CH-5-6 Social Interaction, Social Structure, and Groups – Sociology in Modules : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 5 to 6 CHAPTER 5 SOCIAL INTERACTION, SOCIAL STRUCTURE, AND GROUPS CHAPTER SUMMARY Social interaction refers to the ways in which people respond to one another. Social structure refers to the way a society is organized into predictable relationships. Both social interaction and social structure are central to understanding how different aspects of behavior are related to one another. Our response to someone’s behavior is based on the meaning we attach to his/her actions. Reality is shaped by our perceptions, evaluations, and definitions. The ability to define social reality reflects a group’s power within a society. Sociologists use the term status to refer to any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society. Sociologically, status does not refer to prestige. Any position, whether deemed good or bad, positive or negative, is a status. A person can hold a number of statuses at the same time. An ascribed status is assigned to a person by society without regard for the person’s unique talents or characteristics, generally at birth. An achieved status is attained by a person largely through his or her own efforts. A master status dominates other statuses and thereby determines a person’s general position within society. A social role is a set of expectations for people who occupy a given social position or status. Role conflict occurs when incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by the same person. Role strain is a term used to describe the difficulty that arises when the same social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations. The process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s self-identity in order to establish a new role and identity is referred to as role exit. A group is any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who regularly and consciously interact. Groups play an important part in a society’s structure. Much of our social interaction takes place within groups and is influenced by their norms and sanctions. Social institutions are organized patterns of beliefs and behavior centered on basic social needs. Functionalists view social institutions as necessary for the survival of society in meeting the basic needs of its members. Conflict theorists suggest that social institutions maintain the privileges of the most powerful individuals and groups within a society. Interactionists emphasize that our social behavior is conditioned by the roles and statuses that we accept, the groups to which we belong, and the institutions within which we function. Members of different groups make connections through a series of social relationships known as a social network. With advances in technology, we can now maintain social networks electronically; we don’t need face-to-face contact. Émile Durkheim developed the concepts of mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity to describe the kind of consciousness that develops in societies where there is a simple or complex division of labor, respectively. Ferdinand Tönnies used the term Gemeinschaft to refer to a small, close-knit community, typical of rural life, where people have similar backgrounds and life experiences. Conversely, the Gesellschaft is an ideal type characteristic of modern urban life. Here, most people are strangers who feel little in common with one another. In contrast to Tönnies’ perspective, Gerhard Lenski viewed societies as undergoing change according to a dominant pattern known as sociocultural evolution. His view suggests that a society’s level of technology is critical to the way it is organized. The hunting-and-gathering society, the horticultural society, and the agrarian society are three types of preindustrial societies. An industrial society depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services. A postindustrial society’s economic system is engaged primarily in the processing and control of information. A postmodern society is a technologically sophisticated society that is preoccupied with consumer goods and media images. At the macro-level of analysis, we see society shifting to more advanced forms of technology. The social structure becomes complex and new social institutions emerge to assume some functions previously performed by family. On the micro-level of analysis, these changes affect the nature of social interactions between people. People come to rely more on social networks, rather than solely on kinship ties. RESOURCE INTEGRATOR Focus Questions Resources 1. How do people define reality? IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: Pathology of Imprisonment (5-1) Classroom Discussion Topics: Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment (5-1) What are roles and statuses? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: status, ascribed status, achieved status, master status, social role, role conflict, role strain, role exit IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: Pathology of Imprisonment (5-1); Social Roles Amidst Disasters (5-2); China and People with Disabilities (5-3); Role Transitions (5-4) Classroom Discussion Topics: Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment (5-1); Alternative Social Structure (5-2); Statuses and Social Roles (5-3); Physical Attractiveness as a Social Status (5-4) Student Research and Assignments: Changing Social Roles in the Catholic Church; Prison Interaction Video Resources: Breaking Silence; Coming Out Under Fire; Social Interaction, Conflict, and Change REEL SOCIETY VIDEO Topic Index: Social Roles What are the different kinds of social groups? What is the importance of social institutions to social structure? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: group, social institution, primary group, secondary group, in-group, out-group, reference group, coalition IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: Bowling Alone (5-5); Social Networks in the United States (5-6); Daily Life in a Hunting-and-Gathering Society (5-7) Student Research and Assignments: Networking Among Men and Women; Social Networks in China Video Resources: Group Influence 2. What are the major theoretical perspectives on social institutions? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: functionalist view; conflict view; interactionist view IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Video Resources: Social Institutions—Politics and Education What are social networks? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: social network Boxes: Research Today: Social Networks and Obesity IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Idea: Social Networks in the United States (5-6) Student Research and Assignments: Networking among Men and Women; Social Networks in China 3. What are the issues surrounding the new phenomenon of virtual worlds? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: avatar IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Student Research and Discussion: Online courses and virtual classrooms How do sociologists view the historical development of societies? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: mechanical solidarity, organic solidarity, Gemeinschaft, Gesellschaft, sociocultural evolution, technology, hunting-and-gathering society, horticultural society, agrarian society, industrial society, postindustrial society, postmodern society IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: Daily Life in a Hunting-and-Gathering Society (5-7) Student Research and Assignments: Gerhard Lenski 4. What are the characteristics of a bureaucracy and what is the importance of bureaucracy to modern societies? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: formal organization, bureaucracy, ideal type, alienation, trained incapacity, goal displacement, Peter principle, bureaucratization, iron law of oligarchy, scientific management approach, human relations approach LECTURE OUTLINE I. Social Interaction and Reality • Social interaction refers to the way people respond to one another. • Social structure refers to the way in which a society is organized into predictable relationships. The linkage of social interaction and social structure is central to sociological study. They are closely related to socialization. • Social reality is literally constructed from our social interactions. • The ability to define social reality reflects a group’s power within society. Example: William I. Thomas’s definition of the situation. II. Elements of Social Structure A. Statuses • Status refers to any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society. A number of statuses can be held at the same time. Examples: U.S. president, son or daughter, dental technician, neighbor. 1. Ascribed and Achieved Status • Ascribed status is generally assigned at birth without regard to a person’s unique talents or characteristics. Ascribed statuses are assigned; they are not chosen. Therefore, they are said to be involuntary. Examples: race, gender, and age (Please note, however, that sociologists have long challenged the notion of “race” as a biological category. Furthermore, with technological advancements, sex is no longer necessarily ascribed). • Achieved status comes to us largely through our own efforts. Examples: lawyer, pianist, convict, and social worker. 2. Master Status • A master status dominates other statuses and thereby determines a person’s general position within society. Example: Arthur Ashe, who died of AIDS. B. Social Roles 1. What Are Social Roles? • A set of expectations for people who occupy a given social position or status. Roles are a significant component of social structure. Example: Police are expected to protect us and apprehend criminals. 2. Role Conflict • Role conflict occurs when incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by the same person. Example: newly promoted worker who carries on a relationship with his/her former workgroup. • It may also occur among individuals moving into occupations that are not common among people with their ascribed status. Examples: female police officers and male preschool teachers. 3. Role Strain • Role strain refers to a situation in which the same social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations. Example: alternative forms of justice among Navajo police officers. Another example involves the parent who wishes to be both his child’s authority figure as well as his friend. 4. Role Exit • The process of disengaging from a role that is central to one’s self-identity. • Ebaugh’s four-stage model: (1) doubt, (2) search for alternatives, (3) action stage or departure, and (4) creation of a new identity. Examples: graduating from high school or college, retirement, and divorce. C. Groups • Any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact with one another on a regular basis. Examples: sports team, college sorority, hospital business office, symphony orchestra. • Groups play a key role in transmitting culture. D. Social Institutions • Organized patterns of beliefs and behavior centered on meeting basic social needs, such as replacing personnel (the family) and preserving order (the government). 1. Functionalist View • Five major tasks or functional prerequisites: (1) Replacing personnel, (2) teaching new recruits, (3) producing and distributing goods and services, (4) preserving order, and (5) providing and maintaining a sense of purpose. Example: Patriotism assists people in maintaining a sense of purpose. • Social institutions create survival and stability for society. • Social change can be dysfunctional, since it often leads to instability. 2. Conflict View • Does not agree with functionalists that the outcome of meeting basic needs is necessarily efficient and desirable for all members of society. • Major institutions maintain the privileges of the most powerful individuals and groups within a society, while contributing to the powerlessness of others. Example: Public schools are financed largely by property taxes, so affluent areas have better equipped schools and better-paid teachers. • Social institutions have an inherently conservative nature. • Social institutions operate in gendered and racist environments. • Social changes are needed to promote equality. 3. Interactionist View • Behavior is conditioned by roles and statuses that we accept, the groups to which we belong, and the institutions within which we function. Example: The status of a judge is in relation to other statuses. E. Social Networks • A network is a series of social relationships that links people either directly or indirectly to still more people. Examples: networking for employment, exchanging news and gossip. • Influence of the Internet (technology) on social networks. Using email rather than sending letters. F. Virtual Worlds • Recent technological advances allow people to maintain and expand social networks without face-to-face interactions. • Allows interaction without supervision by authority figures. Examples: adolescents, employees. • Participants in virtual world interact via avatars. • Virtual worlds have become politicized and consumer-oriented. • Electronic networks affect the workplace. • Electronic networks can help preserve real-world networks. Examples: email, digital photos, blogs. III. Social Structure in Global Perspective A. Durkheim’s Mechanical and Organic Solidarity • Mechanical solidarity exists in societies with a minimal division of labor. A collective consciousness develops that emphasizes group solidarity. • Organic solidarity exists in societies with a complex division of labor. It emphasizes mutual interdependence among groups and institutions—in much the same way as organs of the body are interdependent. B. Tönnies’s Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft • The Gemeinschaft community is typical of rural life. Social interactions are intimate and familiar. There is a strong feeling of community; persons are not driven by self-interest but by the needs of the whole. Informal sanctions may serve to enforce social norms (since individuals are not protected by anonymity). • The Gesellschaft is an ideal type characteristic of modern life. Most people are strangers and feel little in common with one another. See Table 5-4. C. Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach • Lenski views human societies as undergoing a process of change characterized by a dominant pattern known as sociocultural evolution: long-term trends in societies resulting from the interplay of continuity, innovation, and selection. See Table 5-5. • Technology is critical to the way society is organized. As technology advances, a community evolves from a preindustrial to an industrial and finally a post-industrial society. 1. Preindustrial Societies • Hunting-and-gathering societies rely on available foods; technology is minimal. • Horticultural societies plant seeds and grow crops rather than subsist only on available foods. • Agrarian societies increase crop yields, and technological innovations are more dramatic (e.g., the plow). 2. Industrial Societies • Society depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services. • Reliant on new inventions that facilitate agricultural and industrial production, and on new sources of energy. • Need for specialized knowledge. 3. Postindustrial and Postmodern Societies • A postindustrial society is technologically advanced. Its economic system is primarily engaged in processing and controlling information. • Postmodern societies are technologically sophisticated and preoccupied with consumer goods and media images. • Postmodern theorists take a global perspective, noting ways that culture crosses national boundaries. Examples: In the United States, people listen to reggae music from Jamaica, eat sushi and other Japanese foods; and there are Disney Worlds in Paris and Tokyo. IV. Social Policy and Social Interaction: Media Concentration A. The Issue Ownership of media production and distribution is highly centralized. Some sociologists question whether the public interest is being served by the growing concentration of the media. B. The Setting • A handful of multinational corporations dominate publishing, broadcasting, and film industries in the U.S. and other countries. • Concentration of power and gatekeeping is inevitable. • In some countries, the government is the owner and gatekeeper. • The Internet is an exception, with private individuals able to access, create, and distribute media content. C. Sociological Insights • Functionalists emphasize that consolidation in any industry leads to greater economic efficiency. • Conflict theorists believe that concentration stifles opportunity for minority ownership and representation in the media. • Interactionists are interested in the ways in which the Internet has changed how people access information and the extent to which individuals rely on electronic forms of communication in place of face-to-face communication. D. Policy Initiatives • Response by policymakers in 1996 eliminated most restrictions on media ownership, allowing for unprecedented concentration of ownership. • Big business is looking to new media such as the Internet as a source for profits. Internet advertising revenue is expected to surpass total television revenues by no later than 2010. KEY TERMS Achieved status A social position that a person attains largely through his or her own efforts. Agrarian society The most technologically advanced form of preindustrial society. Members are engaged primarily in the production of food but increase their crop yield through technological innovations such as the plow. Alienation A condition of estrangement or dissociation from the surrounding society. Ascribed status A social position that is assigned to a person by society without regard for the person’s unique talents or characteristics; an involuntary status. Avatar A three-dimensional model, two dimensional icon, or constructed personality that is assumed by the user of an Internet site. Bureaucracy A component of formal organization that uses rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency. Bureaucratization The process by which a group, organization, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic. Classical theory An approach to the study of formal organizations that views workers as being motivated almost entirely by economic rewards. Coalition A temporary or permanent alliance geared toward a common goal. Formal organization A group designed for a special purpose and structured for maximum efficiency. Gemeinschaft A close-knit community, often found in rural areas, in which strong personal bonds unite members. Gesellschaft A community, often urban, that is large and impersonal, with little commitment to the group or consensus on values. Group Any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact with one another on a regular basis. Horticultural society A preindustrial society in which people plant seeds and crops rather than merely subsist on available foods. Human relations approach An approach to the study of formal organizations that emphasizes the role of people, communication, and participation in a bureaucracy and tends to focus on the informal structure of the organization. Hunting-and-gathering society A preindustrial society in which people rely on whatever foods and fibers are readily available in order to survive. Ideal type A construct or model for evaluating specific cases. Industrial society A society that depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services. In-group Any group or category to which people feel they belong. Iron law of oligarchy A principle of organizational life under which even a democratic organization will eventually develop into a bureaucracy ruled by a few individuals. Master status A status that dominates others and thereby determines a person’s general position in society. Mechanical solidarity A collective consciousness that emphasizes group solidarity, characteristic of societies with minimal division of labor. Organic solidarity A collective consciousness that rests on mutual interdependence, characteristic of societies with a complex division of labor. Out-group A group or category to which people feel they do not belong. Peter principle A principle of organizational life according to which every employee within a hierarchy tends to rise to his or her level of incompetence. Postindustrial society A society whose economic system is engaged primarily in the processing and control of information. Postmodern society A technologically sophisticated society that is preoccupied with consumer goods and media images. Primary group A small group characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation. Reference group Any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior. Role conflict The situation that occurs when incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by the same person. Role exit The process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s self-identity in order to establish a new role and identity. Role strain The difficulty that arises when the same social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations. Scientific management approach Another name for the classical theory of formal organizations. Secondary group A formal, impersonal group in which there is little social intimacy or mutual understanding. Social institution An organized pattern of beliefs and behavior centered on basic social needs. Social interaction The ways in which people respond to one another. Social network A series of social relationships that links a person directly to others, and through them indirectly to still more people. Social role A set of expectations for people who occupy a given social position or status. Social structure The way in which a society is organized into predictable relationships. Sociocultural evolution Long-term trends in societies resulting from the interplay of continuity, innovation, and selection. Status A term used by sociologists to refer to any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society. Technology Cultural information about the ways in which the material resources of the environment may be used to satisfy human needs and desires. Trained incapacity The tendency of workers in a bureaucracy to become so specialized that they develop blind spots and fail to notice obvious problems. ADDITIONAL LECTURE IDEAS 5-1: Pathology of Imprisonment An experiment at Stanford University (described briefly in this chapter of the text) provided a significant critique of the impact of a total institution. Philip Zimbardo and a team of social psychologists carefully screened more than 70 volunteers for participation in a simulated prison. It is important to stress that the two dozen males selected were mature, intelligent, emotionally stable college students from middle-class homes. Subjects were paid $15 a day to live in a mock prison created in a classroom building. By a flip of a coin, half were arbitrarily designated as prisoners and the others as guards. The guards were allowed to make up their own rules for maintaining law, order, and respect. The students designated as “prisoners” were unexpectedly picked up at their homes by a city police officer in a squad car, searched, handcuffed, fingerprinted, booked at the station house, and taken blindfolded to the mock jail. The results of this experiment startled prisoners, guards, and researchers alike. After only six days (rather than the intended two weeks) Zimbardo and his colleagues, aware of the ethical implications of using human subjects, had to terminate the simulation because of the frightening behavior that had taken place. The student guards had begun to take pleasure in cruel treatment of prisoners. Physical punishment was prohibited, but the guards created their own forms of abuse, including solitary confinement, hourly roll calls throughout the night, and removal of blankets from uncooperative inmates. About a third were tyrannical and arbitrary in their use of power; and the remaining guards did not interfere with this tough approach. At the same time, the prisoners meekly accepted not only their confinement but also their mistreatment. When their requests for parole were denied, these subjects merely returned quietly to their cells, where they cried hysterically. This experiment serves as a sobering commentary on the possibility of improving prison life. Although Zimbardo argues for better training programs for prison guards, it appears that the guards themselves are “prisoners” of their social position as defined within the prison community and by society at large. Zimbardo’s participants were not subjected to the racism, sexual aggression, and lethal violence that can be found in contemporary prisons. Therefore, it is even more discouraging to read that four inmates were discharged prematurely because of “severe emotional responses.” Zimbardo’s research suggests that some of the problems found in prisons are inevitable, and casts a disturbing shadow on hopes for reform of correctional institutions. See Philip Zimbardo, “Pathology of Imprisonment,” Society 9 (April 1972): 4, 6, 8; Zimbardo, “On the Ethics of Intervention in Human Psychological Research: With Special Reference to the Stanford Prison Experiment,” Cognition 2 (August 1, 1974): 243–256; Craig Haney, Curtis Banks, and Philip Zimbardo, “Interpersonal Dynamics in a Simulated Prison,” International Journal of Criminology and Penology 1 (February 1973): 69–97. 5-2: Social Roles Amidst Disasters Lewis Killian studied the reaction of four Oklahoma and Texas communities to physical disasters such as explosions and tornadoes. He and his researchers found that individuals experienced unusual role conflicts because of the abnormal and stressful social conditions. In one case, the heroic role of rescue worker conflicted with a person’s occupational duties. As a result, a minister gave up an opportunity to act as a hero. This minister, hearing an explosion on the shipping docks, headed in that direction to join the rescue effort. On his way, he realized that he had to make a choice between serving as a rescue worker and serving as a minister. He chose his counseling role rather than the physical rescue work. In a second situation, Killian found a conflict between the roles of community member and member of a group with ties outside the community, specifically a labor union. At the time of the disaster studied by Killian, telephone workers were on strike. Because of the emergency, union leaders allowed the strikers to return to their jobs. However, a few days later the union determined that the emergency was over—a judgment that was not shared within the community—and ordered the workers to walk out again. Rather than forsaking their role as community members, the telephone workers resigned from the union. Killian reports, “it was almost a year before union officials were able to reorganize the local in this town, and some workers never rejoined” (Killian 1952:313). The choices faced by the minister and the union members could not have been anticipated before disaster struck in their communities. Therefore, role conflicts can arise not only out of everyday familial and occupational situations, but also out of extraordinary circumstances such as a natural disaster. See Lewis M. Killian, “The Significance of Multiple-Group Membership in Disaster,” American Journal of Sociology 57 (January 1952): 309–314. 5-3: China and People with Disabilities Having a disability is a master status found throughout the world. Sometimes its power surfaces in unusual ways. In 1994, Fang Zheng was hailed as China’s discus champion among athletes with a disability. In his case, the disability that he had overcome was the loss of both legs. But the Chinese government barred him from international competition when Communist party officials learned that his disability occurred during the Tiananmen Square uprising of June 4, 1989, when students and workers were demonstrating for democratic reforms. A Chinese Army tank ran him down, crushing his legs and dragging him 30 feet as the tank plunged into the crowd to suppress dissenters. His legs were later amputated. Prior to the publicity associated with this event, sociologist C. Edward Vaughan evaluated public policy and the existing laws regarding people with disabilities in the People’s Republic of China. In 1988, China published its first five-year plan for the rehabilitation and education of people with disabilities. The Handicapped People’s Association, an organization sponsored by the Chinese government, participated in the preparatory work and discussions that led to the final document. The plan focuses on improving educational opportunities for people with disabilities and on strengthening special education programs. While the plan encourages all levels of government to enhance the employment, health, education, and general welfare of people with disabilities, these policies are outlined in broad terms and lack specific goals. In 1990, China’s national government issued the “Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Disabled Persons.” This law was shaped, in part, through the advocacy efforts of the Disabled People’s Association. The law suggests that employers offer work opportunities to people with disabilities who pass entrance examinations. All levels of society are encouraged to offer access to people with disabilities, including access to cultural materials and transportation. To bring greater recognition to the contribution of people with disabilities, the third Sunday of every May was established as National Disabled Persons’ Day. The new legislation prohibits public officials from violating the interests or rights of people with disabilities. It outlaws violent and insulting behavior aimed at the disabled, as well as mistreatment of people with disabilities by family members or caregivers. Unfortunately, as Vaughan observes, it will be difficult for many people with disabilities to obtain justice. Few attorneys are available to represent disabled people in cases arising from the 1990 law. Most people with disabilities have limited economic resources and few connections to powerful public officials. See Patrick E. Tyler, “China Discus Champ: Alone, Disabled, and Barred,” New York Times (September 8, 1994): A3; C. Edwin Vaughan, “The Development of Public Policy and New Laws Concerning the Rights of People with Disabilities in the People’s Republic of China,” Journal of Disability Policy Studies 4 (Summer 1993): 131–140. 5-4: Role Transitions Sociologists and other social scientists have examined the transitions that people make from one social role to another. Usually, researchers look at major turning points in the life course, such as rites of passage when people move between different sets of social networks. Sociologist Ira Silver notes that these studies fail to acknowledge the importance of material objects and the physical space in which role transitions take place. He explores one particular role transition—moving away to college—to illustrate that objects play a central role in how students contract their social identities. The term social identity refers to the meaning individuals perceive that others may attach to their particular social roles. Following the work of Erving Goffman and the dramaturgical approach, Silver pays specific attention to the objects that are used as “props.” These props are used to manage the impressions that others form about the roles a given individual occupies. Students make what amounts to strategic choices about which objects to leave at home (objects that Silver refers to as anchors or prior identities), and which ones to bring to school as masters of new identities. The researcher conducted interviews with freshmen and sophomore students at a residential university. Students indicated the strong ties they had to their anchors, those objects that they associated exclusively with prior stages in their lives, such as childhood or early adolescence. The anchors that the students chose to bring with them often reflected a conscious assemblage of their different past activities or accomplishments. By contrast, markers (for example, record and CD collections and mementos from trips to exotic places) are objects symbolic of where the students saw themselves presently and of the type of impression they wanted to generate. For example, one female student made it clear that she never considered bringing her stuffed animals. Another made a similar statement about dolls. While this may seem obvious, such decisions are conscious efforts to move into another social role. Conscious efforts also go into deciding what to display on the walls of one’s room. One male student, for example, purposely put up an unusual Beatles poster to signal to others that he was a real fan and had not just bought one that could be conveniently obtained anywhere. The research confirms the enduring accuracy of the famed interactionist Herbert Blumer’s three fundamental principles: (1) human beings act toward things on the basis of the meaning that the things have for them; (2) the meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with one’s peer group; and (3) these meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretive process used by people in dealing with the things they encounter (1996:2). Sources: Herbert Blumer. Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1969; Blumer, “Role Transitions, Objects, and Identity,” Symbolic Interaction 19 (Winter 1996): 1–20. 5-5: Bowling Alone What are our relationships with others? Do we even have relationships with others? These questions have been raised because of a provocative book by Robert D. Putnam, Professor of International Affairs at Harvard University. Putnam states in Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community that civic life in the United States is collapsing; people are not joining, as they once did, the groups and clubs that promote trust and cooperation. This lack of connectedness in turn undermines democracy. Putnam takes his title (and central emblem of decline) from the fact that bowling league membership has dropped 40 percent since 1980; hence, we are “bowling alone.” Putnam’s premise has led to much discussion; even President Clinton made references to it during his first term. Is there empirical support for his thesis? Putnam contends that there is. Drawing on NORC General Social Survey data, he finds a 25-percent drop in all group membership since 1974, once the data are adjusted for rising educational levels. Putnam adjusts for schooling because better-educated people typically have belonged to more organizations. Once we adjust for more people being educated, says Putnam, it turns out we are less a nation of joiners. Looking at the same data, economist Robert J. Samuelson does not feel that there has been such a change. Most of the decline has been in church groups, and if one factors that out, the change has been mixed, but certainly not a trend of major decline. Furthermore, while membership in some traditional groups is declining, many new groups are developing and flourishing. Little League participation is giving way to soccer leagues, YMCA to health clubs, and church organizations to fellowships such as Promise Keepers. Sources: Robert D. Putnam. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. Robert J. Samuelson, “Join the Club,” Washington Post National Weekly Edition 13 (April 18, 1996): 8; Richard Stengel, “Bowling Together,” Time 146 (July 22, 1996): 35–36. 5-6: Social Networks in the United States Sociologist Peter Marsden used the 1985 NORC General Social Survey (GSS) to gain an overview of the features of social networks. Respondents in the national interview survey were asked to name all the people with whom they had discussed “important matters” (family, finances, health, politics, recreation, and so forth) within the past six months. Subsequent questions focused on the first five names mentioned, as a concession to time constraints. The respondents were asked to describe the relationship between themselves and each of their confidants as, say, “especially close” or “total strangers.” Items describing the respondent’s relationship with each confidant (in terms of closeness, frequency of contact, duration of acquaintance, and the role relations) were included, as were questions asking for the sex, race or ethnicity, education, age, and religious preferences of each confidant. Among the findings was the distribution of network size. Comparatively large percentages of respondents reported that they had recently discussed important matters with no one, or with only one person. Nearly a quarter of the respondents had networks of zero or one, and thus had relatively little counseling support. Few respondents indicated that they had more than six discussion contacts; the mean and mode were three. The networks drew heavily on kinship as a source of relationships. Respondents cited a mean of 1.5 relatives, slightly more than the 1.4 nonrelatives cited. There is substantial variability in the extent to which these interpersonal networks consisted of relatives rather than nonrelatives: 30 percent consisted only of people having some family relation to the respondent, while nearly 20 percent contained no family members. The average network had a proportion of relatives of 0.55. Marsden found this comparable with the level of “kin composition” found in previous surveys of large populations, including network items based on “intense name generators.” The racial and ethnic homogeneity of the networks was pronounced; only 96 respondents (8 percent of those with networks of size 2 or greater) cited “confidants” with any racial or ethnic diversity. By contrast only 22 percent of the respondents had networks with “alters” of only one sex. If anything, these estimates understate the extent of homogeneity in interpersonal environments because of the high “kin composition” of the networks, which had many ties bridging generations and many cross-sex links to spouses, siblings, parents, and children. A higher proportion of kin is associated with greater age, educational, and sexual heterogeneity. If these networks had been composed only of nonrelatives, they would have been substantially less heterogeneous in these respects than the detailed findings indicated. “Kin composition” does, however, tend to decrease racial and ethnic heterogeneity. Overall, these descriptive figures suggest that interpersonal environments in which Americans discuss important matters are “core” networks, as the choice of a relatively intense name generator implies. They are small, centered on relatives, comparatively dense, and homogeneous. See Peter Marsden, “Core Discussion Networks of Americans,” American Sociological Review 52 (February 1987): 122–131; “Social Network Theory.” In Edgar F. Borgatta and Marie L. Borgatta (eds.). Encyclopedia of Sociology, vol. 4. New York: Macmillan, 1992, pp. 1887–1994. 5-7: Daily Life in a Hunting-and-Gathering Society Looking at daily life in a hunting-and-gathering society can give some perspective on the range of variation in social structure in human societies. A close examination of life in the most famous of contemporary hunting-and-gathering societies—the Kalahari San—also suggests some interesting comparisons to life in an industrialized society, particularly when it comes to gender inequality. The Kalahari San are clustered in the country of Botswana, but can also be found throughout Southern Africa. Unfortunately, in recent decades they have been forced to give up their nomadic lifestyle, as other African populations began to encroach upon traditional San living areas. But the nomadic San lifestyle prior to the 1970s has been well documented in a number of studies. Prior to becoming stationary, the San typically lived together in bands of 10–85, who traveled seasonally within a specific geographical territory. For much of the year, the band moved camp every few weeks, once the food sources in a given area had been depleted. During the dry season—when it was difficult to extract water from plant sources—the band might camp for several months near a large water resource. Despite the common assumption that these bands were analogous to households, there were actually distinct nuclear families within each band. To some extent, each nuclear family within a band was economically independent from the others. On another level, the sharing of resources across bands was far more common than it is in industrial societies. The social process through which meat was distributed illustrates the extent of interdependence across families. Technically, the spoils of a large-animal hunt belonged to just two or three people; the man who shot the animal, if applicable, the man who lent him the arrow, and the man who accompanied him on the hunt. In practice, though, meat was shared much more widely. Once a portion for his nuclear family was secured, the owner of a carcass would often give some of the meat to married children or to in-laws, who would then distribute the meat further. Ultimately, nearly everyone in the band could expect to eat part of the carcass. As in industrial societies, gender was often the basis for assigning work among members of the band. Although both genders engaged in a variety of activities, a primary activity for women was to gather plant foods for their families, and a primary activity for men was to hunt large animals with a bow and arrow. Does this imply that women were considered inferior to men, or that women’s work was considered less important than men’s work? This is definitely not the case. It is clear that plant food gathered by women was far more central to the diet of the San than meat. Depending on the season, band members might go for long periods without meat—as long as two months—and total annual meat consumption was not high. Ethnographic evidence also suggests that San society was fairly gender equitable, in the sense that women had substantial autonomy and political power. They were often influential in the band as a whole, and had a strong voice in important family decisions. Sources used for this essay and additional reading ideas include: Marjorie Shostak. Nisa: The Life and Words of a !Kung Woman. New York: Vintage Books, 1983; George B. Silberbauer. Hunter and Habitat in the Central Kalahari Desert. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981; Jiro Tanaka. The San Hunter-Gatherers of the Kalahari. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1980; Elizabeth Marshall Thomas. The Harmless People. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1959. CLASSROOM DISCUSSION TOPICS Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment: Questions for stimulating a classroom discussion about Philip Zimbardo’s study of “prison behavior” might include: Based on Zimbardo’s study, what would you conclude about the impact of social structure on social interaction? Is it valid to generalize from a small experiment like the one conducted by Zimbardo? Based on the sociological code of ethics that you learned about in Chapter 2, do you believe that Zimbardo was ethical in conducting this experiment and in ending it when he did? Does Zimbardo’s experiment explain the behavior of real-life prison guards and prisoners? Can the findings of Zimbardo’s experiment be generalized to other, non-prison social structures? Alternative Social Structure: As a starting point for emphasizing the importance of structure, outline the island social structure and subsequent breakdown of social control presented in William Golding’s Lord of the Flies (London: Farber and Farber, 1954). Note that sociologists make a distinction between a slum (a deteriorated urban community) and a ghetto (an urban community that is home to a particular ethnic group). A ghetto, as originally discussed by Herbert Gans and later by Elliot Liebow and others, may be a highly organized community, although it may not appear that way to outsiders. See Herbert Gans. The Urban Villagers. New York: Free Press, 1962. See also Elliot Liebow. Tally’s Corner. Boston: Little, Brown, 1967. Social Statuses and Social Roles: Most students in the class have probably never thought much about their social statuses or social roles. For this exercise, they will need to do so. Have them use Figure 5-1 as a guide, and diagram their social statuses. Underneath their diagrams, have them list their social roles. Divide the class into small groups and have them share their findings about their social statuses and social roles with other group members. Physical Attractiveness as a Social Status: See Murray Webster, Jr., and James E. Driskell, Jr., “Beauty as Status,” American Journal of Sociology 89 (July 1983): 140–165. Using Humor: Joseph E. Faulkner has produced a monograph that includes funny examples that could be incorporated into lectures associated with Chapter 5. See Chapter 4 in Faulkner, Sociology Through Humor. New York: West, 1987. This book is out of print, but used copies are readily available. Role Conflict or Role Strain: In the 1970s, then graduate student Laud Humphreys engaged in a controversial study of covert homosexual behavior resulting in the publication of a book, The Tearoom Trade. Humphreys knew of places called “tearooms” where homosexual men would sometimes meet for quick, impersonal sex. To safeguard their privacy, these men would enlist the help of a “watchqueen,” someone to keep an eye out for possible intruders or law enforcement personnel. Whenever possible, Humphreys offered to serve as watchqueen. Following the encounter, Humphreys obtained the names and addresses of the men he observed at the tearooms (he was able to do this because he had recorded their tag numbers. He then gave these numbers to a friend of his who worked at the police department). Humphreys showed up at the men’s homes, claiming to be giving a medical survey. In this way, he was able to obtain the personal and demographic information he needed to complete the study. He found that many of the men were married and led conventional lives otherwise (having legitimate jobs, being religious, etc.). Upon hearing of this, most students wish to discuss the ethical implications of the study. Explain to them that Humphreys was never formally sanctioned; in fact, he received an award for his research and publication. Ask them if he could have done this study differently, in a more open manner. If he had, would his findings have been different? Then, have students discuss whether or not they believe the men engaged in the interaction were experiencing role conflict or role strain. Have them identify the various roles/statuses of the men and then defend their answers. (Another interesting question is to consider whether or not Humphreys was experiencing role conflict or role strain in his role of researcher). For more on this study, see The Tearoom Trade: Impersonal Sex in Public Places, by Laud Humphreys and Lee Rainwater. New York: Aldine Transaction Publishers, 1975. TOPICS FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND CLASSROOM DISCUSSION 1. Ask students to spend a few days testing social reality by facing toward the rear wall in an elevator, or continually talking with others while in the elevator. Have them record the general reaction of their observers. Discuss how social reality is shaped by perceptions, evaluations, and definitions. Answer: Students should spend a few days testing social norms by facing the rear wall in an elevator or talking continuously with others in the elevator, then record reactions from observers. Discuss how these experiences reveal the expectations and conventions shaping social reality, highlighting how perceptions and definitions influence behavior. 2. Using Figure 5-1 as an example, have students make a diagram of their own statuses. Add several role expectations for each status. Have students examine their diagrams for instances of role conflict and/or role strain. Discuss. Or, ask students to differentiate, in writing, between role conflict and role strain and summarize instances of each that they see in their own diagrams. Answer: Students should create a diagram of their own statuses and associated role expectations, identifying instances of role conflict (e.g., competing demands from different roles) and role strain (e.g., stress within a single role). Discuss how these conflicts and strains impact daily life and personal well-being. 3. Ask students to which charities or organizations they or their families have donated money. Compare this to the amount of money they have given to homeless people on the street. Discuss the impact of master statuses in producing any differences. Answer: Students should compare donations to charities with money given to homeless individuals and discuss how master statuses (e.g., social identity, economic status) influence these behaviors, potentially revealing underlying attitudes and social biases. 4. Ask students to view the movie Kindergarten Cop, and discuss the implications of role conflict. Answer: After watching Kindergarten Cop, students should analyze how the film illustrates role conflict, especially the challenges of balancing professional responsibilities with personal roles, and discuss its broader implications for understanding role conflict in real life. 5. Ask students to find various evidentiary indicators used by society to encourage older workers to retire, and discuss the four stages of role exit as developed by Helen Rose Fuchs Ebaugh. Answer: Students should identify societal indicators encouraging older workers to retire, such as pension plans or age-related stereotypes, and discuss these in the context of Helen Rose Fuchs Ebaugh’s four stages of role exit: doubt, search for alternatives, action, and creation of a new identity. 6. Ask students to discuss how affirmation of patriotism in the aftermath of 9/11 has redefined the roles of police and fire personnel. Consider the view of all three major perspectives in your discussion. Answer: Students should discuss how the affirmation of patriotism after 9/11 has redefined roles for police and fire personnel, considering the functionalist perspective (maintaining social order), conflict perspective (power dynamics and resource allocation), and symbolic interactionism (new symbols and meanings of patriotism). 7. Ask students to research the various advantages and disadvantages of learning college curriculum via the Internet, and discuss the social implications of virtual classrooms. Answer: Students should research the advantages (e.g., flexibility, accessibility) and disadvantages (e.g., lack of social interaction, technological barriers) of online learning, and discuss the social implications of virtual classrooms, including how they affect student engagement and educational equity. SERVICE LEARNING ACTIVITY Industrialization and technology have resulted in major changes in the way that we interact. Have students review, in particular, the concepts of “in groups and out groups.” A good illustration of these concepts can be seen at high schools across the country. The consequences of “in’s and out’s” have resulted in tragedy in some states. The Internet has played an important role. Below is a service learning activity: Meet with a local high school or middle school counselor and discuss the group dynamics that exists at that particular school. Volunteer to bring in a group of college students who will talk about the importance of interpersonal communication and welcoming diversity as it relates to personality differences, not just race. Search for groups that work to limit real bullying, as well as cyber bullying and try to get those groups involved with this effort. Try and reach those middle and high school students who are bullies and those who are bullied. CHAPTER 6 THE MASS MEDIA CHAPTER SUMMARY The term mass media refers to print and electronic means of communication that carry messages to widespread audiences. The function of the mass media is not limited to entertainment. The mass media also socialize us, enforce social norms, confer status, promote consumption, and keep us informed about our social environment. The media bring members of society together by reporting on ceremonies and other important events, such as the attacks on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001. The functionalist view of the mass media emphasizes the role of the media in reaffirming proper behavior by depicting what happens to people who act in ways that violate social expectations. The media play a critical role in shaping perceptions about the risks of substance abuse. The media are capable of conferring status on people, organizations, and public issues. In addition to its functions, the media can be dysfunctional. The narcotizing dysfunction refers to the phenomenon whereby the media provide such massive amounts of information that the audience becomes numb and generally fails to act on the information. The conflict view is that the media reflect many of the divisions within society and the world, including those based on gender, race, ethnicity, and social class. The media serves to reinforce dominant views and to justify the position of the powerful. Gatekeeping refers to the idea that media material must travel through a series of checkpoints (or “gates”) before it reaches the public. The conflict view suggests that the gatekeeping process reflects a desire to maximize profits, and that the content that makes it through the gates does not reflect the diversity of the audience. In the past, media monitoring referred to the monitoring of media content by interest groups. With new technologies, it now includes monitoring of individuals’ media usage and choices without their knowledge, raising concerns about the invasion of people’s privacy. The term dominant ideology describes the set of cultural beliefs and practices that helps to maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests. The media transmit images that virtually define what we regard as the real world. Mass media decision makers are overwhelmingly white, male, and wealthy. Media content may create false images or stereotypes of particular groups, which become accepted as accurate portrayals of reality. Globalization projects the dominating reach of the U.S. media into the rest of the world. The U.S. media have come to rely on the overseas market. Feminists continue the argument advanced by conflict theorists that the mass media stereotype and misrepresent social reality. The media provide a powerful influence on how we look at men and women. Feminists suggest that women are underrepresented and traditionally viewed as needing rescue by males or in ways that are highly objectified. Recent studies on the use of the Internet by women and men suggest that the use of websites differs by gender in fundamental ways. Interactionists are especially interested in shared understandings of everyday behavior. They examine the impact of the media on the microlevel to see how the media shape day-to-day social behavior. The use of the Internet to exchange information and messages about terrorism and hatred is of concern to interactionists. Sexual expression, privacy issues, and censorship are all Internet-related issues that have an impact on social behavior. The media can target certain groups by identifying and segmenting the audience. An opinion leader is someone who, through day-to-day personal contacts and communication, influences the opinions and decisions of others. The global reach of the media has indeed begun to create a global village in terms of communication. Consumer goods are vigorously marketed worldwide, and national boundaries are crossed effortlessly with a mere keystroke. However, ownership of the media is getting more and more centralized. There are a handful of multinational corporations that dominate the publishing, broadcasting, and film industries. Some observers think that government should regulate media concentration. Some sociologists question whether the public interest is being served by the growing concentration of media. RESOURCE INTEGRATOR Focus Questions Resources How do functionalists view the mass media? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: mass media, narcotizing dysfunction IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (6-1); Something Doesn’t Quite Ad Up (6-2); Media Reflections (6-3); Never-Ending Battles (6-4) Classroom Discussion Topics: Cohesive Function of the Mass Media (6-2) Video Resources: Mass Communication, Part 1; Mass Communication, Part 2; Media Rights and Responsibilities; Scene Smoking; Why We Buy REEL SOCIETY VIDEO Topic Index: Media How do conflict theorists and feminist theorists view the mass media? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: gatekeeping, digital divide, dominant ideology, stereotypes, digital divide Boxes: Taking Sociology to Work: Lindsey Wallen, Social Media Consultant IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: Media Reflections (6-3) Classroom Discussion Topics: Misinformation about Substance Abuse (6-1); Who Should Decide (6-3); Censored News Stories (6-4); News Framing (6-5); Hispanic Americans on TV? (6-6); Killing us Softly (6-7); Gender, Sports, and Advertising (6-8) Student Research and Assignments: News Framing in Television; Representation of Hispanics in Television Shows; Reinforcement of Stereotypes through Films; Role of Popular Music in Social Change Video Resources: Killing Us Softly 3; Mass Media in Society; Media Impact; Playing Unfair; Television Media; Why We Buy REEL SOCIETY CD Topic Index: Media How do interactionists view the mass media? IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: Sociology Meets Science Fiction (6-5); Sociology of Television Fandom (6-6) Classroom Discussion Topics: News Framing (6-5) Student Research and Assignments: News Framing in Television; Representation of Hispanics in Television Shows; Reinforcement of Stereotypes through Films; What Television Tells Us About Our Lives Video Resources: The Mean World Syndrome REEL SOCIETY VIDEO Topic Index: Media 1. What is the significance of the mass media audience? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: opinion leader IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: Sociology of Television Fandom (6-6) Video Resources: Should You Let Them Watch; Why We Buy To what extent is mass media globalized? IN THE TEXT Boxes: Inside the Bubble: Internet Search Filters IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Video Resources: Mass Media in Society LECTURE OUTLINE I. Sociological Perspectives on the Media A. Functionalist View • The media socialize us, enforce social norms, confer status, promote consumption, and keep us informed about our social environment. • A dysfunction of the media is that, over time, too much information is disseminated and viewers become desensitized. This is referred to as a narcotizing effect. 1. Agent of Socialization • The media increase social cohesion by presenting a standardized view of culture. Example: Robert Park’s study of newspapers and immigrants. • The showing of media events can bring people together. • The Internet has become the public commons for many. • The Internet has also become a political arena. Example: In 2008, 24 percent of U.S. citizens regularly researched presidential candidates on the Internet. • Some people blame the media for anything that goes wrong. 2. Enforcer of Social Norms • Media reaffirm proper behavior by showing what happens to people who violate societal expectations. Example: Programs such as COPS serve as a reminder to the public about the sanctions imposed against law violators. • Media shape perceptions about substance abuse, both in a positive and negative fashion. The 200 most popular movie rentals in 1996 and 1997 depicted alcohol use (93 percent), tobacco use (89 percent), and illicit drug use (22 percent). In 1999, 44 percent of network television programming portrayed tobacco use in at least one episode. • In 1997, a federal law required television networks to provide one free minute of antidrug messages for every minute purchased by the government for public service messages. The networks subsequently bargained with the government to drop the free minutes in exchange for antidrug messages embedded in their programs. Controversy ensued. 3. Conferral of Status • Media confers status on people, organizations, and public issues. See Table 6-2. 4. Promoting Consumption • Advertising has become more and more prominently embedded in the media. • Media advertising includes the following functions: supports the economy, provides information about products, underwrites media costs. • Sociologists are concerned that it contributes to a consumer culture that creates “needs” and raises unrealistic expectations of what is required to be happy, and that advertising has an inappropriate influence on the media content. 5. Dysfunctional Media: The Narcotizing Effect • Paul Lazarsfeld and Robert Merton created the term narcotizing dysfunction, which refers to the media providing such massive amounts of information that the audience becomes numb. Example: Coverage of natural disasters may create viewer fatigue and desensitize viewers to the actual suffering. B. Conflict View • The Conflict Perspective emphasizes that the media reflect the many divisions of society and the world, including those based on gender, race, ethnicity, and social class. 1. Gatekeeping • Media constitute a form of big business in which profits are more important than the quality of the programming. • A small number of people control what eventually reaches the audience (gatekeeping). • In many countries, the government plays a gatekeeping role. • Gatekeeping is not as dominant within the Internet. • In gatekeeping, the content that makes it through the gate does not necessarily reflect the diversity of the audience. By 2008, the governments of 21 countries had extended gatekeeping activities to the Internet. Examples: China, Myanmar. 2. Media Monitoring • In the past, media monitoring referred to the monitoring of media content by interest groups. With new technologies, it now includes monitoring of individuals’ media usage and choices without their knowledge. • Critics concerned by the invasion of people’s privacy. Examples: Google’s records of users’ web-browsing activities and government interest therein; federal government authorizing wiretaps of U.S. citizens’ telephone conversations. 3. The Digital Divide • Advances in communications technology are unequally distributed, with low-income groups, racial and ethnic minorities, rural residents, and citizens of developing nations far trailing the privileged significantly. • Internet access is essential for economic progress and for accessing information of all types and is particularly problematic for developing countries. 4. Dominant Ideology: Constructing Reality • Conflict theorists argue that mass media serves to maintain the privileges of certain groups. • Dominant ideology is a set of cultural beliefs and practices that helps maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests. • Media transmit images that define what we regard as reality. • Decision makers are overwhelmingly white, male, and wealthy. • Media tend to ignore the lives of some groups and help to create stereotypes through portrayal of false images. Example: gays or minorities. • TV distorts the political process. Candidates with the most money are able to buy exposure and saturate airwaves with messages attacking their opponents and promoting their own agendas. 5. Dominant Ideology: Whose Culture? • Globalization projects the reach of the U.S. media into the rest of the world. Todd Gitlin notes American popular culture is something that “people love, and love to hate.” • U.S. media rely on overseas markets. Many motion pictures earn more abroad than in U.S. Example: Titanic made over a billion dollars overseas. • U.S. producers not always sensitive to foreign audiences. Example: Memoirs of a Geisha. • Many popular U.S. television shows originated in other countries. Example: Survivor; Who Wants to be a Millionaire? • Unlike motion pictures, television is moving away from U.S. domination and is more likely to be locally produced. • In 2005, UNESCO passed a measure to combat cultural homogenization and protect threatened cultures, especially in developing nations. The United States was one of two dissenters. C. Feminist View • Media influence how we look at men and women, communicating unrealistic, stereotypical, and limiting images. • Feminists see three major problems with popular media: (1) Women are underrepresented, which suggests women are insignificant; (2) Women are often depicted as needing rescue by males, thus reinforcing the stereotype of women as helpless and weak; and (3) Depictions of male-female relationships emphasize traditional roles, and normalize violence against women. • Jean Kilbourne argues that women are objectified and dehumanized in advertising and media entertainment. • Pornography is a continuing issue of debate. • There are fundamental differences in the way the Internet is used by men and women. D. Interactionist View • From this perspective, media is examined on the microlevel to see how media shape day-to-day behaviors. • The media serves as a primary group. Friendship networks emerge from shared viewing habits. Example: Super Bowl parties. • Embracing of symbols through photo-ops. • The Internet has facilitated new forms of communication and social interaction. • One troubling issue is that the Internet may be used as a platform for extremists and pornographers. • Internet has given people greater control over what they see and hear. Legal scholar Cass Sunstein refers to this as egocasting. The downside of this may be a less tolerant society as people reduce their exposure to other people and ideas. • Disparities in usage of the Internet: See Figure 6-5 for breakdown by gender, age, race, income, and education II. The Audience A. Who is in the Audience? • The audience can be a primary group or a secondary group and can be examined from the microlevel or macrolevel. B. The Segmented Audience • Increasingly, the media are marketing themselves to particular audiences. To some degree this is driven by advertisers who want to maximize appeal to specific market segments. Thus, content is geared toward special interests. Example: Golf cable channel. • Marketing research can be extremely precise. Specialized targeting of audiences has led some to question the “mass” in mass media. • Segmentation of audiences may reduce the collective nature of an audience. C. Audience Behavior • An opinion leader is someone who, through day-to-day personal contacts and communication, influences the opinions and decisions of others. • Lazarsfeld et al. pioneered a study of opinion leaders in research on voting behavior in the 1940s. Found opinion leaders encouraged relatives, friends, and coworkers to think positively about a particular candidate or situation. • Audiences are not a passive group, but active consumers. • Interpretations of the audience vary. Example: Race, age, income, education, etc., may influence response of audience members. III. The Media’s Global Reach • The mass media have created a global village, as predicted by Canadian linguist Marshall McLuhan some 40 years ago, although not all countries are equally connected. • Consumer goods are marketed worldwide which contributes to brand loyalty. Examples: Nike, Coca-Cola. • The capacity to send audio and video via the Internet will increasingly reach into every part of the world. IV. Social Policy and the Mass Media: The Right to Privacy The Issue Recent advances in computer technology have made it increasingly easy for business firms, government agencies, and even criminals to retrieve and store information about private individuals. As these technologies increase the power to monitor our behavior, they raise fears of their misuse for criminal or even undemocratic purposes. B. The Setting In public places, at work, and on the Internet, surveillance devices track our every move, whether it is a keystroke or an ATM withdrawal. In short, they threaten not just our privacy, but our freedom from crime and censorship as well. Conflicting feelings about this relatively new-found ability are exemplified by WikiLeaks, who in 2010 released thousands of classified U.S. foreign policy documents on its website, causing some people to condemn the action as treasonous and others to praise it as a blow against government censorship. C. Sociological Insights From a sociological point of view, the complex issues of privacy and censorship can be considered illustrations of culture lag. Functionalists take a generally positive view of the Internet, pointing to its manifest function of facilitating communication. Conflict theorists stress the danger that the most powerful groups in a society will use technology to violate the privacy of the less powerful. D. Policy Initiatives In 1986, the federal government passed the Electronic Communications Privacy Act, which outlawed the surveillance of telephone calls except with the permission of both the U.S. attorney general and a federal judge. Telegrams, faxes, and e-mails did not receive the same degree of protection, however. In 2001, one month after the terrorist attacks of September 11, Congress passed the Patriot Act which which relaxed existing legal checks on surveillance by law enforcement officers. Federal agencies are now freer to gather data electronically, including people’s credit card receipts and banking records. In 2010, Congress began to draft federal legislation to inform cell phone and computer owners that their devices are being “fingerprinted,” and to allow them to opt out of being monitored. The next year, seeking to head off the measure, some tracking organizations began voluntarily to allow people to edit the information collected in their online profiles. At the same time, the Federal Trade Commission issued a report that faulted the industry for not doing enough to protect consumers’ privacy online. KEY TERMS Cultural convergence The flow of content across multiple media, and the accompanying migration of media audiences. Digital divide The relative lack of access to the latest technologies among low-income groups, racial and ethnic minorities, rural residents, and the citizens of developing countries. Dominant ideology A set of cultural beliefs and practices that help to maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests. Gatekeeping The process by which a relatively small number of people in the media industry control what material eventually reaches the audience. Mass media Print and electronic means of communication that carry messages to widespread audiences. Narcotizing dysfunction The phenomenon in which the media provide such massive amounts of information that the audience becomes numb and fails to act on the information, regardless of how compelling the issue. Netizen A person who is actively involved in online communities and is committed to the free flow of information, with few outside controls. Opinion leader Someone who influences the opinions and discussions of others. Stereotype An unreliable generalization about all members of a group that does not recognize individual differences within the group. ADDITIONAL LECTURE IDEAS 6-1: Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft Sociology was born out of a desire to understand change. Ferdinand Tönnies (1855–1936) introduced the dichotomous Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (1988, original edition 1887) as conceptualizations delineating the impact of the Industrial Revolution on social structure. Industrialization was seen as the catalyst altering the social structure from small-scale, intimate, and slow-paced (Gemeinschaft) to large-scale, impersonal, and technology-driven (Gesellschaft). However, the power of good ideas lies in their adaptability. While Tönnies examined large-scale issues, his concepts can help explore changes in more microlevel areas of social life. For example, morphing cultural conditions, historical and political events, and new technologies have had an impact on movie-going and movie theaters over the last century. In essence, if one is willing to expand the themes of Tönnies, modern movie theaters serve as a concrete example of the features of Gesellschaft: impersonalization, rationalization, and standardization. This changing nature is explored in Douglas Gomery’s “If You’ve Seen One, You’ve Seen the Mall” (1990). Movie houses created before the 1920s were of elegant and impressive design; often employing exotic architectural motifs to decorate theaters of three or more thousand seats. Indeed, such single-screened theaters were “palaces;” places where ordinary citizens could go for extraordinary experiences. Going to the “picture show” at early palaces such as New York’s Strand Theater was often seen as a special occasion, akin to attending the opera or a Broadway play today. Dressing up in formal attire to attend an evening screening was not uncommon. Upon entering palaces of the 1910s and 1920s, the patron might be exposed to art in ornate lobbies or see simulated night skies on massive ceilings. Ushers would walk patrons to their seats, where a small orchestra or large pipe organ would entertain before the show. It was not unheard of for palaces to provide infant care services and lounges for patrons to interact. Modern movie theaters, on the other hand, offer state-of-the-art digital picture and sound. Stadium seating ensures a good view for nearly everyone attending. Patrons can choose among numerous films playing at the same multiplex and purchase tickets online. Big-budget blockbusters can be watched on big or not-so-big screens. Indeed, many modern theaters are standardized and much smaller than previous movie palaces. They are often connected to shopping malls, creating a nexus of consumerism (watch the film, buy the soundtrack and novelization, collect the toy at the fast food restaurant). The ornate lobbies of the past are gone, replaced by what Gomery calls “profit centers” of video games and concessions. Ringing cell phones and talking during films have become more prevalent as audiences mimic the casual experience of seeing films at home on DVD. “Ushers” now rip the tickets, usually leaving patrons to make their own way to their seats. Both the experience of seeing films as well as the architecture of theaters has changed. Like Tönnies’s view on the change towards Gesellschaft, movie theaters themselves can be interpreted as places where strangers interact for increasingly impersonal and standardized experiences (see Chapter 5, Social Interaction, Groups, and Social Structure). Gomery suggests that modern theaters and the modern movie-going experience are not better than those of the past. Quantity does not always equate with quality. Slick images and loud sound may just mean a bombardment of what Georg Simmel (1858–1918) called “nervous stimulation” (1950, original writing 1903). Or, as Gomery’s article posits, it may just mean that audiences in Theater 13 can hear the soundtrack from the film playing in Theater 12. A complementary analysis of this issue is offered in George Ritzer’s The McDonaldization of Society (2004), which offers an examination of the “predictability” or standardization of modern society. NOTE: Students can gain additional insight through a field trip or interview. Find a restored movie palace in your school’s area (web search engines like www.yahoo.com are helpful). Then locate a modern theater, ideally one that is attached to a shopping center. Take students on a field trip to each. Students can then engage their sociological imaginations by applying the basic concepts of Tönnies and the specific history of Gomery through a comparison of theaters. If there are no palaces near the school, or if a field trip is not feasible, students can be given an assignment where they interview a person 30 or 40 years older than they are. The interview would examine what it was like to see films in that older person’s youth. Students can also take a virtual trip through movie palaces at the website “Some Enchanted Evenings: American Picture Palaces” created by Mary Halnon at the University of Virginia (xroads.virginia.edu/~CAP/PALACE/home.html). Sources used for this essay and additional reading ideas include: Douglas Gomery, “If You’ve Seen One, You’ve Seen the Mall.” In Mark Crispin Miller (ed.). Seeing Through Movies. New York: Pantheon, 1990, pp. 49-80; Mary Halnon, “Some Enchanted Evenings: American Picture Palaces,” xroads.virginia.edu/~CAP/PALACE/home.html; George Ritzer. The McDonaldization of Society. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 2004; Georg Simmel, “The Metropolis and Mental Life.” The Sociology of Georg Simmel. New York: Free Press, 1950 (originally written 1903), pp. 409-424; Ferdinand Tönnies, Community and Society. Rutgers, NJ: Transaction, 1988 (originally written 1887). 6-2: Something Doesn’t Quite Ad Up In 1957, Vance Packard examined “depth approach.” These were analytical tools used by advertisers and others to tap into deep-rooted, core psychological needs of the public in an attempt to sell products, concepts, or candidates. In the chapter entitled “Marketing Eight Hidden Needs,” Packard explores some of the strategies used in advertisements to increase sales and affect consumer behavior. An interactive lecture could involve introducing students to these needs. Students could then look for advertisements in newspapers, magazines, the Internet, radio, television, and before movies at the theater, which try to tap into these needs. Or, the instructor could bring into the classroom advertisements as modern illustrations of Packard’s ideas. Advertisements could be for products, services, political candidates, events, or to promote an idea. Below is a list of the eight “hidden needs” discussed in Packard’s work, an interpretation, and suggestions for examples. Source used for this essay: Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders. New York: David McKay Company, 1957 (original edition). “Selling Emotional Security” Products like freezers and air conditioners can make consumers feel secure and safe in their homes, Packard’s book reveals. Here, examples can be found in products that overtly or covertly try to make consumers feel safe. Cars, medications promising to stop embarrassing conditions, home appliances, reliable Internet connections, home security systems, car alarms, cell phones, and products that offer guarantees can all be examples and expansions of this hidden need. “Selling Reassurance of Worth” Depth approach studies posit that some products, ideas, and candidates will sell more effectively if they can make the consumer feel better about themselves. Owning a certain pair of shoes or type of dress can make a person feel important. These products can be elevating status symbols. These commercials often promise that other people will be envious of the consumer for having purchased the product. The same can be said for the following example. “Selling Ego-Gratification” Products to include here can be ones that encourage the consumer to spend money because they deserve it. Consumers will feel good for “splurging” or spending a little extra of their “mad money” on certain beauty products, restaurants, or technologies. “Selling Creative Outlets” Packard discusses how the depth approach revealed that consumers do not like to feel left out of the process of making or baking. Examples here can include advertisements for paint, do-it-yourself repairs, tools, and food. Consumers are encouraged to buy the product because it will release their creative talents. “Selling Love Objects” Often commercials for products will claim that consumers will “love” them. Include here products that become an object of affection for the consumer (a car, vacation, movie, or even a celebrity, as Packard points out). Many new “boy bands” and “girl bands” are sold to young consumers in this fashion. “Selling Sense of Power” Automobile, Internet, tool, and home appliance ads often expound upon the power behind the product. Such items promise to have more strength, speed, torque, and energy than others do; and all of these things can be controlled by the consumer’s powerful self. “Selling a Sense of Roots” Products that awaken feelings of nostalgia and tradition can include examples where commercials utilize the “home made” or “like mom/dad/grandma/grandpa used to make” or “old fashioned” slogans. Ads using monocolor, black and white, or sepia often try to recreate the past. “Selling Immortality” Packard discusses the marketing of products like insurance here; products that can give consumers some sense of immortality. Another interpretation could be to look at how many products tap into the societal and psychological pressure and desire to remain youthful. Here, commercials for beauty products, health clubs, energizing pills, or movies that claim to make consumers “feel like a kid again” can all be expansions of Packard’s idea. 6-3: Media Reflections Hard Bodies: Hollywood Masculinity in the Reagan Era by Susan Jeffords (1994) offers a comparison of motion picture box-office hits of the 1980s and the Ronald Reagan presidency of the same era. One of the main goals of the text is to examine the imagery and themes in both the films and the presidency in order to understand the mood of the audiences and voters to help discover what audiences and citizens found “pleasurable.” For instance, many blockbusters of that era involved the celebration of the “hard body,” a traditional and stereotypical masculine presentation involving aggression, strength, and muscles. So, too, did some of the policies and themes of the Reagan Revolution celebrate the hard body on a macro scale, through, for instance, the call for an increase in military spending and research. The media, therefore, can be argued to be not just an influencing agent on society, but also a reflecting agent as well (see Chapter 6, “The Mass Media” regarding “Dysfunction: The Narcotizing Effect,” page 138). Creators of popular culture will try to tap into the zeitgeist of an era. Through the examination of popular culture and mass media items one can glean insight into prevailing spirits, norms, and cultural attitudes of a given time. An interactive lecture can be created utilizing Jeffords’s main theme and method, looking at popular items of culture to see what themes are present. By virtue of their popularity, they must hold some meaning for the audience. Examining the posters used for advertisement of motion pictures in newspapers and at theaters, for instance, can be a new adaptation of Jeffords’s work. In a study by the National Research Group, Inc. (1999), 62 percent of those surveyed said they utilized movie posters as a source of information about a film. Collect major newspapers from different times and/or places (these can be chosen by decade, by presidential eras, by differing nations, or before and after a specific historical event). These papers usually have a movie listing section with reproductions of movie posters. Internet sites or movie books may also be helpful for viewing posters. What types of images do the posters present in terms of gender, sex, violence, race, age, or other thematics? Do these images change with the times? (Are there more patriotic United States images, for instance, in posters created right after and during historic military events or wars than there were before the event took place? Do the images of men and women change over time, and how so? Does there appear to be more violence in posters from one era to another? Do there appear to be changes in the number of G-, PG-, and R-rated films released?) How are posters different from nation to nation—or are they? Globalization of entertainment might well be reflected in these posters if they are similar from nation to nation. While not a representative sample, having students discuss such posters and the images contained within can offer some insight into what movie poster and movie creators were trying to respond to and reflect. Sources used include: Susan Jeffords, Hard Bodies: Hollywood Masculinity in the Reagan Era. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994; National Research Group, Inc., Newspapers: Just the Ticket—A 1999 Study of the Movie Market: Summary Report. www.naaa.org/PDF/dsplay/Final-Moviegoer.pdf. 6-4: Never-Ending Battles: Tracing Popular Mass Media Figures As the mass, electronic media nears its century mark, it becomes possible to engage in longitudinal analysis and interpretations. If the mass media is indeed a mirror to society and history as some argue, then it is useful to examine changes in popular cultural items because they would reflect trends in the real social world. One way to accomplish this is to take long-lived fictional characters and explore how they have been reinterpreted for each new generation. Characters like Edgar Rice Burroughs’ Tarzan or Ian Fleming’s James Bond—played by different actors, in different mediums, and recreated over several decades—could be used to explore many social issues. In “Getting to Know Us—An Introduction to the Study of Popular Culture: What Is This Stuff that Dreams Are Made Of?,” Jack Nachbar and Kevin Lause (1992) suggest that popular culture can be seen as a funhouse mirror in that it both “reflects” and “alters” our vision of society (7). The critical study of popular culture can become a barometer for understanding the zeitgeist of any given era. For instance, when Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster first introduced the world to their creation Superman in 1938, they could not have foreseen the long-lasting cultural impact the character would eventually have. Through nearly 65 years of success in comics, books, radio, movies, television programs, and the Internet, Superman has gained a degree of popularity and longevity that make him a perfect choice for social reflection. (See Wolcott [2002] for more history and discussion on this argument.). For instance, changes in the characterizations of Superman, his alter ego Clark Kent, and Lois Lane can serve as lessons about changing gender roles in the real world. When actor George Reeves played the superhero in 104 episodes of the syndicated television program that ran from 1952 through 1957, the characterization presented little difference between the temperament and attitudes of Clark and Superman (Skerry and Lambert 1987). The message at the time could have been that all men were actually supermen. However, the Clark Kent of the 1970s seen in motion pictures was different; this Clark can be interpreted as being more sensitive, more willing to share feelings and emotions. This Clark was a reflection of changing gender roles, expectations, and attitudes of the times. Lois Lane has been an important character in the history of comic books. In the 1950s and 1960s comic books, Lois spent a good deal of her time trying to marry Superman. Her career was a secondary issue, perhaps even a contrivance so that she could continue to be rescued and interact with the hero. Having marriage and family take precedence over work can be viewed as a reflection of The Feminine Mystique, which Betty Friedan wrote about in 1963. A woman, particularly a suburban woman of the 1940s and 1950s, was socialized to define her worth based upon the traditional roles of housewife and mother. By the 1990s, though, Lois (as played by Teri Hatcher on television) was presented as a professional and award-winning journalist. She was an equal partner with Superman—both discovering his secret and helping him to save citizens in distress. She was capable of balancing career and personal life. Even the name of the television program in the 1990s, Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, was a clever twist on the historical “Lewis and Clark,” but also expressed the sentiment that Lois was equally as important as Clark as a character. Long-lasting popular culture icons can be useful in giving students accessible, interesting, and even fun entry points into more serious and socially relevant discussions. There is much room for debate, discussion, and differing interpretations of the previous points, which can make for good class discussion. Sources used for this essay include: CHARACTERS, FILMS, AND TELEVISION SHOWS: Ian Fleming (creator of James Bond); Edgar Rice Burroughs (creator of Tarzan); Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster (creators of Superman, Clark Kent, and Lois Lane); The Adventures of Superman (MPTV, aired 1952–1957; syndicated); Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman (Warner Brothers Television and December 3rd Productions, aired 1993–1997, ABC-TV); Superman: The Movie. Dir. Richard Donner. Alexander Salkind et al, 1978. PRINT SOURCES: Betty Friedan. The Feminine Mystique. New York: Dell, 1963; Jack Nachbar and Kevin Lause, “Getting to Know Us—An Introduction to the Study of Popular Culture: What Is This Stuff that Dreams Are Made Of?” In Jack Nachbar and Kevin Lause (eds.). Popular Culture: An Introductory Text. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1992; Philip Skerry with Chris Lambert, “From Panel to Panavision.” In Dennis Dooley and Gary Engle (eds.). Superman at Fifty! The Persistence of a Legend! Cleveland: Octavia Press, 1987, pp. 62-75; James Wolcott, “It’s a Bird, It’s A Plane . . . It’s the Zeitgeist,” Vanity Fair (March 2002): 130–139. 6-5: Sociology Meets Science Fiction Sociology and science fiction are connected. Sociology as a formal academic discipline emerged in the eras right before and after the Industrial Revolution. New technologies and industries created profound changes in work, family, and daily life. Early thinkers like Auguste Comte (1798–1857), Karl Marx (1818–1883), and Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) all tried to understand such changes (see Chapter 1 for more information). These theorists wondered, “What is social life like now and what would social life be like in the future?” Science fiction as a formal genre emerges out of similar roots. It too, like sociology, became more formalized, widespread, and popular around the time of the Industrial Revolution. Early science fiction authors such as Jules Verne (1828–1905) and H.G. Wells (1866–1946)—who compete with others for the title of “Father of Modern Science Fiction” among fans—were exploring much the same ground as early sociologists through their writings and stories. In particular, the nature and role of science became a paramount concern. Indeed, sociology and science fiction are the same in intent, if not form. Sociology employs the scientific method to understand groups, institutions, and social change. This discipline helps us to look to our collective future. What will work be like in the future? Will racial or sex inequality be lessened or eliminated? How does technology affect our daily lives? Science fiction employs metaphor and analogy as ways to understand the same kinds of social issues. Instead of discussing racism in its current form, a science fiction author might set a tale on another planet or in another time, having aliens stand in for real human races or ethnicities. Topics that are taboo or uncomfortable become palatable when presented as fiction. In this regard, science fiction can be a tool for educators desiring to give sociology a more concrete face for students. By discussing and debating the themes and messages in works of science fiction, a valuable learning experience can be shared. What follows is a list of science fiction (and near science fiction) works that would be beneficial for use in understanding sociological conceptualizations and topics. Students can watch these films at home and come to school ready to discuss the way in which these works reflect or illuminate a given topic. Please be aware that some films may be rated R, and, depending on the ages of the students, may not be appropriate. TO HELP ILLUMINATE “THE SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION” (see Chapter 1, “Understanding Sociology”): Sliding Doors. Dir. Peter Howitt. Mirimax Films, 1998. Spiderman. Dir. Sam Raimi. Sony Pictures, 2002. TO HELP ILLUMINATE STRATIFICATION ISSUES (RACIAL, SOCIAL CLASS, AGE, GENDER) (see Chapter 8, “Stratification and Social Mobility in the United States”; Chapter 10, “Racial and Ethnic Inequality”; Chapter 11, “Stratification by Gender”): Brave New World (miniseries). Dir. Leslie Libman and Larry Williams. USA Network Studios, 1998. The Day the Earth Stood Still. Dir. Robert Wise. 20th Century Fox, 1951. Enemy Mine. Dir: Wolfgang Petersen. 20th Century Fox, 1985. The Matrix. Dir. Andy and Larry Wachowski. Silver Pictures, 1999. Star Trek: First Contact. Dir. Jonathan Frakes. Paramount Pictures, 1996. White Man’s Burden. Dir. Desmond Nakano. HBO, 1995. V (miniseries). Dir. Kenneth Johnson. Warner Bros. Television, 1983. TO HELP ILLUMINATE ÉMILE DURKHEIM’S CLASSIC STUDY OF SUICIDE AND SOCIAL COHESION (see Chapter 1, “Understanding Sociology”): Armageddon. Dir. Michael Bay. Jerry Bruckheimer Films, 1998. Independence Day. Dir: Roland Emmerich. 20th Century Fox, 1996. Star Wars. Dir. George Lucas. 20th Century Fox, 1977. TO HELP ILLUMINATE THE STUDY OF DEVIANCE (see Chapter 7, “Deviance and Social Control”): A Clockwork Orange. Dir: Stanley Kubrick. Warner Brothers, 1971. Logan’s Run. Dir. Michael Anderson. MGM, 1976. THX-1138. Dir: George Lucas. Warner Brothers and Zoetrope Studios, 1970. TO HELP ILLUMINATE THE IMPORTANCE OF ELEMENTS OF CULTURE (see Chapter 3, “Culture”): Close Encounters of the Third Kind. Dir. Steven Spielberg. Columbia Pictures Corporation, 1977. E.T.: The Extraterrestrial. Dir. Steven Spielberg. Universal Pictures, 1982. 6-6: The Sociology of Television Fandom Watching television can be much more than just a way to pass the time. Some people become so absorbed in a particular show that watching and talking about it become a central part of their life. Fans of the television show Star Trek are a well-known example of people for whom a fictional show can become an all-encompassing interest. In his or her spare time, a fan of this show may dress up as and adopt the identity of a Star Trek character, or go to Star Trek conventions several times a year. Many also count other Star Trek fans among their closest friends. Television fandom lends itself to any number of interesting sociological questions, and, in fact, a sociological literature on television fandom exists. Regarding the Star Trek phenomenon, a sociologist might wonder whether Star Trek fans share a common socio-economic profile. In addition, how do Star Trek fans find out about one another, communicate, and organize group events? What sort of argot and rules of etiquette are used among Star Trek fans? Do Star Trek fans have an influence on the marketing of commercial products related to the show? How does being a Star Trek fan influence other areas of a person’s life, such as work and love? Perhaps most interesting is the question of how a science fiction television show can loom so large in people’s lives. What can explain why some people develop such a driving interest in Star Trek? As most sociologists would guess, an individual’s reasons for taking up the Star Trek life can be rather complicated. Beyond the simple fact that they take pleasure in watching it, for many people the show resonates in ways that help them to overcome personal difficulties. Dan Madsen, who is now president of Star Trek: The Official Fan Club, describes how attending Star Trek conventions as a teenager allowed him, for the first time in his life, to feel accepted as a normal person. Outside the world of Star Trek fans, his unusually short height— four feet—always made him a strange object of curiosity. By contrast, he discovered a philosophy of universal acceptance on the Star Trek show that was likewise adopted by Star Trek conventioneers (Shatner 1999). Another fan became attached to the show as a child, while growing up in a troubled home. Play-acting as a Klingon allowed him to express anger about his home life in a safe and acceptable way (Davis 1994). In other cases, Star Trek fans may not be so consciously aware of the sociological reasons for their deep interest in Star Trek. In her fascinating ethnography of female Star Trek fans, Camille Bacon-Smith (1992) writes of a little-known subcategory of Star Trek fans: those who write and consume unauthorized fictional stories involving Star Trek characters. These stories fall into two categories: K/S and hurt-comfort fiction. K/S stories depict homosexual relationships between male Star Trek characters. In hurt-comfort stories, a Star Trek character in physical pain—often as the result of a violent act—is comforted by another character. Both types of stories are so controversial—both within and outside of Star Trek communities—that writers often use pseudonyms to protect their identities. Surprisingly, K/S and hurt-comfort stories are produced and consumed almost entirely by women. Why such an interest among women in stories that depict violence and male sexual relationships? Bacon-Smith discovered that this genre of writing appeals to women precisely because the characters in them, who are usually male and/or homosexual, are so utterly different from themselves. Thus, difficult issues in human relationships can be explored without any risk that the writer or reader will identify so closely with the characters that it becomes emotionally painful for them. She also found that hurt-comfort stories are often written by people who are undergoing traumas in their real lives, and who use the writing process as a way of dealing with these difficulties in a safe, distanced way. Indeed, in the process of writing a hurt-comfort story the author will often consult extensively with friends about the story line, and that this becomes a kind of indirect therapy for the author’s real problems (Bacon-Smith 1992). Citations used for this essay include: Camille Bacon-Smith. Enterprising Women. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992; Erik Davis, “TlhIngan Hol Dajatlh’a’ (Do You Speak Klingon?),” Utne Reader 62 (March-April 1994): 122-129; William Shatner. Get a Life! New York: Pocket Books, 1999. CLASSROOM DISCUSSION TOPICS 6-1. Misinformation about Substance Abuse: The video Reefer Madness presents an excellent example of how the media disseminated misinformation about marijuana. Have the class view the video, and then discuss the misinformation it contains about the drug. 6-2. The Cohesive Function of the Mass Media—Is It Changing? Years ago, gathering around the radio to listen to a program was a family activity. Even in the early days of television, families often gathered on a particular night to watch a show. These kinds of activities encouraged family cohesion, so in a sense the mass media contributed to the stability of the family. How has this function of the mass media changed over the past 20 years? How many students—when they are home—sit down with their families on a particular night to watch a particular TV show? 6-3. Who Should Decide What News to Print? Mass media decision makers are overwhelmingly white, male, and wealthy. It comes as no surprise, therefore, that the media tends to ignore the lives and ambitions of subordinate groups. Who, then, should decide what news to print? Ask students how they think decisions about what news to print should be made. Ask them if the government should have more control. 6-4. Censored News Stories: Peter Kaufman has designed an interesting class project that exposes students to news stories censored from the media, and allows them to explore the reasons for that censorship. Although it is designed as a long-term project with an out-of-class component, it can easily be revised as a one-time in-class discussion. Peter Kaufman, “All the News Not Fit to Print” Teaching Sociology 29 (January 2001): 80-87. 6-5. News Framing: In this exercise, students frame a news story in several different ways, thereby helping them to question the absolute neutrality of news reporting. See William A. Gamson (ed.). Learning Group Exercises for Political Sociology. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1989, pp. 33-47. 6-6. Hispanic Americans on TV? Ask students to name their favorite Hispanic TV stars. Next, ask students what kind of image they visualize when they think of Hispanics as they are portrayed on television. While African Americans have had some popular sitcoms, such as The Cosby Show, to date there have not been nearly as many Hispanic equivalents. Encourage students to discuss why African Americans have been more successful than Hispanics in making some breakthroughs in television. 6-7. Killing Us Softly: Show the video Killing Us Softly, and then ask the following questions: Do students agree that the media portrays women as objects? What sociological perspective does this video take: the functionalist, the interactionist, or the conflict perspective? What are the some of the dysfunctions of this type of portrayal of women? 6-8. Gender, Sports, and Advertising: Show the video Playing Unfair: The Media Image of the Female Athlete (Media Education Foundation, 30 minutes, 2002). Have students discuss their attitudes with regard to the portrayal of women in sports. Do they agree with the conclusions drawn in the documentary (i.e., that women athletes are underrepresented and where they are represented, they are portrayed either in traditional family roles or in highly sexualized images)? Do they agree with the contention that the industry of professional sports is homophobic? Do they believe that women have done anything to contribute to their own objectification in the media? Then, have them discuss the role (and treatment) of girls and women in sports locally, including on campus. TOPICS FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND CLASSROOM DISCUSSION 1. Ask students to research various television shows that reaffirm proper behavior by depicting how society deals with behaviors that are deemed inappropriate, delinquent, or criminal. Discuss the role of mass media as an enforcer of social norms. Answer: Students should research television shows that depict society’s response to inappropriate or criminal behavior, such as crime dramas or legal shows. Discuss how these portrayals reinforce social norms by demonstrating consequences and societal reactions to deviant behavior, highlighting mass media's role in upholding societal standards. 2. Ask students to discuss the effects of narcotizing dysfunction on social behavior in the aftermath of the recent war with Iraq. Answer: Discuss how narcotizing dysfunction—the phenomenon where media coverage of a crisis leads to desensitization and reduced public action—affected social behavior following the war with Iraq, such as public apathy or diminished engagement in political activism. 3. Ask students to recall their own experiences with the narcotizing dysfunction of media in reference to some recent event, such as September 11th, shootings at Virginia Tech, coal mine explosion in West Virginia, etc. Answer: Have students reflect on their own experiences with media-induced narcotizing dysfunction related to major events like September 11th or the Virginia Tech shootings, discussing how constant media coverage impacted their emotional responses and engagement. 4. Ask students to search for evidence of mass media intentionally inflating or downplaying a political issue such as the war with Iraq, and discuss gatekeeping from the conflict perspective. Answer: Students should analyze how the mass media may inflate or downplay political issues, like the Iraq war, and discuss gatekeeping from a conflict perspective, which focuses on how media control influences public perception and reinforces power structures. 5. Ask students to enumerate occurrences on television shows where women are portrayed in positions of power rather than in passive roles or as sexual objects. Discuss the feminist perspective as it relates to the role of media. Answer: Students should identify television shows where women are depicted in powerful roles rather than as passive or sexualized characters, and discuss these portrayals through a feminist lens, evaluating how media representations influence gender norms and societal expectations. 6. Ask students to research the availability of websites that offer information that could be considered counterproductive to mainstream culture, and discuss any associations between media images and violence. Answer: Research the availability of websites offering information that could be considered counterproductive or misleading. Discuss the implications for public understanding and the role of media literacy in navigating potentially biased or harmful content. SERVICE LEARNING ACTIVITY The modern media landscape has changed drastically over the last 50 years. There are so many ways that a person can spend (or waste) his/her time. In 1950, only about 10 percent of American households had televisions. A decade later that number rose to approximately 90 percent. The presence of this technology has had a profound effect on many of America’s social institutions. Also, the explosion of the Internet and video games has resulted in profound changes in the frequency and manner in which young people consume information or entertain themselves. Many young school aged children are not as proficient in reading as they should be. Could the ubiquity of television be a factor? Below is a service learning activity: Conduct a local MEDIA LITERACY CAMPAIGN. Organize a committee of students. Develop a booklet, brochure, website, or PowerPoint presentation that will discuss how important it is for parents to read to their children and talk with their children. Present it to representatives at local libraries, media watchdog groups, or PTA groups. Your objective is to reiterate the importance of reading and the ills that can result if parents rely too heavily on the electronic babysitter. Students must do thorough research about the media. Include information such as the possible connection between excessive television viewing and ADHD and other matters that students think parents should know. As a service learner, you will be using media to educate the public about media. Literacy must now become reading, writing, arithmetic, and media use. Try to present to as many groups as possible. Instructor Manual for Sociology in Modules Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026812, 9780071318419