CH-7-9 Deviance, Crime, and Social Control – Sociology in Modules : Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 7 to 9 Chapter 7 Deviance, Crime, and Social Control ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. What types of behavior are included in the concept of social control? Answer: Social control encompasses various mechanisms that societies use to regulate individual behavior and maintain order. These include formal institutions like the legal system, which enforces laws and sanctions; informal mechanisms such as family, peer pressure, and community norms; and cultural expectations that guide behavior. Social control functions to promote conformity, deter deviance, and uphold societal norms through both direct enforcement and internalized values. 2. Distinguish between conformity and obedience. Answer: Conformity and obedience are related but distinct concepts in social control. Conformity involves adjusting one’s behavior or attitudes to align with group norms or expectations, often occurring through peer influence or social norms. Obedience, on the other hand, refers to following direct orders or commands from an authority figure. While conformity is more about adhering to social norms and pressures from peers, obedience involves compliance with directives from recognized authority figures. 3. Examine binge drinking in light of the following sociological concepts: obedience, conformity, and deviance. Answer: Examining binge drinking through the lenses of obedience, conformity, and deviance reveals how social behaviors are influenced by different types of social control. Obedience may be observed if individuals engage in binge drinking to comply with directives or expectations from authority figures, such as in certain college environments where heavy drinking is normalized. Conformity plays a role as individuals may partake in binge drinking to fit in with peer groups or adhere to social norms within a specific setting. Deviance is evident when binge drinking violates societal norms and legal regulations, categorizing it as behavior that diverges from accepted standards. Understanding these concepts highlights the complex interplay between social influences and individual behavior in the context of binge drinking. 4. Discuss the procedures in, and conclusions to be drawn from Stanley Milgram’s experiment on obedience to authority. Answer: Stanley Milgram’s experiment on obedience to authority involved participants being instructed to administer electric shocks to a "learner" (an actor) for incorrect answers in a word-pair task. The procedure included escalating shock levels, from mild to potentially lethal, despite the learner’s apparent discomfort and protests. Results showed that a significant majority of participants continued to administer shocks up to the maximum level when prompted by an authoritative experimenter. The experiment demonstrated that people are highly susceptible to following authority figures, even when it involves harming others, revealing the power of authority in compelling obedience. 5. How did Stanley Milgram explain the high rates of compliance found in his obedience experiments? Answer: Milgram explained the high rates of compliance by highlighting the situational factors that overshadow individual moral judgment. The perceived legitimacy of the authority figure, the incremental nature of the task, and the depersonalization of the learner all contributed to the participants’ obedience. The authority's reassurance and the setting of the experiment also created a context where participants felt less responsible for their actions, leading to higher compliance rates. 6. Use the interactionist perspective to explain some of the findings in Milgram’s study of obedience. Answer: From an interactionist perspective, Milgram’s findings can be interpreted through the lens of social interactions and situational dynamics. Interactionists would focus on how participants’ responses were shaped by their interactions with the authority figure and the perceived legitimacy of the setting. The authority's insistence and the structured environment created a situation where the norms of obedience and authority overpowered individual moral beliefs. Interactionists would argue that these social interactions and the context played a crucial role in influencing participants' behavior, highlighting the significance of situational factors in shaping obedience. 7. Distinguish between informal and formal social control and give examples of each. Answer: Informal social control involves unspoken rules and norms enforced through social interactions and relationships. Examples include peer pressure to adhere to group norms or family expectations about behavior, such as a parent disciplining a child for misbehavior. Formal social control, on the other hand, is established by formal institutions and laws with official enforcement mechanisms. Examples include the criminal justice system enforcing laws through police, courts, and prisons, or regulations like workplace safety standards mandated by government agencies. Both types work together to maintain social order and adherence to societal norms. 8. Explain how the legal order reflects the underlying social values of a society. Answer: The legal order reflects underlying social values by codifying and institutionalizing society’s beliefs about acceptable behavior. Laws often emerge from collective values and norms, such as the protection of individual rights, justice, and public safety. For instance, laws against theft and violence reflect societal values of property rights and personal safety. The legal system thus not only enforces rules but also reinforces the moral and ethical standards of a society, demonstrating how legal frameworks are intertwined with cultural values and social expectations. 9. Explain Travis Hirschi’s control theory. Answer: Travis Hirschi’s control theory posits that individuals conform to societal norms due to the presence of social bonds that act as a control mechanism. Hirschi identified four elements of these social bonds: attachment (emotional ties to others), commitment (investment in conventional activities), involvement (participation in conventional activities), and belief (acceptance of societal norms). According to the theory, strong bonds to society decrease the likelihood of deviance because individuals have more to lose by violating norms. Conversely, weak bonds may lead to higher rates of deviance as the stakes of conformity are diminished. 10. Explain how deviance varies by group, by social context, and even over time. Answer: Deviance varies significantly across different groups, social contexts, and historical periods due to shifting norms and values. For example, what one society considers deviant, another may view as acceptable or even normative. This variation is influenced by cultural, religious, and social factors unique to each group. Social context also plays a crucial role; behaviors deemed deviant in one situation might be normalized in another. Over time, societal attitudes evolve, leading to changes in what is considered deviant. For instance, practices once deemed unacceptable, like certain forms of gender expression, may become more accepted or normalized as societal views shift. Thus, deviance is not static but is fluid, reflecting the dynamic nature of social norms and values. 11. What is “stigma,” and what is its relationship to deviant behavior? Answer: Stigma refers to a mark of disgrace or discredit that sets a person apart from others due to perceived deviations from societal norms or expectations. It is often associated with behaviors, characteristics, or conditions considered undesirable or abnormal by society. The relationship between stigma and deviant behavior is crucial: stigmatized individuals are often labeled as deviant, which can lead to social exclusion, discrimination, and self-fulfilling prophecies. This labeling process reinforces the deviant status and can further marginalize those affected. Stigma thus not only reflects existing societal attitudes towards deviance but actively contributes to the perpetuation of such behaviors by isolating and demoralizing individuals. 12. What is the relationship between the “beauty myth,” stigma, and deviance? Answer: The "beauty myth" refers to societal standards that equate physical attractiveness with worth, success, and happiness, often placing unrealistic expectations on individuals, particularly women. This myth can create stigma against those who do not conform to these beauty standards, marking them as less valuable or deviant in terms of social desirability. The stigma attached to not meeting beauty standards can lead to exclusion, discrimination, and internalized feelings of inadequacy. Thus, the beauty myth not only perpetuates unrealistic standards but also enforces a form of social deviance where failing to adhere to these standards is met with negative social consequences. 13. Discuss deviance and technology in the new millennium. Answer: In the new millennium, technology has significantly reshaped the landscape of deviance by altering how behaviors are defined, monitored, and reacted to. The rise of social media and digital communication has expanded the scope of what is considered deviant, as behaviors that were once private or localized can now be widely exposed and scrutinized. Technology also facilitates new forms of deviant behavior, such as cyberbullying and online fraud, while changing the nature of traditional deviant acts. Conversely, technology provides platforms for marginalized voices and movements, challenging established norms and redefining what constitutes deviance. Overall, technology acts as both a catalyst for new forms of deviance and a tool for addressing and reshaping societal attitudes toward deviant behaviors. 14. Why is Émile Durkheim’s view of deviance considered an example of a functionalist approach? Answer: Émile Durkheim’s view of deviance is considered functionalist because he saw it as a necessary and beneficial component of society. According to Durkheim, deviance serves several key functions: it clarifies societal norms and boundaries, promotes social cohesion by delineating acceptable behavior, and can even stimulate social change by challenging outdated norms. By highlighting how deviant behavior can contribute to social stability and progress, Durkheim’s approach aligns with the functionalist perspective, which emphasizes how various aspects of society, including deviance, contribute to the overall functioning and stability of the social system. 15. Discuss and illustrate the four types of nonconforming behavior presented by Robert Merton in his theory of deviance. Answer: Robert Merton’s theory of deviance includes four main types of nonconforming behavior, each representing a different response to societal norms and expectations: 1. Conformity: Adhering to societal norms and goals, such as a student studying diligently to achieve academic success. 2. Innovation: Accepting societal goals but using unconventional methods to achieve them, such as a businessperson engaging in fraud to succeed financially. 3. Ritualism: Abandoning societal goals but strictly adhering to societal norms, such as a bureaucrat following procedures meticulously without any ambition for advancement. 4. Retreatism: Rejecting both societal goals and norms, exemplified by individuals who withdraw from society’s expectations, like substance abusers who detach from conventional success and rules. 16. In what ways does Edwin Sutherland’s approach to criminology draw upon the significance of the socialization process? Answer: Edwin Sutherland’s approach to criminology, particularly his theory of differential association, emphasizes the role of socialization in the development of criminal behavior. According to Sutherland, criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others who advocate for deviant values and practices. This process of socialization involves acquiring norms, values, and techniques for criminal activity from intimate groups such as family and peers. Sutherland’s theory highlights that the likelihood of engaging in deviant behavior increases with exposure to environments where criminal behavior is normalized and valued, thereby underscoring the significance of socialization in shaping individuals' conduct and attitudes toward deviance. 17. Describe Edwin Sutherland’s approach to deviance, which draws upon the interactionist perspective. Answer: Edwin Sutherland’s approach to deviance, known as the differential association theory, is rooted in the interactionist perspective, which emphasizes the role of social interactions and relationships in shaping behavior. Sutherland argued that deviant behavior is learned through interaction with others who promote deviant values and practices. According to this theory, individuals become deviant when they are exposed to more definitions favorable to deviance than to those favorable to conformity. Essentially, deviance is a result of the social environment and interactions rather than inherent traits, highlighting how people internalize behaviors and norms through their social relationships. 18. Explain the routine activities theory and indicate why proponents believe that it is a useful theory for explaining the increase in crime during the last 50 years. Answer: Routine activities theory posits that crime occurs when three conditions are met: the presence of a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of capable guardianship. This theory suggests that changes in everyday patterns and activities can influence crime rates. Proponents argue that the increase in crime over the last 50 years can be attributed to shifts in routine activities, such as increased urbanization, more people living alone, and greater availability of valuable targets (e.g., expensive electronics). These changes have created more opportunities for crime while weakening traditional forms of guardianship, making this theory useful for explaining recent crime trends. 19. Briefly explain the basic ideas of labeling theory. Answer: Labeling theory focuses on the societal reaction to deviant behavior rather than the behavior itself. It posits that deviance is not inherent in the act but is a result of societal labels and reactions. When individuals are labeled as deviant, they may internalize this label and adjust their behavior accordingly, often leading to further deviance. The theory highlights how labels, such as "criminal" or "addict," can stigmatize individuals, influence their self-identity, and perpetuate a cycle of deviant behavior. Thus, labeling theory emphasizes the social construction of deviance and the impact of societal reactions on individuals' behavior. 20. Explain how labeling theory draws on the work of both conflict theorists and interactionists. Answer: Labeling theory integrates insights from both conflict theorists and interactionists. From the interactionist perspective, labeling theory emphasizes how deviance is defined through social interactions and the reactions of others. It explores how individuals are labeled as deviant through societal processes. Drawing from conflict theory, labeling theory acknowledges how those in power impose labels and definitions of deviance to maintain control and reinforce social hierarchies. Conflict theorists argue that the labeling process reflects power dynamics, where marginalized groups are more likely to be labeled deviant. Thus, labeling theory combines the interactionist focus on social processes with the conflict perspective on power and inequality. 21. Distinguish among labeling theory, the societal-reaction approach, and the social constructionist perspective. Answer: Labeling theory focuses on how societal labels affect individuals' self-identity and behavior. It argues that deviance is not inherent but constructed through societal reactions. The societal-reaction approach, similar to labeling theory, emphasizes how reactions from others define and create deviance, but it often focuses more on the mechanisms and processes through which society responds to deviant behavior. The social constructionist perspective, broader than labeling theory, examines how societal norms and concepts, including deviance, are created through social interactions and cultural contexts. While all three perspectives address the role of societal reactions, social constructionism offers a wider lens on how social phenomena, including deviance, are constructed and understood. 22. How do conflict theorists view deviance? Answer: Conflict theorists view deviance as a result of social inequality and power struggles. They argue that deviance is defined by those in power to maintain their dominance and control over marginalized groups. According to conflict theory, laws and norms reflect the interests of powerful groups, which use these to oppress and control less powerful groups. Deviant behavior is often criminalized in ways that disproportionately affect marginalized communities, reinforcing existing social inequalities. Thus, conflict theorists see deviance as a reflection of broader societal conflicts and power imbalances, rather than as an inherent trait or purely individual choice. 23. Distinguish between a professional criminal and a white-collar criminal. Answer: A professional criminal engages in illegal activities as a primary occupation, often possessing specialized skills and a deep understanding of criminal enterprises. They typically operate in illicit markets, such as drug trafficking or theft, and are involved in organized crime. In contrast, a white-collar criminal commits non-violent, financially motivated crimes within their professional context, such as embezzlement, fraud, or insider trading. White-collar criminals use their positions of trust and authority to exploit financial systems, often affecting large sums of money and causing significant economic damage. While professional criminals are involved in direct, street-level crime, white-collar criminals exploit their professional roles to commit fraud and deceit. 24. Apply the concept of ethnic succession to organized crime. Answer: The concept of ethnic succession refers to the process where different ethnic groups replace each other in organized crime activities over time. This succession often occurs as new immigrant groups enter an area and take over criminal enterprises previously controlled by older immigrant groups. For example, in the early 20th century, Italian-American organized crime groups like the Mafia dominated certain criminal activities in the U.S. As new immigrant groups, such as those from Eastern Europe or Latin America, arrived and integrated into the criminal underworld, they began to take over these operations. Ethnic succession illustrates how organized crime adapts to changing demographics and social dynamics, reflecting broader patterns of immigration and social mobility. 25. How do conflict theorists view white-collar crime? Answer: Conflict theorists view white-collar crime as a manifestation of class struggle and systemic inequality. They argue that white-collar crime, committed by individuals in positions of power and privilege, is often overlooked or under-punished compared to street-level crimes. This disparity reflects the interests of powerful groups who use their influence to shape legal and economic systems in their favor. Conflict theorists assert that white-collar criminals exploit their positions to commit fraud and other financial crimes with little risk of severe legal consequences, highlighting the broader structural inequalities and biases in the justice system that protect the wealthy and powerful while penalizing less privileged individuals more harshly. 26. What arguments have been made by supporters of decriminalization of “victimless crimes”? Answer: Supporters of decriminalizing "victimless crimes" argue that such offenses, like drug use or consensual sex work, do not harm others and should not be subject to criminal penalties. They contend that criminalizing these activities often exacerbates social problems, leads to overburdened legal systems, and disproportionately affects marginalized communities. Decriminalization is seen as a way to reduce the negative social consequences associated with criminal records, such as employment barriers. Additionally, it could redirect law enforcement resources toward more serious crimes and improve public health outcomes by regulating rather than punishing behaviors that are inherently non-violent. 27. What arguments have been made by opponents, particularly feminists, of decriminalization? Answer: Opponents of decriminalization, including many feminists, argue that it could exacerbate harm, particularly to vulnerable populations. In the case of sex work, feminists may argue that decriminalization could increase exploitation and trafficking, making it harder to combat abuse and coercion. They worry that without regulation, sex work could become more dangerous and less secure for those involved. Additionally, opponents argue that decriminalization might normalize and legitimize activities they believe are inherently exploitative or harmful, undermining efforts to address the root causes of inequality and violence associated with these activities. 28. What does the analysis of international crime rates indicate about the level of criminal activity in the United States? Answer: Analysis of international crime rates often shows that the United States has relatively high rates of certain types of crime, particularly violent crimes like homicide and gun violence. Comparatively, the U.S. frequently ranks higher in crime statistics compared to other developed nations. This discrepancy is attributed to various factors, including higher levels of income inequality, more accessible firearms, and differences in social policies and law enforcement practices. While crime rates vary widely between countries, the U.S.'s higher rates of violent crime highlight significant differences in social, economic, and legal contexts. 29. Discuss the debate the death penalty from both the conflict and interactionist perspectives. Answer: From the conflict perspective, the death penalty is seen as a tool used by powerful groups to maintain social control and perpetuate existing power structures. Conflict theorists argue that the death penalty disproportionately affects marginalized and economically disadvantaged individuals, reflecting systemic inequalities in the justice system. They view capital punishment as a means to reinforce class and racial hierarchies rather than a deterrent to crime. From the interactionist perspective, the death penalty is analyzed in terms of how societal attitudes and legal processes shape its implementation. Interactionists focus on how the label of “murderer” influences public perception and the legal treatment of individuals. They examine how societal reactions and the criminal justice process contribute to the perpetuation of capital punishment, including the role of media, legal representation, and public opinion in shaping death penalty practices. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Discuss how members of a military unit could openly bring themselves to committing murder against some individuals, and not feel any sense of deviance or criminal wrongdoing for the act. Be sure to include ideas from the work of Stanley Milgram in your answer. Answer: Members of a military unit may commit murder without feeling deviant due to the normalization of violence and obedience to authority. Stanley Milgram’s research shows that people are willing to perform actions they might otherwise find immoral if instructed by an authority figure. This principle applies in military settings, where adherence to orders and dehumanization of targets can justify violent acts. 2. Discuss the definition of deviance as related to cultural variation. Give examples of how certain acts in the United States are considered deviant by other cultures, and conversely what acts we might consider deviant, even though they are considered normal in other cultures. Answer: Deviance varies by culture, as norms and values differ. For example, public displays of affection like kissing are normalized in many cultures but considered deviant in conservative societies. Conversely, practices like arranged marriages are common in some cultures but might be seen as deviant or oppressive in the U.S., where individual choice is emphasized. 3. Discuss how individuals may feel less restricted in performing certain deviant acts in the company of others, such as skinny-dipping, consuming alcohol, or smoking marijuana. Why would an individual not routinely perform such behavior alone? Answer: Individuals may feel less restricted in performing deviant acts in groups due to the influence of social norms and peer pressure, which can diminish personal inhibitions. Social settings often provide a sense of anonymity and collective validation, making individuals more likely to engage in behavior they would avoid if alone due to fear of judgment or legal consequences. 4. Discuss Merton’s anomie theory of deviance, including the five forms of adaptation. Do you think that society confuses certain people by misrepresenting an individual’s chances of becoming successful? Give some examples to support your answer. Considering crime rates in the United States, is there evidence in favor of Merton’s theory? In other words, does it appear that crime rates are higher among groups for whom access to cultural goals is limited? Are there groups for whom the theory does not seem to apply? Answer: Merton’s anomie theory posits that deviance arises when individuals face a disconnect between societal goals and means. The five forms of adaptation are conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion. Society often misrepresents the attainability of success, leading some to resort to deviant means. Evidence shows higher crime rates in marginalized groups with limited access to legitimate opportunities, supporting Merton’s theory. However, the theory may not fully account for deviance among affluent individuals or the influence of cultural differences. 5. Discuss how punishment for a deviant or minor criminal act could actually encourage a person to commit a more serious criminal act, and apply your rationale to discuss how the death penalty could actually encourage some to commit crime. Answer: Punishment for minor offenses can lead to increased deviance due to stigmatization and lack of rehabilitation. The death penalty may exacerbate this by fostering a sense of fatalism or resentment, potentially leading individuals to commit more severe crimes as a form of rebellion or due to diminished regard for life and legal consequences. 6. Describe the cross-cultural approach to death penalty policy as given in your text. Discuss whether policies in other countries (and their apparent correlations to violent crime rates) are relevant to most Americans. Why or why not? Answer: The cross-cultural approach examines how death penalty policies vary globally, often correlating with lower violent crime rates in countries with more rehabilitative justice systems. While these policies offer insights, their relevance to Americans is limited due to differences in legal traditions, societal values, and crime prevention strategies. U.S. crime rates and attitudes towards capital punishment are shaped by unique historical and cultural factors. STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Obedience—Another Look: What replications have there been of Milgram’s experiment? Students might be interested in examining a Watergate-type replication. See Stephen West, Steven Gunn, and Paul Chernicky, “Ubiquitous Watergate: An Attributional Analysis,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (July 1975): 55–65. These researchers conducted an elaborate experiment to assess the willingness of Americans to engage in crimes at their government’s request. Unsuspecting college students were contacted by a private investigator and presented with a plan for the burglary of a local advertising firm. The students were given various rationales for the crime and were asked to participate in it. Some were told that the firm was defrauding the government of millions of dollars and that the Internal Revenue Service wanted to make microfilm copies of its records. The researchers found that 45 percent of the subjects were willing to participate in a burglary if guaranteed immunity from prosecution. Students may also wish to examine a critical view of the ethical issues raised by this experiment. See Stuart W. Cook, “A Comment on the Ethical Issues Involved in West, Gunn, and Chernick’s ‘Ubiquitous Watergate: An Attributional Analysis,’” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (July 1975): 66–68. 2. Labeling of People with AIDS: See Lawrence J. Ouellet, Matta Kelly, Andrea Coward, and W. Wayne Wiebel, “Developing Community Resources for a Stigmatized Population.” In Gary L. Albrecht (ed.). Advances in Medical Sociology, vol. 6. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1995, pp. 207–230. 3. Labeling: The labeling perspective can be applied to groups other than those that are criminally deviant. See Technique No. 11 in Edward L. Kain and Robin Neas (eds.). Innovative Techniques for Teaching Sociological Concepts. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, pp. 17–18. 4. Community Crime Watch: For a comparison of neighborhood crime watch programs by African-American and White participants, see Theodore Sasson and Margaret K. Nelson, “Danger, Community, and the Meaning of Crime Watch,” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 25 (July 1995): 171–200. 5. Crime and Violence within the Hispanic Community: See Ramiro Martinez, Jr., “Latinos and Lethal Violence: The Impact of Poverty and Inequality,” Social Problems 43 (May 1996): 131–146. 6. Blacks in Prisons: “There are more Blacks in prison than in college.” For a look at this misleading but often-heard statement, see Peter Dreier and Jeffrey Reiman, “Prisoners of Misleading Facts,” Dissent (Spring 1996): 8–10. 7. Race and Criminology: See Jeanette Covington, “Racial Classification in Criminology: The Reproduction of Racialized Crime,” Sociological Forum 10 (December 1995): 547–568. 8. Rape Education Videos: Can visual images effectively teach about sexual violence? See Martha McCaughey and Neal King, “Rape Education Videos: Presenting Mean Women Instead of Dangerous Men,” Teaching Sociology 23 (October 1995): 374–388. 9. White-Collar Crime: For an examination of the current approaches to this concept, begin with the book review essay by Craig B. Little, “Whither White-Collar Crime,” Teaching Sociology 24 (July 1996): 333–337. Then see Sally S. Simpson. Corporate Crime, Law, and Social Control. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002. 10. U.S. Department of Justice: For access to numerous crime statistics, visit the Bureau of Justice Statistics website (http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/). This federal agency also sends, upon request, publications that cover victimization surveys, capital punishment, prisons, firearms, and crime rates. Contact BJS Clearinghouse, P.O. Box 179, Dept. BJS-236, Annapolis Junction, MD 20701-0179. 11. Crime in a Changing Society: How does social change lead to changing levels of criminal activity? Contemporary China provides a fascinating case study. Jianhong Liu, Lening Zhang, and Steven E. Messner, eds. Crime and Social Control in a Changing China. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001. VIDEO RESOURCES Asylum (1993, 60m). Each year, thousands of Americans commit crimes against society but are judged “not guilty by reason of insanity.” This documentary is a graphic, uncompromising look at patients and caretakers at an institution for the criminally insane. Bioterrorism: The Truth (Insight Media, 2002, 52m). This video explores the impact of September 11, 2001 on the civilian demand for gas masks and increased levels of fear following the attack. Bowling for Columbine (MGM/UA Video, 2003). Academy Award winner Michael Moore uses humor to take a serious look at gun control issues. Cops on Trial (1992, 48m). This 48 Hours program investigates cases of suspected police brutality in Trenton, Hartford, and West Palm Beach. Looking at a training program for rookie cops in Sacramento, California, it shows how the police are being trained to know when force is appropriate. Crime and Punishment: How Intelligent Do You Have to Be to Be Put to Death? (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2002, 22m). The Supreme Court’s landmark decision that it is unconstitutional to execute people who are mentally retarded reverses decades of jurisprudence. In this program, ABC News correspondent John Donvan visits the ongoing legal battle that prompted the initial 1980 ruling. Deadline (2004, 90 minutes). In the Fall of 2002, Illinois Governor George Ryan became aware of findings about flaws in his state’s capital punishment system that called his beliefs about capital punishment into question. He must make one of the most difficult decisions of his life—to ignore the evidence, or to transform the entire Illinois capital punishment system. The stakes of this decision are the lives of over 170 people, and his political career. Death Devices (Insight Media, 2001, 50m). This video explores the evolution of capital punishment and presents the current debate about its justification. Deviance and Social Control (Insight Media, 2002, 30m). This video gives an overview of the social mechanisms of deviance and control. It also explores theories that seek to explain deviance. Distance (1991, 30m). Showing the continuum of deviance from minor cultural variations to destructive behaviors, this program analyzes deviance as a social, historical, and cultural reality that embraces a wide range of behaviors. It examines the dimensions of deviance and deviant subcultures and provides various sociological explanations. Primary and secondary types of deviance are distinguished and different types of elite deviance are discussed. Guns USA (Insight Media, 2000, 45m). This CBS-produced video tackles the gun control debate from both sides. A variety of pertinent gun control issues is covered, from school violence to accidental shootings. The Line (Media Education Foundation, 2010, 24 minutes). The Line is a powerful documentary about the personal reality of rape and sexual violence as well as the more complicated and ambivalent ways sexual assault is often framed and understood in the wider culture. Men, Sex, and Rape (MPI Home Video, 1993, 75m). Peter Jennings is joined by law enforcement officials and criminal justice experts to examine what causes some men to rape. The program explores men’s views of women, looking at how such widely accepted male rituals as bachelor parties and topless bars affect men’s attitudes. Interviews with both rapists and victims of rape illuminate the motives and the effects of the crime. Moral Development (Insight Media, 1973, 28m). A reenactment of Milgram’s dramatic obedience experiment. Discussion focuses on two differing approaches; one regards the subjects’ behaviors as learned, and one defines their actions as the results of a developmental stage. Not Too Young To Die (2002, 52m). This film explores in detail the criminal and life circumstances of juveniles on death row, and addresses the controversy over whether they should be subject to the death penalty. Obedience to Authority (1997, tape, 55m). Heywood Hale Broun interviews Stanley Milgram (Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View) and Dr. Ernest Van Den Haag. Race on Trial (Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 2002, 23 minutes). This provocative program offers a timely assessment of an unfortunately recurring problem in American courtrooms—differential outcomes based on race. State Sponsored Terrorism (Insight Media, 2001, 60m) This video examines how the ruling elite used different forms of violence to suppress challenges to state authority. Street Gangs of Los Angeles (McGraw-Hill, 1990, 44m). Youth gangs are nothing new. Youth gangs control whole sections of the city, their brutality fueled and financed by drugs, their indifference to life a metaphor for the ease with which they murder. This is what has made Los Angeles’ gangs so frightening an omen of the future of America’s cities. This program looks at the thrills and dangers of life for Black and Hispanic gang members, and at the occasionally successful efforts of parents in gang-run neighborhoods to keep their children safe. Terrorism: Instrument of Fear (Insight Media, 2001, 20m). This video addresses the acts of various terrorist organizations through a discussion of multicultural teens following a viewing of the events of September 11, 2001. It reveals that terrorism is statistically an unlikely cause of death. The Tarnished Shield: When Cops Go Bad (McGraw-Hill, 1994, 46m). In this investigative report, Barbara Walters interviews Frank Serpico. For him, the issues have remained as black and white as they were when he went public with his famous one-man crusade against police corruption in New York. Ms. Walters also talks to the police officer whose arrest for dealing drugs triggered the 1993 investigation into the New York Police Department. This program examines the environment in which cops go bad, why those who have gone bad flourish, why corruption is so hard to root out, and why whistle blowers are the ones made to feel guilty. Waging Peace: Fighting Violence in the Schools (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2001, 47m). This video separates fact from hype as it explores the issue of school aggression. Practical strategies are suggested for making the school environment a safer place. ADDITIONAL READINGS Best, Joel, ed. 2001. How Claims Spread: Cross-National Diffusion of Social Problems. New York: Aldine De Gruyter. Fourteen essays analyze how diverse social issues, such as road rage and gun control, migrate across national boundaries. Blumstein, Alfred, and Joel Wallman, eds. 2001. The Crime Drop in America. New York: Cambridge University Press. A series of essays on the apparent decline in crime, including changes in the drug market in the United States. Clinard, Marshall B., and Robert F. Miller. 2003. Sociology of Deviant Behavior, 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. An overview of the nature and forms of deviance, including drug use, drunkenness, sexual behavior, and suicide. Gamson, Joshua. 1998. Freaks Talk Back: Tabloid Talk Shows and Sexual Nonconformity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. A sociologist looks at the presentation of socially dysfunctional or stigmatized behaviors on television talk shows. Leonard, Elizabeth Dermody. 2002. Convicted Survivors: The Imprisonment of Battered Women Who Kill. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. The author makes use of both quantitative and qualitative interview data to probe the circumstances of women who kill their abusers. McFeely, William S. 2001. Proximity to Death. New York: W.W. Norton. A historian looks at the functioning of the Southern Center for Human Rights, which works on behalf of death row inmates. Miller, Jody. 2001. One of the Guys: Girls, Gangs, and Gender. New York: Oxford University Press. A sociological examination of the causes, nature, and meaning of female gang involvement. Ross, Jeffrey Ian, and Stephan C. Richards. 2002. Behind Bars: Surviving Prison. Indianapolis: Alpha Books. This book gives practical information to those imprisoned, and, in doing so, illuminates the prison experience for others. Walker, Samuel, Cassia Spohn, and Miriam DeLone. 2003. The Color of Justice: Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America, 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Overview of research on racial and ethnic discrimination in the U.S. criminal justice system. JOURNALS Among the journals that focus on issues of social control, deviance, and crime are Crime and Delinquency (founded in 1955), Criminology (1961), Deviant Behavior (1979), Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency (1964), and Law and Society Review (1966). Chapter 8 Stratification and Social Mobility in the United States ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Distinguish between wealth and income. Discuss differences in the relationships between wealth and income. For example, how might the wealth and income levels of elderly be different from those of younger individuals who only recently entered the labor force? Answer: Wealth refers to the total value of assets owned by an individual, including savings, property, and investments, minus liabilities. Income is the flow of earnings from work, investments, or other sources over a specific period. Wealth can accumulate over time and generate additional income, whereas income is more transient. Elderly individuals often have higher wealth due to decades of savings and investments, while their income may be lower, relying on pensions or retirement savings. In contrast, younger individuals, having recently entered the labor force, typically have lower wealth but potentially higher income from their jobs. Thus, wealth tends to be more stable and cumulative, while income can fluctuate based on employment status and career progression. 2. Briefly summarize the four systems of stratification presented in the text. Answer: The four systems of stratification are: 1. Slavery: The most rigid form, where individuals are owned by others and have no personal freedom or rights. Slavery is characterized by extreme inequality and lack of mobility. 2. Caste System: Social status is inherited and fixed, with strict boundaries between social groups. Mobility is limited, and social roles are typically predefined. 3. Estate System: Common in feudal societies, this system divides people into hierarchical groups based on land ownership and inherited status, with limited mobility between estates. 4. Class System: Based on economic factors such as wealth and income, this system allows for more social mobility. Individuals can move between classes based on their achievements and economic changes, though inequalities still persist. 3. To what degree is slavery present in the world in the new century? Answer: Slavery, though officially abolished in most countries, persists in various forms in the 21st century. Modern slavery includes forced labor, human trafficking, debt bondage, and child labor. Estimates suggest that millions of people are affected globally, often exploited in industries like agriculture, textiles, and domestic work. Despite international efforts to combat these practices, economic disparities, weak legal enforcement, and corruption continue to enable and perpetuate modern slavery, making it a significant issue in many regions worldwide. 4. Slavery was not limited to plantation life in the United States, because it still exists in the world today. Explain. Answer: Slavery in the United States extended beyond plantation life to various sectors, including domestic work, industrial labor, and urban settings where enslaved people were forced into a range of roles. Moreover, modern forms of slavery persist globally, encompassing forced labor, human trafficking, and debt bondage. These contemporary practices often involve exploitative labor in industries such as agriculture, construction, and sex work. Despite legal abolition, these forms of exploitation continue due to economic inequalities, weak enforcement of labor laws, and global demand for cheap labor, revealing that slavery's legacy and modern manifestations are widespread and multifaceted. 5. Summarize Daniel Rossides’s description of the class system in the United States. Answer: Daniel Rossides describes the U.S. class system as a hierarchical structure with five distinct classes: the upper class, upper-middle class, middle class, working class, and lower class. The upper class consists of the wealthy elite with substantial economic resources and social influence. The upper-middle class includes professionals and managers with higher education and income. The middle class comprises white-collar workers and small business owners with moderate income and job security. The working class includes blue-collar workers with less economic stability. The lower class consists of individuals experiencing poverty and economic hardship. This stratification reflects varying degrees of economic power, social status, and access to resources. 6. Discuss capitalism from a Marxist perspective. Answer: From a Marxist perspective, capitalism is a system characterized by the private ownership of the means of production and the exploitation of labor for profit. Marxists argue that capitalism inherently creates class divisions between the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class). The bourgeoisie profit from the surplus value produced by the proletariat, who are paid less than the value they create. This exploitation leads to economic inequality and alienation, as workers are estranged from their labor and its products. Marxists believe that capitalism is unsustainable and will ultimately lead to its own demise, replaced by a socialist system where the means of production are collectively owned. 7. Distinguish between class consciousness and false consciousness and give examples of both. Answer: Class consciousness refers to the awareness of one's social class and the recognition of shared interests and common struggles with others in the same class. For example, factory workers recognizing their collective exploitation by capitalists and organizing for better wages and working conditions demonstrates class consciousness. False consciousness, on the other hand, occurs when individuals are misled about their true class interests, often due to ideologies that obscure class struggles. For example, a working-class individual supporting policies that favor the wealthy or believing that success is purely a result of personal effort, despite systemic barriers, exemplifies false consciousness. This misalignment prevents collective action and reinforces existing inequalities. 8. To what extent have Karl Marx’s theories been useful in understanding contemporary industrial societies? To what extent have they been misleading? Answer: Karl Marx’s theories have been useful in highlighting the inherent conflicts within capitalist societies, such as class struggle and exploitation. They provide a framework for understanding economic inequality and labor relations, and Marx’s ideas on alienation remain relevant in discussions about worker dissatisfaction and corporate control. However, Marx’s predictions about the inevitable collapse of capitalism and the rise of socialism have not materialized as he anticipated. Contemporary industrial societies have shown resilience and adaptation, with varying degrees of welfare and regulatory policies mitigating extreme class conflict. Marx’s theories can be seen as partially misleading because they often underestimate the complexities of modern economies and the potential for class mobility and reform within capitalism. 9. Distinguish among Weber’s use of the terms class, status group, and power. Answer: Max Weber distinguishes among class, status group, and power in his analysis of social stratification: • Class: Refers to an individual's economic position based on their access to resources, such as wealth, property, and income. It represents one's place within the economic structure and ability to access goods and services. • Status Group: Pertains to social groups defined by shared lifestyles, prestige, and social honor rather than economic standing. Status groups include professional associations or social circles that confer a specific social identity and respect. • Power: Relates to the capacity of individuals or groups to achieve their goals and exert influence, even in the face of resistance. Power is not solely dependent on economic class but also on social networks and institutional roles. 10. Contrast Max Weber’s and Karl Marx’s views of social class. Discuss why Weber’s model is more comprehensive and most often used by sociologists today. Answer: Karl Marx views social class primarily through the lens of economic relations and the dichotomy between the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class). Marx's model emphasizes economic exploitation and class struggle as central to understanding social inequality. Max Weber, however, offers a more nuanced view, incorporating economic class, social status, and power into his analysis. Weber's model recognizes that social class is not only about economic position but also involves social prestige and the ability to influence decisions. His approach is comprehensive as it accounts for multiple dimensions of social stratification beyond mere economic factors, such as social honor and political power. Weber’s model is often preferred by contemporary sociologists for its ability to address the complexities of modern societies, including the diverse sources of social inequality and the interaction between economic and non-economic factors. 11. How do functionalists view the issue of the universality of stratification? Answer: Functionalists view the universality of stratification as a necessary and beneficial aspect of social organization. They argue that stratification is universal because it serves essential functions for society. According to functionalist theory, stratification ensures that the most qualified individuals fill the most important roles, as those who are more capable or skilled are rewarded with higher status and rewards. This system of rewards motivates individuals to strive for higher positions, thereby contributing to societal stability and efficiency. Functionalists believe that without stratification, society would lack the incentive structures needed to maintain order and productivity. 12. How do conflict theorists view the issue of the inevitability of stratification? Answer: Conflict theorists view stratification as both inevitable and problematic due to its inherent inequalities. They argue that stratification results from the exploitation and dominance of one group over another, driven by the struggle for resources and power. Unlike functionalists, conflict theorists believe that stratification is not beneficial but rather a mechanism for perpetuating power imbalances and economic disparities. They contend that stratification reflects the interests of dominant groups who use it to maintain their privileged positions and suppress subordinate groups, leading to social conflict and instability rather than societal harmony. 13. Explain how Gerhard Lenski’s approach to stratification represents a synthesis of the functionalist and conflict approaches. Answer: Gerhard Lenski’s approach to stratification integrates elements of both functionalist and conflict theories. He acknowledges that stratification can serve functional purposes by ensuring that the most qualified individuals are placed in roles that contribute to societal efficiency, reflecting functionalist ideas. However, Lenski also recognizes that stratification involves power struggles and resource competition, aligning with conflict theory. His approach emphasizes that while stratification can have functional benefits, it also leads to conflicts and inequalities, particularly as societies evolve and become more complex. Lenski’s theory suggests that stratification systems are shaped by both the need for societal order and the dynamics of power and conflict, offering a more nuanced understanding of social stratification. 14. Describe the objective method of measuring social class. Answer: The objective method of measuring social class involves assessing individuals based on quantifiable factors such as income, education, and occupation. This approach relies on concrete data to categorize people into different social classes. Income is measured by total earnings from various sources, education is assessed by the highest level of formal education attained, and occupation is evaluated based on the type and status of employment. By using these measurable criteria, the objective method aims to provide a clear and consistent classification of social class, minimizing subjective judgments and offering a straightforward way to analyze social stratification and mobility. 15. What efforts are being made to measure the contribution that women are making to the economy? Answer: Efforts to measure women’s contributions to the economy include various approaches such as: • National Accounts and Statistics: Governments and organizations are increasingly incorporating data on women’s labor force participation, earnings, and economic impact into national accounts. • Gender-Disaggregated Data: Agencies like the International Labour Organization (ILO) and World Bank collect and analyze gender-disaggregated data to understand women's roles in different sectors. • Unpaid Labor: Efforts are being made to value and incorporate data on unpaid labor, such as caregiving and domestic work, into economic measures, recognizing its significant economic contribution. • Economic Impact Studies: Research studies assess how women’s economic activities affect overall economic growth and productivity. These measures aim to highlight and quantify women's economic contributions, thereby influencing policy and addressing gender disparities. 16. How are wealth and income distributed in the United States? Answer: In the United States, wealth and income distribution are highly unequal. The wealthiest households hold a disproportionate share of national wealth, with the top 1% owning a significant portion of total wealth. Income distribution also shows considerable disparity, with higher income brackets capturing a large share of national income. Middle and lower-income groups experience stagnation in income growth compared to the rapid increases seen among the wealthy. This inequality is reflected in disparities in access to resources, education, and opportunities. The uneven distribution of wealth and income highlights ongoing economic inequalities and the concentration of financial resources among the most affluent segments of society. 17. Explain the utility of the terms absolute poverty and relative poverty. Answer: Absolute poverty refers to a condition where individuals lack the basic necessities required for survival, such as food, shelter, and clothing, and cannot meet these essential needs regardless of economic conditions. This measure provides a fixed threshold for determining poverty, often based on a set income level or resource scarcity. Relative poverty, on the other hand, describes a situation where individuals lack the resources to maintain a standard of living that is considered acceptable by the society in which they live. It is measured in relation to the economic status of others within the same community or country. This term highlights inequalities by comparing an individual's income or resources to the broader social context, emphasizing how poverty can affect one's social participation and quality of life. 18. Who are the poor in the United States today and what is meant by the feminization of poverty? Answer: In the United States today, poverty disproportionately affects various groups, including minorities, single-parent families, and the elderly. A significant portion of the poor are children and individuals working in low-wage jobs with limited benefits. The feminization of poverty refers to the growing trend where women, particularly single mothers and women of color, represent an increasing proportion of the poor. This phenomenon is due to several factors, including wage disparities, higher rates of single motherhood, and systemic barriers that affect women’s economic opportunities. The feminization of poverty highlights how gender inequalities intersect with economic disadvantage, leading to higher poverty rates among women compared to men. 19. Discuss the feminization of poverty and explain its growing significance. Answer: The feminization of poverty signifies that women are increasingly overrepresented among the poor, particularly single mothers and older women. This trend is significant because it reveals deep-rooted gender inequalities in income and employment. Women often face lower wages, job segregation, and higher caregiving responsibilities, which contribute to economic instability. The growing significance of this issue underscores the need for targeted policies to address wage gaps, improve access to affordable childcare, and provide better support for single-parent families. Addressing the feminization of poverty is crucial for achieving gender equality and ensuring that economic opportunities and protections are equitably distributed. 20. How is the underclass different from the poor? Answer: The underclass refers to a subset of the poor who are characterized by long-term poverty, social isolation, and a lack of access to economic and social opportunities. Unlike the broader category of the poor, which includes individuals who may experience temporary or situational poverty, the underclass faces persistent and systemic barriers that impede their ability to escape poverty. Members of the underclass often experience multiple deprivations, including limited access to education, high unemployment rates, and frequent exposure to crime and instability. This distinct group is marked by its severe and chronic socioeconomic disadvantages, setting it apart from those who may experience poverty intermittently or have better opportunities for upward mobility. 21. How did Herbert Gans apply a functionalist analysis to the existence of poverty? Answer: Herbert Gans applied a functionalist analysis to poverty by arguing that poverty serves several functions for society. According to Gans, poverty helps maintain social order by creating jobs and roles in fields such as social work, law enforcement, and charitable organizations, which address and manage the consequences of poverty. It also provides a scapegoat for societal problems and reinforces social norms by delineating what is considered unacceptable behavior. Additionally, poverty ensures a supply of low-wage labor, which is essential for certain industries. Gans's functionalist perspective suggests that while poverty is problematic, it plays a role in the functioning and stability of society by fulfilling these roles and needs. 22. Describe the ways in which stratification influences a person’s life chances. Answer: Stratification affects a person’s life chances by determining access to resources and opportunities. Higher social strata often enjoy better access to quality education, healthcare, and employment, which enhance their life chances and overall well-being. Conversely, those in lower strata face significant barriers, such as inadequate schooling, limited job opportunities, and poorer health outcomes, which restrict their ability to improve their socioeconomic status. Stratification influences life chances by affecting the types of opportunities available, the quality of living conditions, and the likelihood of experiencing social mobility. This hierarchical distribution of resources and opportunities perpetuates inequalities across generations, impacting individuals’ potential for success and their quality of life. 23. What does the discussion of the motion picture Titanic illustrate about the concept of life chances? Answer: The motion picture Titanic illustrates the concept of life chances by depicting how social stratification influences individuals' opportunities and survival prospects. In the film, passengers are categorized by class, with those in higher social strata (first-class) enjoying better accommodations and higher chances of survival compared to those in lower strata (third-class), who are confined to less favorable conditions and face greater barriers during the disaster. This distinction reflects the broader concept of life chances, demonstrating how social status can impact one's access to resources and opportunities, and how such disparities can determine outcomes in critical situations. The film thus serves as a dramatic representation of how social stratification affects individuals' ability to navigate and survive in challenging circumstances. 24. How does the Internet revolution exacerbate the difference in life chances between rich and poor in the United States? Answer: The Internet revolution exacerbates differences in life chances between the rich and the poor in the United States by amplifying existing inequalities in access to technology and digital literacy. Wealthier individuals and families have better access to high-speed internet, modern devices, and digital skills, enabling them to leverage online resources for educational, professional, and economic advantages. In contrast, those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may face limited access to technology and the internet, which can hinder their ability to acquire skills, seek job opportunities, and participate fully in the digital economy. This digital divide reinforces existing disparities, as access to online resources becomes increasingly critical for social mobility, economic success, and participation in modern society. 25. Distinguish between an open system and a closed system. Answer: An open system of stratification allows for social mobility, where individuals can move up or down the social ladder based on their achievements, skills, or efforts. In an open system, social class is not strictly fixed and can be influenced by personal actions and opportunities, as seen in class-based systems like those in modern democracies. A closed system, on the other hand, is characterized by rigid social hierarchies where movement between classes is restricted or impossible. In a closed system, social status is ascribed rather than achieved, and individuals' social positions are largely determined by birth or fixed characteristics, as seen in caste systems or feudal societies. In such systems, one's social class remains largely static throughout life, limiting opportunities for upward mobility. 26. Distinguish between horizontal mobility and vertical mobility. Answer: Horizontal mobility refers to a change in occupation or social status that does not involve a shift in social class or economic position. For example, if someone moves from one job to another within the same income bracket or status level, this is considered horizontal mobility. It reflects changes in roles or employment without altering one's social standing. Vertical mobility, on the other hand, involves a change in social class or economic status, either upward or downward. Upward mobility occurs when an individual advances to a higher class or income level, while downward mobility occurs when someone moves to a lower class or income level. Vertical mobility is a key indicator of changes in an individual's social and economic status over time. 27. How does the impact of intergenerational mobility on an individual differ from that of intragenerational mobility? Answer: Intergenerational mobility refers to the changes in social status or economic position between different generations within a family. It measures how the social and economic status of children compares to that of their parents. For example, if a child achieves a higher socioeconomic status than their parents, this indicates upward intergenerational mobility. Intragenerational mobility involves changes in an individual's social or economic status within their own lifetime. It reflects how a person's status evolves over time due to career advancements, educational achievements, or economic shifts. For instance, a person who starts in a low-paying job and later advances to a high-status profession experiences upward intragenerational mobility. While intergenerational mobility highlights generational progress, intragenerational mobility focuses on personal career and economic development. 28. What is the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, and what impact has it had on welfare and social services in the United States? Answer: The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA), enacted in 1996, reformed the U.S. welfare system by introducing stricter work requirements, time limits on benefits, and a shift from entitlement programs to block grants for states. The Act aimed to reduce dependency on government assistance and promote work and self-sufficiency among welfare recipients. The impact of PRWORA has been significant. It led to a decline in welfare rolls and increased employment among former recipients. However, it also resulted in criticisms related to increased poverty among the most vulnerable populations, such as single mothers and children. The Act's focus on work requirements and time limits has been debated for its effectiveness in addressing long-term poverty and providing adequate support for those facing economic hardships. 29. Compare the commitment to social service programs in other countries with the commitment in the United States. Answer: Social service programs in many other countries, particularly in Western Europe, exhibit a stronger commitment to providing extensive welfare benefits and universal coverage. Countries like Sweden, Germany, and France offer comprehensive social safety nets, including universal healthcare, generous unemployment benefits, and extensive public pension systems. These nations typically emphasize social equity and provide robust support to prevent and alleviate poverty. In contrast, the United States has a more fragmented approach to social services, with less emphasis on universal coverage and more reliance on means-tested programs. U.S. social service programs, such as Medicaid and Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), offer targeted assistance but often have stricter eligibility criteria and lower benefit levels compared to those in many other developed countries. This reflects a different prioritization of welfare policies, focusing more on limited government intervention and personal responsibility. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Discuss why patriotism could be considered a form of false consciousness when viewed from the conflict perspective. Give some examples to support your answer. Answer: From the conflict perspective, patriotism can be seen as false consciousness because it may obscure the class struggles and inequalities within a society. It encourages individuals to prioritize national unity and loyalty over addressing economic disparities and social injustices. For example, workers might rally around nationalistic causes instead of challenging exploitative labor practices or demanding better wages. 2. Explain why the upper classes may allow persons in the lower classes to attain prestige without granting them power or wealth. Give examples to support your answer. Answer: Upper classes may permit lower-class individuals to gain prestige to maintain social order and appease demands for upward mobility without threatening their own power. For instance, allowing a few individuals to achieve celebrity status or recognition in arts or sports can serve as a safety valve, giving an illusion of opportunity while preserving existing economic and political hierarchies. 3. Assuming that we could equally divide all the world’s wealth and assets among everyone, why would stratification soon be evident among societies again? Use one or more of the various sociological perspectives to support your answer. Answer: Stratification would re-emerge due to differing individual and societal responses to resources and opportunities. From a functionalist perspective, varying values, skills, and ambitions lead to different achievements and social roles, naturally resulting in new forms of stratification. As individuals pursue diverse goals and adapt to new circumstances, inequalities would inevitably reappear. 4. Discuss why college education may not benefit all sectors of a society in terms of social mobility. Do most college students expect to experience upward vertical mobility after attaining a college degree? Why or why not? Answer: College education may not benefit all sectors due to disparities in the quality of education, financial resources, and job market conditions. Many students expect upward mobility, but the rising cost of education and competitive job market often limit opportunities. Graduates from less prestigious institutions or with substantial debt may find their prospects constrained despite having a degree. 5. Discuss how multinational corporations may provide both functions and dysfunctions within the United States. Give examples to support your answer. Answer: Multinational corporations provide economic functions such as job creation and technological innovation, driving economic growth and global competitiveness. However, they also have dysfunctions, including exploiting labor, contributing to income inequality, and influencing politics for corporate gain. For example, large tech companies may generate high-paying jobs but also face criticism for their role in widening the income gap and reducing labor protections. STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Lorenz Curve: The Lorenz curve is a means of depicting income or wealth inequality often used by economists. Proposed by a statistician, M.O. Lorenz, the graph and the formula on which the curve is based compare and analyze inequalities among different nations. Consult any basic economics textbook for references and pictorial representations, such as Paul A. Samuelson and William D. Nordhaus. Economics (17th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001. For applications of the Lorenz curve and its Gini coefficient, see Elia Kacapyr, “Are You Middle Class?” American Demographics (October 1996): 30–33. 2. Elite: Economist Robert Reich argues that the elite in the United States have retreated into their own private utopia and forsaken charitable efforts. See Reich, “Secession of the Successful,” New York Times Magazine (January 20, 1991): 16–17, 42–45. 3. Wealth Inequality: See Carol Shammas, “A New Look at Long-Term Trends in Wealth Inequality in the United States,” American Historical Review 98 (April 1993): 412–431. 4. Low-Wage Workers: For an examination of the large number of laborers who still have very low incomes, see Paul Ryscavage, “A Perspective on Low-Wage Workers,” Current Population Reports, Ser. P-70, no. 57. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1996. 5. Welfare Reform: For remarks justifying recent changes in the welfare system, see Donna E. Shalala, “Welfare Reform: We Must All Assume Responsibility,” Chronicle of Higher Education 43 (October 4, 1996): B5–B6. 6. Rent: Typically, rent is not considered in models of social inequality. For consideration of this important factor, see Aage B. Sorenson, “The Structural Basis of Social Inequality,” American Journal of Sociology 101 (March 1996): 1333–1365. 7. Divorce and Social Mobility: Does family disruption during childhood affect men’s odds of moving up or down the social ladder? See Timothy J. Biblary and Adrian E. Raftery, “The Effects of Family Disruption on Social Mobility,” American Sociological Review 58 (February 1993): 97–109. 8. Role of Class: Terry R. Kandal, “Gender, Race and Ethnicity: Let’s Not Forget Class,” Race, Gender and Class 4(1) (1996): 143–165. 9. Segregation: What are the patterns of segregation, not only in the United States but also in the rest of the world? A good place to begin is with Eric Fong, “A Comparative Perspective on Race Residential Segregation: American and Canadian Experiences,” Sociological Quarterly 37 (Spring 1996): 199–226. VIDEO RESOURCES Affirmative Action: The History of an Idea (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2000, 58m). This video features interviews with an array of academic scholars discussing the historical roots of affirmative action and the current debate over its utility. Caste at Birth (Filmakers Library, 1991, 52m). This film examines the caste system in India, and in particular the 150 million Indians relegated to the “untouchable” caste. It addresses the reasons why the Indian caste system is so resistant to change. Class Dismissed: How TV Frames the Working Class (Media Education Foundation, 2005). In this clever and well-delivered documentary, popular media is critically examined for its differential depiction of the social classes. Class Photo: Portrait of a Lost Generation? (McGraw-Hill, 43m). This NBC program celebrates the success of several young people who have beaten the odds against growing up successfully in inner-city America. It’s a muted celebration, however, for their achievements—high school graduation, college, a steady job—would be taken for granted in most of America. The program tracks what happened to the 1981 class of fourth graders who graduated from PS 309, amidst the violence, poverty, and broken families of the tough Bedford-Stuyvesant section of Brooklyn, New York. Fast Food Women (Appalshop Films, 1991; 2008; 28 minutes). This poignant documentary follows the stories of several women living in rural Eastern Kentucky, all of whom help to provide for their families by working in the fast food industry. In it, director Anne Lewis raises issues of the feminization of poverty; the working poor; worker alienation; and McDonaldization. Although dated, it continues to be useful as a tool to open up discussion about the minimum wage and workplace conditions facing fast-food and other lower income workers. On the Edge: America’s Working Poor (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2004, 22m). Millions of employed Americans are living on the edge of poverty—a precipice where one unexpected expense, sudden illness, or missed payment could mean financial ruin. This program follows three working-poor households and shows the difficulties of their lives. People Like Us (Insight Media, 2002, 120m). This is a documentary about the stark differences in lifestyle and outlook among classes in the United States. It consists of extended interview segments with people from very different walks of life. These segments may be viewed independently of one another. Pygmalion (Timeless Video, 1938, black & white, 90m). The attempt of a professor of linguistics to turn a lower-class woman into an upper-class lady. This feature film stars Leslie Howard and Wendy Hiller. Social Class (Insight Media, 2002, 30m). This video provides an in-depth examination of social class in the United States. It illuminates the relationships among wealth, power, and prestige. Social Stratification (Insight Media, 2002, 30m) This video examines different types of social systems around the world and how people are ranked in a hierarchy. It also discusses social mobility and resources that determine life chances. Stuck on Welfare (1990, color, 48m). This 48 Hours segment debunks some of the common misconceptions concerning welfare. To Be Old, Black, and Poor (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2000, 52m). This is a gritty and painfully real exposition of what it means to be black, poor, and elderly in the United States. ADDITIONAL READINGS Bales, Kevin. 1999. Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy. Berkeley: University of California Press. Considers the more than 27 million people around the world who are victims of coerced labor. Offers case studies of Brazil, India, Mauritania, Thailand, the United States, and parts of Europe. Bluestone, Barry, and Bennett Harrison. 1999. Growing Prosperity: The Battle for Growth with Equity in the 21st Century. Boston: Harrison Century Foundation/Houghton Mifflin. A critical look at the impact of the red-hot U.S. economy on the entire population. Bonacich, Edna, and Richard Appelbaum. 2000. Behind the Label: Inequality in the Los Angeles Apparel Industry. Berkeley: University of California Press. Examines the new wave of sweatshops that has made Los Angeles the largest center of clothing production in the United States. Gilbert, Dennis L. 2008. The American Class Structure in an Age of Growing Inequality. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. This informative book considers the reasons for the persistence of economic inequality in the United States. Herman, Andrew. 1999. The “Better Angels” of Capitalism: Rhetoric, Narrative, and Moral Identity among Men of the American Upper Class. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. An ethnographic study of wealthy men in the United States, which notes how they are able to persuade themselves and others of the legitimacy of their power and privilege. Lareau, Annette. 2003. Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race, and Family Life. Berkeley: University of California Press. In this engaging book, Lareau discusses her ethnographic research involving several families ranging from lower class to working poor to upper-middle. Oliver, Melvin L., and Thomas M. Shapiro. 1995. Black Wealth/White Wealth: New Perspectives on Racial Inequality. New York: Routledge. A detailed examination of the massive differences in wealth between African Americans and Whites, regardless of education and occupation. Ore, Tracy. 2008. The Social Construction of Difference and Inequality: Race, Class, Gender and Sexuality. New York: McGraw Hill. This book examines the institutional bases for inequalities surrounding race, class, gender, and sexuality. Silverstein, Michael J., and Neil Fiske. 2003. Trading Up: The New American Luxury. New York: Portfolio. The authors describe the new American fixation with luxury goods, and how Americans manage their discretionary spending in order to afford them. Summer, Lauralee. 2003. Learning Joy from Dogs without Collars. New York: Simon and Schuster. An autobiographical account of a woman who spent much of her childhood homeless or in foster care, but who ended up attending Harvard. Waring, Marilyn. 1988. If Women Counted: A New Feminist Economics. San Francisco: Harper and Row. Waring, a social scientist from New Zealand, considers how women’s labor is overlooked in the global economy. JOURNALS Among the journals that focus on issues of stratification, social class, and social mobility are American Journal of Economics and Sociology (founded in 1941), Humanity and Society (1977), Journal of Poverty (1997), and Review of Black Political Economy (1970). See also the Current Population Reports series published by the Bureau of the Census (available at www.census.gov). Chapter 9 Global Inequality ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the impact of globalization on Indian society. Answer: Globalization has profoundly impacted Indian society by fostering economic growth and technological advancement while also creating social and cultural shifts. Economically, globalization has opened up markets, attracted foreign investment, and driven the growth of the IT and service sectors, contributing to India's rise as a major global player. Socially, it has led to increased urbanization, altered consumption patterns, and greater exposure to global cultures, influencing lifestyle choices and cultural practices. However, globalization has also exacerbated income inequality, strained traditional industries, and intensified socio-economic disparities between urban and rural areas. The rapid changes have led to both opportunities and challenges, reshaping India's economic landscape and social fabric. 2. Distinguish between colonialism and neocolonialism. Answer: Colonialism refers to the historical period when powerful nations established control over other regions, exploiting their resources, imposing political control, and often disrupting local cultures and economies. For example, the British Empire's colonization of India involved direct political control and economic exploitation. Neocolonialism, on the other hand, describes a modern form of economic and political dominance where powerful countries or multinational corporations influence and control less developed nations through indirect means, such as economic pressure, trade imbalances, and political manipulation, rather than direct colonization. For instance, debt dependency and economic policies imposed by international financial institutions can perpetuate control over developing countries. 3. Explain what is meant by the world systems analysis developed by Immanuel Wallerstein. Answer: Immanuel Wallerstein's world-systems analysis is a theoretical framework that examines the global economic system through a hierarchical division of labor among countries. It divides the world into three categories: core, semi-periphery, and periphery. Core countries are highly industrialized and economically dominant, exploiting peripheral countries for raw materials and labor. Semi-peripheral countries fall in between, often serving as intermediaries. This analysis highlights how the global economic system perpetuates inequality and exploitation, with core countries benefiting at the expense of peripheral ones, reinforcing global stratification and economic disparity. 4. Distinguish between the world systems analysis and dependency theory. Answer: World-systems analysis, developed by Immanuel Wallerstein, focuses on the global capitalist system's hierarchical structure, categorizing countries into core, semi-periphery, and periphery based on their economic roles and power. It emphasizes how core countries exploit peripheral ones through economic and political mechanisms. Dependency theory, developed by scholars like André Gunder Frank, centers on the relationship between developed and developing countries, arguing that economic dependency and underdevelopment in peripheral countries are direct outcomes of their historical and ongoing exploitation by more developed nations. While both theories address global inequalities, world-systems analysis provides a broader framework of global economic relations, whereas dependency theory focuses more specifically on the dynamics of exploitation and dependency. 5. What is the impact of colonialism and neocolonialism on dependent nations? Answer: Colonialism and neocolonialism have profound impacts on dependent nations by perpetuating economic exploitation and social disruption. Colonialism often resulted in the extraction of resources, destruction of local economies, and imposition of foreign governance structures, leading to long-term economic and social challenges. Neocolonialism continues this pattern through indirect means, such as economic policies and trade imbalances, which maintain economic dependency and limit development opportunities. Both forms of dominance contribute to persistent poverty, economic instability, and political instability in dependent nations, reinforcing global inequalities and hindering their progress. 6. Evaluate the power of multinational corporations in the world marketplace. Answer: Multinational corporations (MNCs) wield significant power in the global marketplace due to their vast economic resources, international reach, and influence over global trade and investment flows. They control substantial portions of global capital, technology, and production, allowing them to set market trends, influence consumer behavior, and shape economic policies across countries. Their ability to negotiate favorable trade agreements, evade regulations through tax havens, and exert pressure on governments enhances their dominance. Additionally, MNCs often dictate labor practices and environmental standards, impacting local economies and societies. This power enables them to drive global economic integration while sometimes exacerbating inequality and economic dependency in less developed countries. 7. Analyze multinational corporations from a functionalist perspective. Answer: From a functionalist perspective, multinational corporations (MNCs) contribute positively to global economic stability and development. They are seen as key drivers of economic growth, innovation, and technological advancement, promoting efficiency and productivity through global integration. MNCs create jobs, increase the availability of goods and services, and facilitate the flow of capital and expertise across borders. By expanding markets and fostering international trade, they help in stabilizing economies and enhancing living standards globally. Functionalists view MNCs as crucial players in the economic system, promoting the efficient functioning of the global market and contributing to social progress through their operations and investments. 8. Analyze multinational corporations from a conflict perspective. Answer: From a conflict perspective, multinational corporations (MNCs) are seen as instruments of economic exploitation and inequality. They are accused of perpetuating global inequalities by exploiting labor and resources in developing countries while maximizing profits for shareholders in wealthy nations. Conflict theorists argue that MNCs reinforce the power of elite groups and exacerbate the wealth gap between core and peripheral countries. Their dominance can undermine local economies, manipulate political systems, and contribute to environmental degradation. By prioritizing profit over social and environmental concerns, MNCs contribute to a global system that benefits a few at the expense of many, reinforcing existing power imbalances and social stratification. 9. What are some of the criticisms of modernization theory? Answer: Criticisms of modernization theory include its oversimplified view of development as a linear process that all societies will inevitably follow. Critics argue that it disregards historical and structural factors that perpetuate inequality, such as colonialism and neocolonialism. The theory is also criticized for assuming that Western models of development are universally applicable and ignoring the diverse paths of development taken by different societies. Additionally, it often overlooks the role of global economic systems and power dynamics that can hinder development in poorer nations. Critics argue that modernization theory fails to address how global economic inequalities and external factors can impede progress and exacerbate existing disparities. 10. With respect to modernization, what is the convergence perspective? Answer: The convergence perspective within modernization theory posits that as societies develop, they will increasingly adopt similar economic and social structures, leading to a convergence of living standards and institutions across countries. This view suggests that as nations modernize, they will undergo similar transformations, such as industrialization, urbanization, and democratization, eventually leading to a homogenization of economic and social conditions. The perspective implies that technological advancements and economic growth will reduce global inequalities as developing nations catch up with developed ones. For example, the rise of technology and global trade is seen as a force driving this convergence by promoting similar economic opportunities and practices worldwide. 11. Describe global patterns of inequality in access to the Internet, and their implications. Answer: Global patterns of inequality in Internet access are stark, with significant disparities between developed and developing regions. In high-income countries, access to high-speed, reliable internet is widespread, fostering economic growth and technological innovation. Conversely, many low-income and developing regions face limited or no access due to inadequate infrastructure, high costs, and political barriers. This digital divide has profound implications, including limited educational and economic opportunities, restricted access to information, and diminished ability to participate in the global economy. The disparity exacerbates existing inequalities, as those without reliable internet access miss out on critical resources for development, education, and social participation. 12. Discuss the patterns of inequality that exist in Japan. Answer: In Japan, patterns of inequality manifest in several areas, including economic disparities, gender inequality, and regional differences. Economic inequality has increased in recent decades, with a growing gap between the wealthy and low-income individuals, particularly affecting the elderly and non-regular workers. Gender inequality remains significant, with women facing disparities in wages, career advancement opportunities, and representation in leadership positions. Additionally, regional inequalities exist, with rural areas experiencing lower economic development and fewer opportunities compared to the more prosperous urban centers like Tokyo and Osaka. These patterns highlight ongoing social and economic challenges despite Japan's advanced economic status and high standard of living. 13. What are the patterns of racial and gender inequality in Japan? Answer: In Japan, gender inequality is a significant issue, with women experiencing disparities in pay, career advancement, and representation in leadership roles. Women often face a "glass ceiling" in corporate environments and are underrepresented in executive positions. Traditional gender roles also affect their participation in the workforce, with many women facing challenges in balancing career and family responsibilities. Racial inequality is less pronounced but still present, particularly regarding the treatment of ethnic minorities such as Koreans, Ainu, and Ryukyuans. These groups often face social discrimination and unequal access to opportunities compared to the ethnic Japanese majority. They experience barriers in areas like employment, education, and social integration, highlighting the ongoing challenges of achieving full equality and inclusion in Japanese society. 14. How does the distribution of wealth and income in developing countries compare with that in the United States? Answer: In developing countries, the distribution of wealth and income is typically much more unequal compared to the United States. Many developing nations experience extreme income disparities, where a small percentage of the population controls a large portion of the wealth, while a significant portion of people live in poverty. This stark inequality is exacerbated by factors such as limited economic opportunities, inadequate social services, and political instability. In contrast, while the United States also has significant income inequality, it generally has a more developed social safety net and higher overall income levels. However, wealth distribution in the U.S. shows considerable inequality, with the top percentiles holding a substantial share of total wealth. The income gap in the U.S. is notable but is comparatively less extreme than in many developing countries, reflecting different stages of economic development and social policies. 15. What do cross-cultural studies conclude about intergenerational mobility? Answer: Cross-cultural studies on intergenerational mobility reveal that the degree of mobility varies significantly across different societies. In societies with high levels of economic and social equality, such as Nordic countries, intergenerational mobility tends to be higher, with children’s socioeconomic status less dependent on their parents' status. These societies often feature robust social safety nets and equal access to education and healthcare. Conversely, in societies with high levels of inequality, such as the United States and many developing countries, intergenerational mobility is generally lower. In these contexts, family background and socioeconomic status heavily influence children's opportunities and outcomes. Cross-cultural studies thus highlight how structural factors like education systems, labor markets, and social policies shape the extent of intergenerational mobility and contribute to the persistence or reduction of economic disparities across generations. 16. What do cross-cultural studies conclude about the relationship between gender and social mobility? Answer: Cross-cultural studies on gender and social mobility indicate that gender significantly influences opportunities for upward mobility, with substantial variation across different societies. In societies with high gender equality, such as Nordic countries, women experience greater social mobility, with increased access to education, employment, and leadership roles. These societies often have supportive policies like parental leave and equal pay legislation that facilitate women's advancement. In contrast, in societies with significant gender inequality, such as some developing nations, women face considerable barriers to social mobility. Factors like limited educational opportunities, gender discrimination in the workplace, and restrictive cultural norms can hinder women's ability to improve their social and economic status. These studies highlight the interplay between gender equality policies and social mobility, showing that advancements in gender equality can lead to increased social mobility for women. 17. In what ways is Mexican society stratified? Answer: Mexican society is stratified along several dimensions, including economic class, ethnicity, and region. Economic stratification is evident with a significant disparity between the wealthy elite and the large population living in poverty. The upper class and middle class have access to better resources, education, and healthcare, while lower-income groups face economic challenges. Ethnic stratification is pronounced, with indigenous populations often experiencing marginalization and lower socioeconomic status compared to the predominantly mestizo population. Regional disparities also exist, with wealth and development being concentrated in urban areas like Mexico City, while rural regions face higher levels of poverty and less access to services. These intersecting layers of stratification contribute to ongoing social and economic inequalities in Mexico. 18. Describe ethnic and racial relations in Mexico and compare those relations with the United States. Answer: In Mexico, ethnic and racial relations are shaped by a complex blend of indigenous, mestizo (mixed-race), and Afro-Mexican identities. Indigenous people often face marginalization and lower socioeconomic status, while mestizos generally hold more political and economic power. Despite efforts to recognize and celebrate indigenous heritage, inequalities persist, and indigenous communities frequently experience discrimination and limited access to resources. In the United States, racial relations are characterized by a history of racial segregation and systemic discrimination, particularly affecting African Americans, Hispanics, and other minority groups. The U.S. has seen significant civil rights advances, but racial disparities in areas like income, education, and criminal justice remain persistent issues. While both countries have histories of racial and ethnic tensions, the U.S. has a more pronounced legacy of racial segregation and civil rights struggles compared to Mexico’s focus on ethnic diversity and integration. 19. What is the status of women in Mexico? Answer: The status of women in Mexico reflects both progress and ongoing challenges. Legally, women in Mexico have rights to education, work, and political participation, and there have been significant advancements such as increased female representation in politics and legal reforms aimed at reducing gender-based violence. However, socially and economically, women often face persistent issues, including lower wages compared to men, underrepresentation in higher-level positions, and high rates of gender-based violence. Cultural norms and gender stereotypes continue to influence women's roles, and while efforts are being made to address these issues, significant disparities remain in terms of opportunity and security. 20. How are the economies of the United States and Mexico intertwined? Answer: The economies of the United States and Mexico are deeply intertwined through trade, investment, and labor markets. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), now replaced by the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), has facilitated extensive trade between the two countries, with Mexico being a major trading partner for the U.S. Both economies benefit from integrated supply chains, particularly in manufacturing and agriculture. Investment flows between the nations are significant, with U.S. companies investing in Mexican industries and vice versa. Additionally, labor migration from Mexico to the U.S. impacts both economies, influencing labor markets, remittances, and demographic patterns. 21. What is meant by the concept of “borderlands”? Answer: The concept of “borderlands” refers to regions that exist along the boundaries or edges of political or cultural territories. These areas are often characterized by cultural blending and interactions between neighboring societies. In a geographical sense, borderlands are regions where different political jurisdictions meet and overlap, leading to complex social, economic, and cultural exchanges. For example, the U.S.-Mexico borderlands encompass a diverse range of communities with mixed cultural influences, economic interactions, and shared challenges related to immigration and trade. This concept highlights the dynamic and often fluid nature of borders and their impact on the people and cultures residing in these transitional zones. 22. Explain what maquiladoras are and analyze them from a conflict perspective. Answer: Maquiladoras are manufacturing plants located in Mexico that import materials and equipment duty-free from the U.S. and other countries, assemble or process them, and then export the finished products back. They are primarily situated along the U.S.-Mexico border, benefiting from low labor costs and trade agreements. From a conflict perspective, maquiladoras represent the exploitation inherent in global capitalism. They often pay low wages to workers, who face poor working conditions and minimal labor rights. The conflict perspective highlights how these plants allow multinational corporations to maximize profits by exploiting cheap labor in developing countries, while contributing to economic inequality and labor exploitation. Workers are often subjected to harsh conditions and limited bargaining power, reinforcing power imbalances between wealthy corporations and low-income laborers. This exploitation underscores the broader conflicts between economic interests of powerful corporations and the well-being of workers in less affluent regions. 23. How does the United Nations define human rights? Answer: The United Nations defines human rights as fundamental freedoms and entitlements inherent to all human beings, regardless of nationality, ethnicity, gender, or any other status. According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted in 1948, human rights encompass a broad range of protections, including the right to life, freedom of expression, equality before the law, and protection from torture and discrimination. These rights are meant to ensure the dignity, equality, and respect of every individual and are enshrined in various international treaties and conventions to promote and safeguard human rights globally. 24. What are some of the sociological insights on questions of universal human right? Answer: Sociological insights on universal human rights emphasize both the challenges and the importance of achieving global standards of human dignity. Sociologists analyze how cultural relativism can affect the interpretation and implementation of human rights, arguing that cultural practices and local norms may sometimes conflict with universal standards. They also explore how socioeconomic disparities impact the realization of human rights, highlighting that inequalities can hinder access to rights such as education, healthcare, and political participation. Additionally, sociologists examine the role of international organizations and grassroots movements in advocating for human rights and addressing violations. The study of human rights from a sociological perspective underscores the need for a balance between universal principles and respect for cultural diversity while striving for global justice and equality. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Discuss how the recent war with Iraq may be viewed by some observers as colonialism. Give examples to support your answer. Answer: The recent war with Iraq is seen by some as a form of colonialism due to the imposition of external control and influence over a sovereign nation. The U.S. invasion and subsequent occupation involved significant intervention in Iraq's political and economic systems, reminiscent of colonial practices of dominating and restructuring foreign territories for strategic and economic interests. 2. Discuss how multinational corporations may provide both functions and dysfunctions within periphery nations. Give examples to support you answer. Answer: Multinational corporations (MNCs) can benefit periphery nations by creating jobs, improving infrastructure, and fostering economic growth. However, they can also harm these nations by exploiting labor, contributing to environmental degradation, and reinforcing economic dependency on wealthy countries. 3. Consider how the recent war with Iraq and possible future invasion of other Middle Eastern countries could be considered an issue of creating dominant ideology rather than one of modernization. Answer: The war with Iraq and potential future invasions might be viewed as efforts to create a dominant ideology by imposing Western political and economic models, rather than purely pursuing modernization. These actions can be seen as attempts to spread ideological influence and control over strategic regions, often justified by promoting democracy but also aimed at securing geopolitical and economic interests. 4. Discuss the impact of gender inequality worldwide. Why do economic issues seem to work against the creation of egalitarianism between men and women? Answer: Gender inequality worldwide limits women's access to education, employment, and healthcare, hindering their economic and social advancement. Economic issues, such as wage gaps and lack of access to resources, perpetuate inequality, making it difficult to achieve egalitarianism because women often face systemic barriers that prevent equal opportunities and fair treatment. 5. Discuss how the recent impact of homeland security and the creation of the PATRIOT Act will likely affect stratification in Mexico. Answer: The PATRIOT Act and similar homeland security measures may heighten security and surveillance, influencing Mexico indirectly through increased border control and scrutiny. This could exacerbate stratification by disproportionately affecting marginalized communities and immigrants, potentially reinforcing existing inequalities in access to opportunities and resources. STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Occupational Prestige in China: See Nan Lin and Wen Xie, “Occupational Prestige in Urban China,” American Journal of Sociology 93 (January 1988): 793–832. 2. Lorenz Curve: The Lorenz curve is a means of depicting income or wealth inequality often used by economists. Proposed by a statistician, M.O. Lorenz, the graph and the formula on which the curve is based compare and analyze inequalities among different nations. Consult any basic economics textbook for references and pictorial representations, such as Paul A. Samuelson and William D. Nordhaus. Economics (17th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001. For applications of the Lorenz curve and its Gini coefficient, see Elia Kacapyr, “Are You Middle Class?” American Demographics (October 1996): 30–33. 3. Segregation: What are the patterns of segregation, not only in the United States but also in the rest of the world? A good place to begin is with Eric Fong, “A Comparative Perspective on Race Residential Segregation: American and Canadian Experiences,” Sociological Quarterly 37 (Spring 1996): 199–226. 4. The Social Construction of Class in Brazil: Students can gain insight on a class system in a non-U.S. country through this study. Maureen O’Dougherty. Consumption Intensified: The Politics of Middle Class Daily Life in Brazil. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002. 5. Inequality in Israel: See Shmuel Shamoi and Zipora Margalit, “Equality in Israeli Occupational Ratings and Preferences at Age 12: Kibbutz versus Town,” Sociology and Social Research 75 (January 1991): 66–72. 6. Informal Economy: See Alejandro Portes and Saskia Sassen-Koob, “Making It Underground: Comparative Material on the Informal Sector in Western Market Economies,” American Journal of Sociology 93 (July 1987): 30–61. VIDEO RESOURCES Caste at Birth (Filmakers Library, 1991, 52m). This film examines the caste system in India, and in particular the 150 million Indians relegated to the “untouchable” caste. It addresses the reasons why the Indian caste system is so resistant to change. The Coffee-Go-Round (Bullfrog Films, 2004, 26m). This film looks at the distribution of profits from the world coffee trade and examines the financial difficulties of coffee farmers in developing countries. The Dying Rooms (Lauderdale Productions, 1995, 39 minutes). This disturbing documentary uncovers the painful and often hidden truth about female infanticide in Asian countries. Fighting the Tide 3: Developing Nations and Globalization (Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 2009, six-part series, 25 minutes each). This six-part series explores socioeconomic issues that are linked with globalizing trends in the developing world. From Somewhere to Nowhere: China’s Internal Migrant Workers (Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 2009, 86 minutes). This program travels throughout China to capture the experiences of mingong, tens of millions on the move from the countryside to the cities in the hope of building a better life for themselves and their families. Geraldo’s Brazil (Bullfrog Films, 2004, 27 minutes). This is a follow-up film to a 1999 documentary that addressed the impact of globalization on Brazilian factory worker Geraldo Da Souza. Also looks at the legacy of IMF and World Bank loans in Brazil. A Global Roll Call: The Need for Education Worldwide (Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 2009, three-part series, 57-113 minutes each). This three-part Wide Angle series examines gaps in educational opportunities that trap children in poverty, deny girls the right to learn, and prevent developing countries from advancing. Following a group of students from around the world as they progress through life—and, on an uneven basis, through school—the series gets to the heart of this global socioeconomic problem. A Question of Rights: The UN Declaration (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2000, 29m). This program, hosted by Harrison Ford, explains how the concept of universal human rights came about and how the international community overcame the barriers of language, culture, and cold war politics to create a set of standards designed to protect the freedom, dignity, and quality of life of people everywhere. Social Stratification (Insight Media, 2002, 30m) This video examines different types of social systems around the world and how people are ranked in a hierarchy. It also discusses social mobility and resources that determine life chances. Women’s Rights (Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 2010, 26 minutes). Despite the progress of the international women’s movement in exposing and correcting human rights abuses, in many countries women are still fighting to attain the most basic of civil liberties. This program contextualizes that struggle by comparing women’s rights in the U.S. with the status of women in China, Afghanistan, and Kenya. ADDITIONAL READINGS Adler, William M. 2000. Mollie’s Job: A Story of Life and Work on the Global Assembly Line. New York: Scribner. A freelance journalist puts a human face on capitalists’ worldwide search for cheap labor. Bales, Kevin. 1999. Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy. Berkeley: University of California Press. This text considers the more than 27 million people around the world who are victims of coerced labor and offers case studies of Brazil, India, Mauritania, Thailand, the United States, and parts of Europe. Ehrenreich, Barbara and Arlie Russell Hochschild. 2002. Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy. New York: Henry Holt & Company. Popular feminist authors Ehrenreich and Hochschild present a glimpse into the negative consequences of the displacement of women’s labor around the world. Gill, Stephen and Isabella Bakker. 2004. Power, Production and Social Reproduction: Human In/security in the Global Political Economy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. This advanced reading offers a unique theorization of global political economy. LaFeber, Walter. 1999. Michael Jordan and the New Global Capitalism. New York: W.W. Norton. LaFerber considers the growing intersection of culture and capital on an international scale. Ritzer, George. 2009. Globalization: A Basic Text. Walden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing. Sociologist George Ritzer offers an introductory and concise approach to understanding globalization in the 21st century. Ritzer, George. 2007. The Globalization of Nothing 2. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. In this very accessible book, Ritzer illustrates the links between globalization and McDonaldization. Waring, Marilyn. 1988. If Women Counted: A New Feminist Economics. San Francisco: Harper and Row. Waring, a social scientist from New Zealand, considers how women’s labor is overlooked in the global economy. Weigard, Bruce. 1992. Off the Books: A Theory and Critique of the Underground Economy. Dix Hills, NY: General-Hall. This text provides an examination of the social consequences of people’s participation in activities outside the mainstream economy. The World Bank. World Development Report. New York: Oxford University Press. Published annually by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the United Nations agency more commonly referred to as the World Bank), this volume provides a vast array of social and economic indicators regarding world development. JOURNALS Among the journals that consider issues of worldwide stratification, uneven development, and universal human rights are Global Networks (founded in 2001), Global Social Policy (2001), Holocaust and Genocide Studies (1987), Human Rights Quarterly (1978), International Journal of Urban and Regional Research (1976), International Labor Review (1921), Journal of Developing Areas (1965), Latin American Research Review (1956), Review of Income and Wealth (1954), and World Development (1973). Solution Manual for Sociology in Modules Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026812, 9780071318419