 4. No two people are exactly alike, nor do they learn exactly alike. Learning style theories, such as Kolb’s (described on page 79, and illustrated in Table 3.3), are helpful for trainers tailoring lessons to accommodate the various learning styles and preferences of trainees. 5. An understanding of a few of the more common learning theories (such as conditioning theory, social cognitive theory, and adult learning theory) is also essential knowledge for trainers when it comes to designing and delivering effective training programs. In particular, the differences between how adults learn vs. how children learn (as illustrated in Table 3.4 Teaching Children Versus Adults and The Trainer’s Notebook 3.2 Implications of Adult Learning Theory for Training (both on page 87) should be emphasized. 6. Since motivation also plays a key role in learning, motivational theories (such as Maslow’s Need Hierarchy, Alderfer’s ERG theory, and expectancy theory) help trainers design and deliver training in ways that tap into both the intrinsic and extrinsic motivations of trainees to help them learn effectively and successfully. This part of the lesson should emphasize the importance of goals (proximal and distal goals and goal orientation), as well as the impact that training motivation has on training effectiveness. 7. Finally, the model of training effectiveness (described on page 95, and illustrated in Figure 3.2) shows the linkages between training, personal factors, and attitudes with learning and retention, individual behaviour and performance, and organizational effectiveness. Student Motivation: WHY SHOULD STUDENTS CARE? Students by their very nature have an inherent interest in learning and can readily identify with its importance and value, so they will easily associate themselves with the central concept of learning. However, they may find it challenging to grasp and assimilate the numerous theories introduced and described in this chapter. It is important therefore to emphasize the practical application of each of the theories presented. Students should be able to reflect on their own sources of motivation, which may help the various theories and approaches seem more applicable to their own reality. The Implications for Training section that follows each theory presented should therefore be emphasized and expanded upon where deemed necessary. Barriers to Learning: WHAT ARE SOME COMMON STUDENT MISCONCEPTIONS AND STUMBLING BLOCKS? Theories are found interesting by some learners, while others may find their eyes glaze over as they quickly lose interest. Should this happen, and it is very likely, it presents a perfect teaching moment to show the practical implications of the theories to the field of training and development. The mixed response, if received, is an ideal time to engage the class in a discussion on why this happens, and what it says about learning styles and preferences, expectancy theory, and motivation for learning! Engagement Strategies: WHAT CAN I DO IN CLASS? 1. During the first 10 minutes of the class, ask students to take a minute to think about and jot down their motives for taking this course. Ask them to call out their reasons as you record them on a white board or flipchart. Once a suitable number of reasons are cited, ask the class to review the list and identify which of the motives could best be described as “intrinsic,” and which best described as “extrinsic.” Hold a general discussion on the role motivation plays in learning, and conclude this opening exercise by explaining the focus of this lesson is on learning, a topic with which everyone in the room has direct and relevant experience. 2. For In-Class Exercise 5, on page 99: Divide the class in groups of 4–5 students. Ask each group to focus on a specific theory of motivation and use the theory to answer the question. Each team is to present its list of suggested techniques. As an alternate exercise, divide the class in two and have them compete against the clock to brainstorm the most ideas for increasing motivation. Tell them there will be a prize for the winning team. Have a small prize (such as candy) for all members of both teams. Debrief and ask about how they felt about competing, and about the motivational effects of rewards and punishments. 3. For In-Class Exercise 6, on page 99: Have students complete the exercise with the help of a learning partner to promote dialogue and deeper reflection and understanding. Have students present their assessments in class. 4. For In-Class Exercise 7, on page 99: Conduct as outlined. Option: Have students present their self-management programs in class or as an assignment. 5. For In-Class Exercise 8, on page 100: Conduct as outlined. Option: Have students present their classification of outcomes in small groups. As a second option, list the benefits on a handout sheet and have students label each to complete the classification exercise. Offer a prize to the student(s) who finish fastest, most accurately, etc. as another way to demonstrate the potential power of extrinsic motivation (rewards). Suggestions for Large Class Exercises a) This is a quick activity to create opportunity for movement and to physically “see” who is in each learning style. Post four signs around the room, one for each learning style. Ask students to move to the sign that best represents their learning style. In large classes, this may give you about 20+ students per learning style. It is valuable for students to physically see how many others share their learning style, so the large group is fine. Ask someone to count how many students in each group and estimate the percent of the class with that learning style. b) Continuing from part a: Have the larger groups split up into 4–5 smaller groups and create a top five list of ways they like to learn. Have the groups come back together and see what elements they have identified are common, and add unique elements to one list. Post these on a flipchart (or white board) for the entire class to review. Suggestions for Technology-Enhanced Classrooms a) Use the Internet to locate an online learning styles assessment and have students complete this. See the weblink section that follows for a suggested source. b) Show photographs (or online images) of famous people who are successful in their field, and who are known to have high degree of motivation, locus of control, persistence, or perfectionism. Suggestions include well-known sports figures such as Tiger Woods, Wayne Gretzky, Michael Phelps, or entertainers like Byonce. Have students discuss ways in which these individuals have shown a high degree of training motivation in learning their “craft” and the personal characteristics they exhibit that influence this. Suggestions for Internet Classes a) Ask students to research three famous people whom they believe have shown a high degree of training motivation and have students post their examples and rational to the discussion board. b) Have students discuss their decision to take an online course. What factors led to their decision? What factors related to learning style and motivation did they consider? Assessment Tools You may wish to make use of the Test Bank, PowerPoint slides, or at the end of a class, ask a student to summarize the key points from the lesson. Reflections on Teaching: HOW CAN I ASSESS MY OWN “PERFORMANCE”? Good teaching requires the practice of ongoing self-assessment and reflection. At the completion of this lesson, you may find it helpful to reflect on the following, and consider whether or not you want or need to make any adjustments for subsequent lessons. 1. What worked in this lesson? What didn’t? 2. Were students engaged? Were they focused or did they go off on tangents? 3. Did I take steps to adequately assess student learning? 4. Did my assessments suggest that they understood the key concepts? 5. What (if anything) should I do differently next time? 6. How can I gather student feedback? 7. How can I use this feedback for continuous improvement of my teaching? Suggestion for quick feedback on your teaching: All too often instructors wait until the end of the course to ask students to provide feedback on you as a teacher (often from the end-of-course evaluation). While the feedback data derived from these end-of-course evaluations are helpful for subsequent courses, they do nothing to help you adjust to the learning needs and preferences of your current students for this course. By this point in the course, your students should probably have a good idea of your teaching style, and it may be helpful to solicit some feedback from them in terms of how your teaching style and delivery methods help (or hinder) their learning and mastery of the course learning outcomes, so that you can consider making adjustments that might better facilitate their learning. One quick and efficient way to accomplish this is by inviting your students to do a “stop-start-continue” exercise. Ask them to divide a page in three with these headings (or give it to them on a handout), and ask them to simply identify the things you do as a teacher that impede their learning (things to stop doing), things they would like you to do that would help them learn (things to start doing), and things you do that help them learn (things to continue doing). An alternate way to gather this data quickly is to supply students with a few sticky notes, and on their way out the door have them place the notes on the appropriately labelled flipchart papers you have strategically (and conveniently) put up near the classroom exit. If you choose to use this method of gathering feedback, be sure to do the following: 1. Ensure confidentiality—don’t ask students to put their names on the feedback, and assure them you have no interest in trying to figure out their identity from their handwriting or printing. 2. Related to point 1, ask them to be honest, but in a constructive manner. Reinforce to them that you view your teaching and their learning as a sort of “partnership,” and that you will take their feedback seriously, and in the constructive manner of which it was intended. 3. Be sure to follow-up and share with the class a synopsis of the feedback received. Discuss with them what you intend to do with it—the things (big or small) that you are willing or able to change (to start, stop, or continue doing), and those suggestions you will not implement, along with some rationale as to why. This exercise, if done thoughtfully and with proper execution, can make a significant contribution to creating a more engaging, respectful, and collaborative classroom learning environment. Additional Resources Chapter Summary We began this chapter by stating that a major goal of training and development is learning. We also described two classification schemes for learning outcomes. The learning process was described in terms of three stages of learning (declarative, knowledge compilation, and procedural knowledge) and resource allocation theory. Differences in how individuals prefer to learn were then discussed in terms of Kolb’s learning styles. Two major theories of learning (conditioning theory and social cognitive theory) as well as adult learning theory were then described along with their implications for training and development. The chapter also described need theories and process theories of motivation and their implications for training. Training motivation was also discussed along with its predictors and consequences, with a special emphasis on goal-setting theory. The chapter concluded with a model of training effectiveness that shows the linkages between training, personal factors, and attitudes with learning and retention, individual behaviour and performance, and organizational effectiveness. Web Links • “Business Balls” is a virtual treasure trove of resources for trainers. Here is an excellent overview of Kolb’s learning styles theory: http://www.businessballs.com/kolblearningstyles.htm • InstructionalDesign.org is another excellent resource. Here is a link to their overview of Gagné’s work: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/conditions-learning.html • There are many free on-line learning style inventories available. Not all have been scientifically validated, but each is helpful to some degree in helping learners shed some light on their learning style preferences. Here is one from EducationPlanner.org that is appropriate for inclusion in an on-line class, or as a take-away assignment in a face-to-face class: http://www.educationplanner.org/students/self-assessments/learning-styles-quiz.shtml Suggestions for End-of-Chapter Exercises 1. For In-Class Exercise 1, on page 99: Ask for a volunteer to describe a friend or acquaintance (no real names, please!). As a problem-solving exercise, ask the class to brainstorm ways to increase the subject’s self-efficacy and list their suggestions on a board or flip chart. Review the list and ask the class to pick out the best suggestions and explain their choices. 2. For In-Class Exercise 2, on page 99: Conduct exercise as described, having students work in small groups of 3–5. 3. For In-Class Exercise 3, on page 99: Ask each student to submit a copy of their goals to you. Review and provide feedback. An additional option is to review the goals and actual achievements at the end of the course. Alternatively, discuss whether students have typically set goals in other courses they have taken. Discuss the nature of these goals and their impact on performance. 4. For In-Class Exercise 4, on page 99: As an alternate to a course, ask students to consider an actual workplace training experience they have had recently. Case Incident: Management Training at IKEA Answers 1. Based on Table 3.1 on page 75, which categories in Gagne’s classification are most likely included in IKEA’s manager training program? Which categories might be less emphasized, and why? Answer: Students should refer to Table 3.1 on page 75 to answer this question. They should be able to ascertain that manager training would more than likely involve most of the categories in Gagne’s classification, perhaps with the exception of motor skills. They should further be able to determine that the training would likely focus on the cognitive and affective domains in the Kraiger, Ford, and Salas classification scheme. In answering the second part of the question about management competencies, they should be able to list things like supervising people, managing projects and budgets, etc., and state that both formal and informal learning would likely be involved, as described in Chapter 2. IKEA’s manager training program would likely involve most of Gagne’s classification categories, such as cognitive (e.g., problem-solving, decision-making) and affective (e.g., attitudes, values) domains. It might place less emphasis on motor skills, as these are less relevant to managerial roles. Training would focus on developing cognitive and affective competencies needed for effective management. 2. How does IKEA’s manager training program align with the three stages of the ACT theory? Describe each stage and how it applies to the training program. Answer: Students should conclude that the training program involves the three stages incorporated in the ACT theory: managers will learn facts and theory through the courses (declarative knowledge); integrate their new learning with what they already know through their practicum assignments and job shadowing (knowledge compilation and procedural knowledge). A change students might recommend could be further formal opportunities to apply their learning once back in their home store (with the support of a mentor, perhaps). • Declarative Knowledge: Managers learn facts and theories through formal courses. • Knowledge Compilation: Managers integrate new knowledge with existing knowledge through practicum assignments. • Procedural Knowledge: Managers apply what they’ve learned during job shadowing and practical tasks. • A potential recommendation is to provide further formal opportunities to apply their learning back in their home stores, possibly with mentor support, to reinforce and solidify their learning. 3. List and describe Kolb’s four learning modes as illustrated in Table 3.3 on page 79. How might IKEA’s training program accommodate different learning preferences? Answer: Students should be comfortable listing and describing Kolb’s four learning modes, as illustrated in Table 3.3 on page 79. While answering the question specifically is challenging given the limited information provided in the case, they should be able to relate to the concept that people learn differently and have different preferences for how they learn, and that the IKEA training more than likely provides opportunities for all four modes of Kolb’s model to be used. Kolb’s four learning modes are: • Concrete Experience: Engaging in hands-on activities and real-life scenarios. • Reflective Observation: Reflecting on experiences and observing others. • Abstract Conceptualization: Developing theories and models based on observations. • Active Experimentation: Applying new ideas to solve problems and test theories. • IKEA’s training program likely provides opportunities for all four modes by incorporating practical exercises, reflection periods, theoretical instruction, and opportunities for experimentation to cater to different learning preferences. Case Study: The Performance Appraisal Training Program Answers 1. What are the expected learning outcomes of the performance appraisal training program, and which aspect seems to be most lacking according to the case study? Answer: Students should be able to answer that the expected learning outcomes involve verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, and, perhaps most importantly, attitudes (internal states) which seems to be the aspect of the training most needed but most lacking. The expected learning outcomes include verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, and attitudes. The aspect most lacking in the training appears to be attitudes (internal states), which is critical but seems to be the area where the training has been least effective. 2. How does conditioning theory explain the lack of behavioral change following the performance appraisal training, and how might social cognitive theory account for the role of peer pressure in the training outcomes? Answer: Conditioning theory explains that learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour in response to a particular stimulus. The conditioning process emphasizes the importance of consequences of behaviour – in this case, there did not seem to be any consequence (positive or negative) to the supervisors learning or applying what they were supposed to learn in their training, so it should come as little surprise that there was no real change in behaviour as a result of the training. Social cognitive theory might explain the power of peer pressure (in this case negative) which led the supervisors to not take the training seriously (for example, the role play exercise), and in general not taking the training seriously. Having consequences for applying the skills acquired (positive or negative reinforcement) as well as some positive role modelling (either through supervisors who were committed to the performance management process leading by example, or by having senior leaders in the training modeling the training behaviours) might have improved the training outcomes significantly. Conditioning theory suggests that learning is a change in behavior in response to stimuli, and the lack of behavioral change can be attributed to the absence of consequences (positive or negative) for applying the learned skills. Social cognitive theory explains that negative peer pressure influenced the supervisors’ lack of engagement and seriousness towards the training. Implementing consequences for skill application and positive role modeling could have improved training outcomes. 3. List and describe the adult learning principles from Table 3.4 on page 87. What was identified as a significant challenge in the effectiveness of the training, and how might it be addressed? Answer: Students should be able to list and describe the adult learning principles listed in Table 3.4 on page 87. In their answers they might note the ingrained habits and attitudes (lack of openness to change) as the greatest single challenge in terms of the effectiveness of this training initiative. They should refer to the list of implications for training (Trainer’s Notebook 3.2 on page 87) and might comment that perhaps there was not enough emphasis on conveying the importance of the training, and that the role play may not have provided safe practice opportunities. Principles: • Self-Directed Learning: Adults prefer to control their own learning. • Experience-Based Learning: Learning is based on prior experiences. • Relevance: Learning should be relevant to their work. • Problem-Centered Learning: Focus on problem-solving rather than content absorption. • Challenge: Ingrained habits and lack of openness to change were significant challenges. To address this, greater emphasis should be placed on conveying the training's importance and providing safe practice opportunities. 4. How did the training program cater to different learning styles according to the four learning styles model? What improvements might be suggested to better address various learning preferences? Answer: Students should likely be able to conclude that the training likely suited CE types the most, however it is possible that the training provided opportunities for all four learning styles to be used at some point during the training to varying degrees. To improve the program, they may suggest things like more practice opportunities, more time for reflection on what was learned, or more time for group discussion. The training likely suited Concrete Experience (CE) types the most. It may have provided opportunities for all four learning styles to varying degrees. To improve the program, suggestions include offering more practice opportunities, providing more time for reflection, and enhancing group discussion activities. 5. What issues were identified regarding learner motivation in the performance appraisal training program? How could these issues be addressed to improve motivation and training outcomes? Answer: Students should be able to identify that learner motivation was a significant problem, and that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation was lacking (intrinsic because the supervisors did not see value in the training, and extrinsic because there did not seem to be any consequence tied to applying the skills that were to be acquired through the training). The consultant could have worked with administration to increase training motivation through the setting of training goals, establishing expectations for application, and establishing some consequences for behaviours exhibited by the trainees both during and after the training session. The training faced issues with both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation was lacking because the supervisors did not see value in the training, while extrinsic motivation was lacking due to the absence of consequences for applying the skills. To improve motivation, the consultant could work with administration to set training goals, establish clear expectations for application, and introduce consequences for behavior during and after the training. Flashback Answers 1. How does training supervisors in the performance appraisal process contribute to achieving organizational goals and supporting nurses in implementing new job requirements? What are the potential consequences of not providing this training? Answer: Benefits of performance appraisal training: • Refer back to Figure 1.1 in Chapter 1 (page 7)—note how performance goals start the process, on which feedback is provided, leading to the evaluation of the performance, all the while supported by appropriate employee development interventions. Having supervisors trained in this process helps the organization achieve its goal of implementing the new nursing job requirements, and assist the nurses by identifying the training supports they require in order to be effective. Without this training and support, it is unlikely the new nursing model skills expected will be evenly practiced, resulting in uneven quality of care. Training supervisors in the performance appraisal process helps the organization implement new nursing job requirements effectively by ensuring supervisors can provide feedback and support to nurses. This training aids in identifying the training supports nurses need to be effective. Without this training, the new nursing model skills may not be uniformly practiced, leading to inconsistent quality of care. 2. How did the lack of a proper needs analysis affect the effectiveness of the performance appraisal training program? What aspects of the ISD model were overlooked, and how could these have been addressed? Answer: Training vis-à-vis the instructional systems design (ISD) model (refer back to Figure 1.5 on page 26): • It is evident that a proper needs analysis was not conducted. Assumptions were made that the problem (performance appraisals were not being conducted) was a training problem. Lack of skill on the part of the supervisors in knowing how to conduct proper performance appraisals may have been part of the problem, but attitudes and motivations toward appraisals were also a significant barrier to performance. Had this been taken into account during the person analysis stage of the needs analysis, it could have been addressed both within the training design and delivery context (dealt with in terms of the training objectives, content, and methods), as well as outside of the training context in terms of providing incentives to implement, removing obstacles inhibiting implementation, or both. The lack of a proper needs analysis led to assumptions that the problem was solely a training issue, whereas attitudes and motivations also played significant roles. The ISD model's person analysis stage was overlooked, which should have identified barriers such as attitudes and motivations. Addressing these factors within the training design and delivery, as well as providing incentives and removing implementation obstacles, could have improved the program's effectiveness. 3. Evaluate the hospital’s adherence to Senge’s five disciplines of a learning organization. In what ways did the hospital fall short, and how could embracing these principles have improved the performance appraisal training? Answer: The hospital as a learning organization: • In terms of Senge’s five “disciplines” (see page 45-46), the hospital falls short on a number of accounts—the behaviours of many of the supervisors toward the training program does not reflect personal mastery; management did not do an effective job in creating a shared vision for the new nursing model; mental models of the performance appraisal process (and its importance and benefits) were not created; and the resistance toward the training and the behaviours of the trainees revealed a lack of team learning and systems thinking. Had the hospital culture embraced the learning organization principles, the training would have been valued more by the participants who would have had a common appreciation for its importance to the organization. The hospital fell short in several areas: • Personal Mastery: Many supervisors did not demonstrate personal mastery regarding the training. • Shared Vision: Management failed to create a shared vision for the new nursing model. • Mental Models: There was a lack of effective mental models concerning the performance appraisal process and its importance. • Team Learning and Systems Thinking: Resistance to training and behavior of trainees showed a lack of team learning and systems thinking. • Embracing these principles could have led to greater appreciation and value for the training, improving engagement and implementation. 4. How does a learning culture impact the effectiveness of training and development? What might have been different if the hospital had a strong learning culture? Answer: Connection between organizational learning and training and development: • A learning culture regards training and development as crucial to organizational effectiveness, and as a necessary aspect of everyone’s job. Were this the case in the hospital example, much of the resistance toward the training would have been negated, the learning more supported, and the skills developed would have been more evenly transferred to the workplace. A learning culture views training and development as crucial for organizational effectiveness and integrates it into everyone’s job. In such a culture, resistance to training would be reduced, learning would be better supported, and skills would be more effectively transferred to the workplace. If the hospital had a strong learning culture, there would likely have been greater acceptance of the training, leading to more successful implementation and better outcomes. Running Case Study: Dirty Pools Suggested Answers to Case Questions: 1. What types of knowledge and outcomes should the training program for pool maintenance address? Include specific examples of each type of knowledge and outcome. Answer: Both declarative and procedural knowledge involved; the outcomes will need to include cognitive strategies and attitudinal training, and to some extent motor skills will be involved (e.g. manipulating equipment used to collect and test water samples). Similarly, cognitive, skill-based, and affective outcomes will apply. The training program should address both declarative and procedural knowledge. For example, declarative knowledge includes understanding the principles of pool water chemistry, while procedural knowledge involves skills such as manipulating equipment used for testing water samples. The training should also include cognitive strategies (e.g., problem-solving for water quality issues), attitudinal training (e.g., importance of maintaining safety standards), and motor skills (e.g., using testing equipment accurately). 2. How can conditioning theory and social cognitive theory be applied to the pool maintenance training program? Provide specific examples for each theory. Answer: Conditioning theory can be put to good use as the trainees learn specific skills (shaping) and have them reinforced by the trainer (or virtual trainer, if the training is delivered on-line); learn to perform complex tasks such running tests (chaining); and applying what was learned during training on the job in conditions that could be different (generalization). Soclal Cognitive Theory could apply through the use of behaviour modeling by the trainer or experts, having trainees learn collaboratively (learning teams, learning partners, etc.), and by being sure to help build self-efficacy in the trainees as they attempt to learn new skills. • Conditioning Theory: • Shaping: Trainees can learn specific skills with incremental reinforcement from the trainer. • Chaining: Trainees can learn to perform complex tasks like running water tests by practicing each step in sequence. • Generalization: Trainees apply learned skills in varied on-the-job conditions to ensure flexibility. • Social Cognitive Theory: • Behavior Modeling: Trainers or experts demonstrate proper techniques for trainees to emulate. • Collaborative Learning: Trainees work in learning teams or with partners to reinforce skills. • Self-Efficacy: Building trainees' confidence in their ability to perform new tasks successfully. 3. What adult learning principles should be incorporated into the pool maintenance training program? How can these principles be implemented effectively? Answer: Adult learning principles could include involving trainees in the design of the training, emphasizing the value and importance of the training, drawing on the trainee’s prior experiences where feasible, and possibly providing options for how to receive the training (e.g. classroom or on-line). • Involvement in Design: Trainees should be involved in designing the training to ensure relevance. • Value and Importance: The training's value and importance should be emphasized to increase engagement. • Prior Experience: Training should draw on trainees' previous experiences where applicable. • Training Options: Offering multiple training formats (e.g., classroom or online) to accommodate different preferences and learning styles. 4. What are the roles of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in the pool maintenance training program? How can the training program be structured to balance these motivations effectively? Answer: Trainees should have a healthy balance of intrinsic as well as extrinsic motivation. They can set their own learning goals and mesh them with the over-arching goal of successfully completing the mandatory aspects of the training along with the consequences they entail (for example, keeping your job!). • Intrinsic Motivation: Trainees should set personal learning goals and find personal satisfaction in mastering new skills. • Extrinsic Motivation: The training should include clear consequences tied to performance, such as job retention or certification. Balancing these motivations involves aligning personal goals with mandatory training requirements and ensuring that the stakes are clear and relevant to trainees' career goals. Chapter 4 The Needs Analysis Process Essential Outcome After completing the lesson on this chapter, if nothing else, students should appreciate that a proper needs analysis is essential before moving ahead with a training solution. They should have a solid grasp on the steps involved in the needs analysis process, and comprehend that if applied properly, the process can help them save the organization time and money by better understanding the true nature of the performance problem, and then by determining the most appropriate solution, which may or may not involve training. Chapter Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, students should be able to: • define “needs analysis” and describe the needs analysis process • explain how to conduct an organizational, task, and person analysis as well as a cognitive task analysis and a team task analysis • describe how to determine solutions to performance problems and when training is likely to be the best solution • compare and contrast the different methods and sources for conducting a needs analysis • describe the obstacles to conducting a needs analysis and how to conduct a rapid needs analysis Key Concepts: HOW DOES THIS CHAPTER CONNECT TO THE WORLD OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT? 1. The purpose of a needs analysis is to determine what the gaps or deficiencies are between the actual performance and that which is desired or required. The process is described and illustrated in Figure 4.1 on page 111. There are three major components to a thorough needs analysis: organizational analysis, task analysis, and person analysis. 2. Organizational analysis involves examining the entire organization, including its strategy, environment, resources, and organizational context, which includes understanding the culture of the organization. 3. Task analysis involves a close examination the jobs associated with the performance concern, including the job duties, tasks, and activities, and the knowledge, skills, and abilities required in order to do the job effectively. 4. Person analysis involves an examination of the actual employees who are doing the targeted jobs to determine whether or not gaps exist between their actual performance and the job performance that is required. 5. The barriers to effective job performance include human, technical, informational, and structural factors. These are listed in Table 4.2 on page 123. It is important to note that training is NOT the best solution for the majority of these problems (only problems having to do with lack of knowledge or skills are best suited to be addressed by training interventions), and yet without a proper needs analysis, the tendency is to default to a training solution to try and resolve problems that can be more effectively (and often inexpensively) addressed through other means. Mager and Pipe’s flowchart (Figure 4.2 on page 124) for determining solutions to performance problems is a useful tool for identifying alternate solutions. 6. Many methods for conducting needs analysis exist, and nine basic approaches along with the advantages and disadvantages of each are described in Table 4.4 on pages 128–130). Most often the ideal approach is to use some combination of these or other approaches, as a one-dimensional approach is not likely to gather sufficient information for determining the best solution to the performance problem. Student Motivation: WHY SHOULD STUDENTS CARE? On the surface, the topic of training needs analysis may not seem very exciting, or certainly not as potentially interesting as future topics dealing more directly with the design and delivery of training. In anticipation of this potential student reaction, it is worthwhile to emphasis the critical role the function of training needs analysis plays in contributing to organizational effectiveness. It would be helpful to make the link back to key concepts explored in Chapter 1, namely strategic human resource management (SHRM), as described on page 22, and the instructional systems design (ISD) model, as described on pages 24-27. Needs analysis is the starting point in the ISD process—without it, the resources invested in training might well be under-utilized or perhaps wasted altogether, and will not contribute to advancing the organization’s business strategy. As most students are generally more interested in practical application than theory, they are likely to enjoy working through the practical nature of Mager & Pipe’s performance analysis flowchart for determining solutions to performance problems. See Engagement Strategies for suggestions on how to use this tool for in-class exercises. Barriers to Learning: WHAT ARE SOME COMMON STUDENT MISCONCEPTIONS AND STUMBLING BLOCKS? Drawing on their own work experiences will likely help most students relate to aspects of task analysis and person analysis. However, many students may have limited or no experience working directly with the aspects of organizational analysis, such as strategy, environment, and resource analysis. With a little prompting, however, most students through their work experience will be able to relate to aspects having to do with organizational context and organizational culture. Some students may not be familiar with how flowcharts work, which may challenge them when trying to comprehend the Mager and Pipe’s performance analysis flowchart (Figure 4.2 on page 124). As this is a very useful tool, it would be worthwhile to at least minimally walk students through an example of how the flowchart works. Engagement Strategies: WHAT CAN I DO IN CLASS? 1. One of the suggested exercises for large classes (see below) is to engage the class with a game of Jeopardy! to teach the concepts for this chapter. Consider, however, that by the end of Chapter 4, your students have now been exposed to approximately 80 key terms and their related definitions. While waiting until mid-term is an option, you might consider at this point (likely roughly one-third of the way through the course) to use the Jeopardy! activity to provide your learners with an opportunity to review these important key terms and their meanings. Use the definition as the statement/answer, with the “contestants” needing to offer up the key term as the question. For example, you would make (and display on a screen) the statement “The collective attitudes of employees toward work, supervision, and company goals, policies, and procedures.” The contestant would need to respond with “What is organizational climate?” to successfully win the point. You might emulate the popular game show by having three contestants play, with the remainder of the class acting as the “audience.” Alternatively, you may structure the game with the entire class participating as contestants or by dividing the class into smaller groups, and having each group conduct their own game. Several no-cost templates exist to use in setting up your Jeopardy! game—see Web Link, below. 2. For In-Class Exercise 1, on page 135: Conduct the exercise as described, organizing the class into pairs or triads in-class (see Lecture Outline (F – Determining Solutions to Performance Problems, below). 3. For In-Class Exercise 2, on page 135: Divide the class into groups of 4–5 students. Provide a set of flip sheets titled “task analysis,” “cognitive task analysis,” “team task analysis,” and “person analysis” to each group. Each group should answer the questions in the exercise and briefly present to the class. Summarize and debrief. 4. For In-Class Exercise 3, on page 135: To save time as an in-class exercise, have two volunteer students role play the exercise in front of the class. Provide a form with interview questions already written to help the students identify tasks (e.g., “What are the most critical tasks you must perform in order to be successful as a student?”) Provide columns labelled “importance” and “frequency.” Summarize and debrief. 5. For In-Class Exercise 5, on page 136: Do as a total group exercise by asking someone to volunteer an example. Be sure they provide enough detail so that other class members can appreciate what the training involved, in order for them to relate the training to the various needs analysis aspects. Suggestions for Large Class Exercises a) Create a Jeopardy!-style game with about 20 questions from four categories to teach the concepts of this chapter. Divide the class into four large groups and have one person from each group come up to the front of the class to compete to answer one of the questions. Continue until all the questions have been answered scoring each correct answer (use Jeopardy! amounts or just single points). b) Create a “Needs Analysis Bingo” to use during the lecture portion of the class. Provide students with a bingo sheet each and have them listen for the key words to fill in. Suggestions for Technology-Enhanced Classrooms a) Using one of the readily available “quiz” software resources available on the Internet or available through your institution’s LMS platform, create a quiz and have students work in groups of 4–5 students to complete the quiz in class. b) Using images or photo displays show a variety of situations that “break the rules” or are examples of “poor performance.” Have students recall as many as possible and identify possible solutions. Suggestions for Internet Classes a) Ask students to select a performance problem of their own or one in their organization. Have them work through Mager and Pipe’s flowchart to reach the best solution and post their response on the discussion board. Identify how many in the class recommended training as the solution. Identify how many recommended non-training solutions. b) Have students select a news article that discusses an accident or near-accident. Have them research the incident and identify whether training was the solution after the fact or whether other factors were identified as causes/solutions. Assessment Tools You may wish to make use of the Test Bank, PowerPoint slides, or at the end of a class, ask a student to summarize the key points from the lesson. Reflections on Teaching: How CAN I ASSES MY OWN “PERFORMANCE”? Good teaching requires the practice of ongoing self-assessment and reflection. At the completion of this lesson, you may find it helpful to reflect on the following, and consider whether or not you want or need to make any adjustments for subsequent lessons. 1. What worked in this lesson? What didn’t? 2. Were students engaged? Were they focused or did they go off on tangents? 3. Did I take steps to adequately assess student learning? 4. Did my assessments suggest that they understood the key concepts? 5. What (if anything) should I do differently next time? 6. How can I gather student feedback? 7. How can I use this feedback for continuous improvement of my teaching? Additional Resources Chapter Summary This chapter described the needs analysis process. Three levels of needs analysis were discussed: organizational, task, and person analysis, as well as cognitive task analysis and team task analysis. We also described the process of how to determine solutions to performance problems. Needs analysis methods and sources were also described as well as the obstacles to needs analysis. It should now be clear to you that a needs analysis is critical for determining the nature of performance problems and whether or not a training and development program is part of the solution to a performance problem. The importance of a needs analysis, however, does not end here. As you will see in the next chapter, a needs analysis is also necessary for writing training objectives and designing a training program. Web Links • Link to Jeopardy! Template: library.kcc.hawaii.edu/.../Nonlinear/Jeopardy Template.ppt • Job board websites (for sample job descriptions): http://www.workopolis.com/EN/Common/HomePage.aspx http://jobsearch.monster.ca/ Suggestions for End-of-Class Exercises 1. For In-Class Exercise 4, on page 135: Divide the class into five groups. Each group is to be assigned one type of analysis. Each group is to present the methods that best suit their assigned type of analysis. Debrief. 2. For In-Class Exercise 6, on page 136: Assign as a homework exercise. Alternative 1: To illustrate the same point, volunteer students can role play the exercise. Alternative 2: Conduct this exercise in small teams of 3–5 students. Ask each team to make a brief presentation. Debrief. Alternative 3: Arrange for a guest speaker from a local organization who is comfortable disclosing what his/her company practices are (what they do and what they DON’T do). 3. For In-Class Exercise 7, consider forming students into small learning groups and have them discuss and answer the questions as a team after individually reading the chapter-opening vignette. Case Incident: The Asthma Attack Case Incident: The Asthma Attack Answers 1. When running the problem through the flowchart, what determinations should be made regarding the importance of the problem and the potential solutions? Who are the key stakeholders involved, and what should be considered at different levels of analysis? Answer: When students run the problem through the flowchart, they should be able to make some determinations that the problem is important and worth solving (it is a life-threatening situation) and that while training may be (and likely is part of the solution), the Mager and Pipe chart might reveal some other important information so as a need for clarity of expectations, provision of adequate resources, ensuring that the desired performance is rewarded rather than punished, etc. They should be able to identify that the stakeholders include customers, front-line staff, managers, the franchise owner, and even the Tim Horton brand itself. They should be able to understand that the various levels of analysis might reveal some important information about the corporate and store-level cultures, the roles and functions of front-line staff, and the necessary characteristics (emotional and attitudinal, for example) of individual employees. The problem is deemed important and worth solving due to its life-threatening nature. While training is likely a part of the solution, the Mager and Pipe chart may reveal other important factors such as the need for clear expectations, adequate resources, and ensuring that desired performance is rewarded. Key stakeholders include customers, front-line staff, managers, the franchise owner, and the Tim Horton brand itself. Different levels of analysis should consider corporate and store-level cultures, the roles and functions of front-line staff, and the necessary emotional and attitudinal characteristics of employees. 2. What training methods could be suggested to address the problem identified? Include both on-the-job and off-the-job training methods and provide examples such as role-plays, case studies, or videos. Answer: In answering this question, students will likely identify training as at least part of the solution to the problem. They might suggest on-the-job or off-the-job training, and suggest methods such as role-plays, case study, video, etc. This would be an excellent opportunity to introduce some of the topics addressed in Chapters 6 through 9. Training should be considered as part of the solution to the problem. Suggested methods include: • On-the-Job Training: Role-plays, shadowing experienced staff. • Off-the-Job Training: Case studies, instructional videos. • These methods can help ad 3. How can the Mager and Pipe chart help in addressing the problem, and what additional considerations should be taken into account based on the answers to previous questions? Answer: The responses to these questions will likely have already come up in answering questions 1 and 2. This is another opportune time to show the Mager and Pipe chart one more time and lead a class discussion on these questions. The Mager and Pipe chart can be revisited to further analyze the problem and solutions. It helps in identifying gaps in expectations, resources, and performance rewards. Additional considerations include revisiting the roles of stakeholders, the specifics of the corporate and store-level cultures, and ensuring that any training solutions align with the needs identified through the analysis. Study: U-Haul’s Performance Problem Answers 1. How can Mager and Pipe’s flowchart be used to analyze U-Haul’s ongoing vehicle safety issues? What systemic problems might be uncovered through this analysis, and how might they impact training interventions? Answer: Students should use Mager and Pipe’s flow chart when answering this question. They should be able to determine that the concern (on-going vehicle safety issues) is a concern. They should be able to use the chart to ask questions that might uncover some systemic problems that need to be addressed either before or concurrent to any training interventions, which they most likely will determine needs to be at least part of the solution. In using the flow chart tool, students may conclude that there may be issues related to things like rewarding poor performance (renting unsafe trucks helps meet sales targets) or punishing desired performance (pulling an unsafe truck from the fleet may mean missing sales targets, for example). Organizational analysis may further reveal some systemic problems, while a task analysis may reveal gaps in the salesperson’s job duties around vehicle inspection and maintenance responsibilities. Person analysis may help focus on personal attributes related to ethical behaviour (e.g. refusing to rent any vehicle the employee does not believe is 100% safe). Mager and Pipe’s flowchart can help determine the importance of the vehicle safety issues and identify systemic problems that might need to be addressed before or alongside any training interventions. The flowchart might reveal issues such as: • Reward Systems: Unsafe trucks being rented out to meet sales targets. • Punishment Systems: Pulling unsafe trucks from the fleet leading to missed sales targets. • Organizational Analysis: Systemic problems affecting safety practices. • Task Analysis: Gaps in job duties related to vehicle inspection and maintenance. • Person Analysis: Issues related to personal attributes like ethical behavior and commitment to safety. 2. What methods from Table 4.4 could be used to conduct a needs analysis for U-Haul’s performance issues related to vehicle safety? Justify the choice of these methods. Answer: To answer this question, students should make use of Table 4.4 which provides an extensive list of needs analysis methods along with the advantages and disadvantages of each. They may suggest such methods as observation, key consultations, interviews, or more, and should be able to justify the reasons for their choices. • Observation: To see firsthand how safety inspections are conducted. • Key Consultations: Engaging with experts on vehicle safety and organizational practices. • Interviews: Speaking with employees and managers to understand their perspectives and identify gaps. • Surveys: Gathering data from a broader sample of employees. • Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages, which should be considered in the context of U-Haul’s specific needs. 3. Based on the analysis, what role does training play in addressing U-Haul’s vehicle safety issues? What specific training methods could be implemented, and what additional solutions might be necessary? Answer: This question is an extension of question #1. More than likely students will conclude that training is part of the solution, but not the entire solution. They might conclude that at least part of the reason that unsafe vehicles are being rented out is because staff do not have the skills necessary to inspect them and make sure they are safe. They might therefore suggest that training on how to conduct a proper vehicle safety inspection (could be classroom-based, on-the-job, technology-based, or some combination) would be necessary in order to help employees acquire the necessary skills. They may also suggest other solutions that again address some of the possible organizational or system issues, or issues related to attitude towards safety, etc. Training is likely a crucial part of the solution. Specific training methods could include: • Classroom Training: For theoretical knowledge on vehicle safety. • On-the-Job Training: Practical experience in inspecting vehicles. • Technology-Based Training: Interactive tools for learning safety protocols. • In addition to training, other solutions might address systemic issues, such as changes in organizational policies, improvements in safety culture, or addressing attitudes towards safety. 4. Evaluate the effectiveness of spot checks in ensuring vehicle safety at U-Haul. What more comprehensive measures might be necessary? Answer: The spot checks seem to be a stop-gap measure of limited effect – what is really needed is a change to the legislation that would close the loophole that allows U-Haul to be exempt from the significant fines other trucking fleet operators face. Spot checks are a limited, stop-gap measure and may not be sufficient on their own. More comprehensive measures, such as legislative changes to close loopholes that exempt U-Haul from significant fines, would be necessary to ensure a higher standard of vehicle safety and hold U-Haul accountable. 5. How would closing the legislative loophole impact U-Haul’s approach to vehicle safety training and overall fleet management? Answer: If the loophole were closed, U-Haul and its franchise operators would likely put more resources and energy into training in order to ensure vehicle fleet safety because the financial consequences of not doing so would be much more significant than is currently the case. Closing the legislative loophole would likely lead U-Haul and its franchise operators to invest more resources and energy into training and vehicle fleet management. The increased financial consequences of not maintaining safety standards would drive U-Haul to ensure that its vehicles are safe and its employees are adequately trained. Flashback Answers 1. What factors should be considered in the context of training and development at U-Haul, given the current challenges and environment? Answer: The context of training and development: • Environment: Legal requirements due to changing legislation, demographics (distribution of U-Haul agents over a wide geographic area), and social climate (tolerance for violations of public safety). • Organization: Business strategy and structure (franchise dealer network), culture (not enforcing compliance with policies and procedures), and perhaps values (profit over safety). • HRS: Dealers are independent franchise holders, and therefore most employees are at the dealer level, rather than at the corporate level. This makes it challenging for U-Haul to impose mandatory training to its dealers and their employees. The context of training and development at U-Haul involves several factors: • Environment: Legal requirements due to changing legislation, a wide geographic distribution of U-Haul agents, and a social climate with a low tolerance for public safety violations. • Organization: Business strategy and structure involving a franchise dealer network, organizational culture that may not enforce compliance, and values that may prioritize profit over safety. • Human Resource System (HRS): Dealers being independent franchise holders makes it challenging for U-Haul to enforce mandatory training at the dealer level. 2. How can the Instructional Systems Design (ISD) model be applied to address U-Haul’s vehicle safety issues? Include details about needs analysis, training content, methods, and evaluation. Answer: Instructional Systems Design (ISD) Model: • Needs analysis reveals lack of training of dealer staff as problematic in the maintenance of a safe rental fleet at the U-Haul dealer level; training objectives include knowledge of policies and procedures vis-à-vis maintenance of vehicles, awareness of the importance of maintaining a safe rental fleet and the implications and consequences of not following policy, and steps to take to ensure compliance. • Training content includes policy implementation procedures and standard vehicle inspection knowledge and skills. Training methods involve both off-the-job (classroom, computer-based, or blended delivery) combined with on-the-job training methods. • Training evaluation includes pre- and post-training assessment, and follow-up to assess compliance (including qualitative data analysis of inspection reports along with qualitative feedback from rental customers). This can be used to assess the effectiveness of the training program, and to make adjustments to the program as necessary. The ISD model can be applied as follows: • Needs Analysis: Identifies lack of training for dealer staff as a key issue for maintaining a safe rental fleet. Objectives include understanding policies and procedures, recognizing the importance of vehicle safety, and ensuring compliance. • Training Content: Should cover policy implementation, standard vehicle inspection procedures, and necessary skills. • Training Methods: Include both off-the-job (classroom, computer-based, blended delivery) and on-the-job training. • Training Evaluation: Involves pre- and post-training assessments, follow-ups to check compliance (including analyzing inspection reports and gathering feedback from customers), and adjustments to the program based on evaluation results. 3. Evaluate U-Haul’s status as a learning organization based on the case information. How does it compare with the criteria outlined in Table 2.1 and Senge’s five disciplines? Answer: U-Haul as a learning organization: • While difficult to ascertain from the limited information available in the case, the evidence does not suggest that U-Haul would qualify as a learning organization, as measured against Table 2.1 (page 47). There does not seem to be a clear sense of vision that includes fleet safety as a priority, or if so, this does not appear to have cascaded down to the dealer level. The culture appears to be one of assigning blame rather than accepting responsibility, with the U-Haul vice president seeming to indicate the dealers are the problem, not the company. Learning dynamics and systems seem to be inadequate, if they exist at all, and there appears to be nothing in place to suggest that knowledge management and infrastructure are priorities. Likewise, there is little to suggest Senge’s five “disciplines” are embraced (personal mastery, building a shared vision, mental models, team learning, and systems thinking). • All in all, the case suggests U-Haul has a performance problem (safety of their fleet) that can, at least in part, be solved through a training intervention. At the present time (based on the information available in the case), it appears that training and development at U-Haul is sorely lacking. Based on the case information: • Learning Organization Criteria (Table 2.1): U-Haul does not seem to qualify as a learning organization. There is a lack of a clear vision that prioritizes fleet safety, insufficient culture for accepting responsibility, inadequate learning dynamics and systems, and minimal focus on knowledge management and infrastructure. • Senge’s Five Disciplines: Evidence suggests that U-Haul does not embrace Senge’s disciplines—personal mastery, building a shared vision, mental models, team learning, and systems thinking. The current culture appears more focused on assigning blame rather than fostering a learning environment. Flash Forward Question • Ask students to read the section on training objectives in Chapter 5 (pages 145-147), and ask them to think about one or more training objectives for the U-Haul training being sure to consider performance, condition, and criterion. Have them work in small groups to try their hand at writing at least one training objective. In terms of content, they may suggest things like being able to conduct visual inspections of vehicles, follow an inspection checklist, etc. Running Case Study: Dirty Pools Suggested Answers to Case Questions: 1. How would you define the need and perform a needs analysis based on the pool safety issues described in the case study? What is the desired outcome? Answer: Students should be able recall the definitions of a need and a needs analysis as presented on page 110. They should be able to describe the need in terms of the pool safety issues from the examples cited in the case and state that the desired situation would be to have staff trained so as to significantly reduce (if not altogether eliminate) the health infractions. A need is a gap between the current situation and the desired situation. In this case, the need is related to improving pool safety to reduce health infractions. A needs analysis involves identifying this gap and understanding the factors contributing to it. The desired outcome is to have staff trained adequately to significantly reduce or eliminate health infractions related to pool safety. 2. How can Mager and Pipe’s flow chart be applied to analyze the pool safety issue in this case? What are some possible outcomes or insights that might be uncovered? Answer: Students should be able to apply the Mager and Pipe flow chart to the case, describing the possible answers to the questions asked at each stage of the analysis. They should be able to ascertain the importance of the problem, the effect on stakeholders (the general public, the City of Toronto, the pool staff, etc.), and consider the role each may have in contributing to both the causes of the problem and to the solution of it. Possible outcomes they may uncover could include a lack of consequences, potential punishing of desired behaviour or rewarding of poor behaviour, a lack of awareness, lack of resources, or lack of knowledge or skills. The Mager and Pipe flow chart helps identify the importance of the problem and its impact on stakeholders. Applying the chart, students should analyze: • Importance of the Problem: Pool safety issues are critical due to potential health risks. • Stakeholders: The general public, the City of Toronto, pool staff, etc., all of whom are affected by the problem. • Possible Outcomes: Lack of consequences, potential misalignment of rewards and punishments, insufficient awareness, inadequate resources, or gaps in knowledge and skills. 3. Why might a needs analysis reveal different requirements at each facility, and how should interventions be customized to address these differences while ensuring consistency? Answer: A needs analysis at each facility may reveal inconsistencies in terms of resources, supervision, and staff skill levels. The conclusion may be that the need is slightly different at each facility, therefore some thought would need to be given to customization of the intervention while at the same time working towards consistency across all facilities. A needs analysis may reveal inconsistencies in resources, supervision, and staff skill levels across facilities. Therefore, interventions should be customized to address specific needs of each facility while striving for overall consistency. This approach ensures that interventions are relevant and effective at each location. 4. What methods could be used for conducting a needs analysis in the context of pool safety, and why is it important to use a variety of approaches? Answer: Students may list various needs analysis methods such as conducting interviews, observation, examining records and reports, conducting tests and samples, etc. They should be able to conclude that a variety of approaches will likely result in the most accurate and comprehensive data, which will help ensure that the intervention(s) chosen stand the greatest chance of actually solving the problem. Methods for needs analysis might include: • Interviews: To gather detailed information from staff and stakeholders. • Observation: To see practices and identify gaps directly. • Examining Records and Reports: To understand past performance and issues. • Conducting Tests and Samples: To assess the current state of pool safety. Using a variety of approaches ensures comprehensive data collection, which increases the likelihood that the chosen interventions will effectively address the problem. 5. How does the application of the Mager and Pipe flow chart tool help in understanding the complexity of the problem, and why is it useful in conducting a needs analysis? Answer: This question is similar to question #2, and could be combined with it. Students should be able to appreciate that the problem is likely more complex than a simple standardized training program, and see how the questions asked in applying the flow chart tool are helpful in conducting a proper needs analysis. The Mager and Pipe flow chart tool helps by breaking down the problem into manageable components and questions, which reveals that the issue is likely more complex than a simple standardized training solution. It highlights various factors such as consequences, stakeholder roles, and resource availability, making it easier to conduct a thorough needs analysis and design effective interventions. Instructor Manual for Managing Performance through Training and Development Alan M. Saks, Robert R. Haccoun 9780176570293,9780176798079
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