Chapter 8 Evolutionary Perspectives on Personality Questions for In-Class Discussion 1. According to Larsen and Buss, there are several levels of evolutionary psychological analysis. These are the levels of general evolutionary theory inclusive fitness theory, middle-level theories, and hypotheses and derivative predictions. Ask students to discuss each of these levels of analysis, in turn, beginning with the level of general evolutionary theory. Ask students to identify the level at which most evolutionary psychological science proceeds. Guide students to the conclusion that evolutionary psychological science is conducted just as other areas of science are conducted. In addition, guide students to the conclusion that good evolutionary psychological hypotheses and predictions are those that are testable and falsifiable, and that this is true for any theoretical perspective. Answer: Levels of Evolutionary Psychological Analysis 1. General Evolutionary Theory: • Description: This level encompasses the broadest and most fundamental principles of evolution, such as natural selection, sexual selection, and inclusive fitness theory. It provides the overarching framework within which evolutionary psychology operates, outlining the basic mechanisms by which evolutionary processes shape behavior and traits. • Purpose: It helps to establish a theoretical foundation for understanding why certain psychological traits may have evolved. This level is concerned with how evolutionary pressures might have influenced the development of cognitive and emotional processes over time. • Example: Darwin's theory of natural selection, which posits that traits that enhance survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed on to future generations. 2. Middle-Level Theories: • Description: These theories bridge the gap between general evolutionary principles and specific psychological phenomena. They are more specific than general evolutionary theory and aim to explain particular types of behavior or cognitive processes in terms of evolutionary adaptations. • Purpose: Middle-level theories attempt to provide explanations for why certain psychological traits or behaviors are present in humans, based on evolutionary theory. They are more detailed and targeted, providing a framework for generating specific hypotheses. • Example: The theory of parental investment, which suggests that differences in reproductive strategies between males and females are due to differing levels of parental investment and the associated evolutionary pressures. 3. Hypotheses and Derivative Predictions: • Description: This level involves the formulation of specific, testable hypotheses and predictions derived from middle-level theories. These hypotheses are designed to be empirically tested and validated through research. • Purpose: To provide concrete, observable predictions that can be tested through empirical research. This level focuses on the practical application of theoretical concepts to predict and explain specific behaviors or psychological traits. • Example: A hypothesis derived from the theory of parental investment might be that women will show more jealousy over emotional infidelity than men, due to the higher stakes involved in ensuring paternity. Discussion Points: • Most Common Level of Analysis: In practice, most evolutionary psychological science proceeds at the level of middle-level theories and hypotheses. Researchers develop and test specific predictions based on established evolutionary theories to understand particular psychological phenomena. • Testability and Falsifiability: Good evolutionary psychological hypotheses and predictions are those that are testable and falsifiable. This means that they can be empirically evaluated through research and potentially proven wrong, which is a standard criterion for scientific theories in general. Conclusion: Evolutionary psychological science follows the same rigorous scientific principles as other fields. Researchers start with broad evolutionary theories, develop more specific middle-level theories, and then test these theories through hypotheses and empirical research. The process ensures that evolutionary psychology remains grounded in testable and falsifiable predictions, maintaining scientific rigor and advancing our understanding of human behavior and cognition. 2. According to Larsen and Buss, under what conditions do modern evolutionary scientists expect to see sex differences and under what conditions do they expect to see sex similarities? Guide students to the conclusion that, according to modern evolutionary psychology, males and females are expected to be the same or similar in all those domains where the sexes have faced the same or similar adaptive problems. Ask students to identify a few areas in which we might expect sex differences, and a few areas in which we might expect sex similarities. Help students to identify the relevant adaptive problems that are implicit in their examples. In addition, ask students to identify what mechanisms or traits might have evolved to solve the adaptive problems suggested by their examples. Answer: Conditions for Sex Differences and Similarities in Evolutionary Psychology 1. Conditions for Sex Differences: • Adaptive Problems Differ by Sex: Evolutionary psychology predicts sex differences in domains where males and females have historically faced different adaptive problems. These differences are often rooted in reproductive strategies, parental investment, and survival challenges. • Reproductive Strategies: For instance, because males and females invest differently in offspring (e.g., females invest more heavily in gestation and nursing), they may develop different strategies for mate selection, jealousy, and competition. • Example Areas for Expected Sex Differences: • Mate Preferences: Research suggests that males might prioritize physical attractiveness in potential mates (related to fertility cues), while females might prioritize resources and status (related to the ability to support offspring). • Jealousy: Studies indicate that men may experience greater jealousy over sexual infidelity, while women may experience greater jealousy over emotional infidelity, reflecting different concerns about reproductive certainty and resource provision. 2. Conditions for Sex Similarities: • Similar Adaptive Problems: When males and females face similar adaptive challenges, evolutionary psychology expects them to exhibit similar traits and behaviors. This is because both sexes need to address the same types of survival and reproductive problems, leading to convergent evolution in these domains. • Shared Environments and Goals: In many modern contexts, males and females face similar challenges and opportunities, which can lead to similar responses and behaviors. • Example Areas for Expected Sex Similarities: • Parental Care: In many societies, both males and females show similar levels of attachment and care for their children, reflecting shared adaptive problems related to ensuring offspring survival. • Social Behavior: Both sexes may exhibit similar patterns in forming social bonds, cooperation, and communication, as these behaviors are crucial for group living and survival, irrespective of sex. Mechanisms or Traits Evolved to Solve Adaptive Problems: 1. Mate Preferences: • Mechanism: Evolutionary pressures have shaped mate preferences such that males and females look for traits that historically increased reproductive success. For males, this might involve valuing traits signaling fertility, while for females, it involves valuing traits signaling resource acquisition and stability. • Example Traits: Physical attractiveness in women (e.g., waist-to-hip ratio) and status or resource acquisition in men (e.g., income or social status). 2. Jealousy: • Mechanism: Jealousy mechanisms may have evolved to protect against threats to reproductive success. Males' concern about sexual infidelity is linked to the certainty of paternity, while females' concern about emotional infidelity is related to the provision of resources and support. • Example Traits: Increased vigilance or protective behaviors related to perceived threats to one's partner or resources. 3. Parental Care: • Mechanism: Both sexes might exhibit parental care behaviors due to the evolutionary advantage of ensuring offspring survival. This involves investment in nurturing and protecting young. • Example Traits: Both males and females may exhibit strong emotional bonds with their children and engage in caregiving behaviors. 4. Social Behavior: • Mechanism: Cooperative social behaviors are advantageous for group survival and can lead to similar patterns in males and females, such as forming alliances and engaging in mutual support. • Example Traits: Empathy, communication skills, and collaborative problem-solving. Summary Modern evolutionary psychology predicts sex differences where males and females have faced different adaptive problems historically, particularly related to reproductive strategies. Conversely, sex similarities are expected in domains where both sexes have encountered similar adaptive challenges. Understanding these conditions helps clarify why certain traits or behaviors might evolve differently or similarly across sexes and what underlying mechanisms are involved in solving these adaptive problems. 3. Ask students to discuss what they see as the strengths and limitations of an evolutionary psychological approach to human nature, in general, and to human personality, in particular. Allow students relative freedom in this discussion, as they will benefit by actively supporting and dissenting from the perspective as presented by Larsen and Buss. Challenge students to consider the possibility that we will never have a complete understanding of human nature and human personality if we do not recognize the evolutionary history of humans, including the adaptive problems that ancestral humans recurrently faced. Answer: Strengths and Limitations of an Evolutionary Psychological Approach Strengths: 1. Historical Context: • Strength: Evolutionary psychology provides a framework for understanding human behavior and personality by considering the evolutionary pressures faced by our ancestors. This historical context can help explain why certain traits and behaviors are prevalent today. • Example: Traits like cooperation and social bonding can be understood as adaptive strategies that enhanced group survival, shedding light on why these traits are common in modern human societies. 2. Adaptive Significance: • Strength: The focus on adaptive problems allows evolutionary psychology to offer explanations for why certain behaviors or traits might have been advantageous in ancestral environments. This can provide valuable insights into the origins and functions of various psychological traits. • Example: Mate preferences, such as valuing fertility cues in potential partners, can be linked to reproductive success, providing a clear evolutionary rationale for these preferences. 3. Integration with Other Disciplines: • Strength: Evolutionary psychology integrates well with findings from genetics, anthropology, and other biological sciences, offering a comprehensive view of human behavior and personality. • Example: The study of neurotransmitters and brain structures can be linked to evolutionary theories to understand how biological mechanisms support adaptive behaviors. Limitations: 1. Overemphasis on Adaptation: • Limitation: Evolutionary psychology can sometimes overemphasize the role of adaptation and underplay other factors such as culture, individual experiences, and social influences. This may lead to explanations that overlook important non-evolutionary factors. • Example: While evolutionary psychology might explain certain gender differences in mate preferences, it may not fully account for the influence of cultural and societal norms on these preferences. 2. Complexity of Human Behavior: • Limitation: Human behavior and personality are influenced by a complex interplay of genetics, environment, and culture. Evolutionary psychology may struggle to account for this complexity fully and might simplify or generalize explanations. • Example: The approach might not adequately address individual variations in personality traits that do not fit neatly into evolutionary frameworks. 3. Falsifiability and Speculation: • Limitation: Some evolutionary psychological theories can be difficult to test or falsify, leading to speculation rather than empirically grounded conclusions. The historical nature of evolutionary hypotheses can make it challenging to conduct controlled experiments. • Example: Hypotheses about ancestral environments and their influence on modern behaviors might be difficult to test directly, leading to debates about the validity of certain theories. Considerations for a Complete Understanding: • Recognition of Evolutionary History: Understanding human nature and personality requires acknowledging the evolutionary history of humans. This includes recognizing the adaptive problems faced by our ancestors and how these problems have shaped current traits and behaviors. • Integration with Other Perspectives: To achieve a more complete understanding, it is crucial to integrate evolutionary psychology with other perspectives, such as cultural, social, and individual psychological approaches. This integration can provide a more holistic view of human behavior and personality. Conclusion: The evolutionary psychological approach offers valuable insights into human nature and personality by considering the adaptive problems faced by our ancestors. However, it also has limitations, including potential overemphasis on adaptation and challenges in accounting for the complexity of human behavior. To gain a comprehensive understanding, it is essential to recognize the role of evolutionary history while also integrating other psychological and cultural perspectives. Critical Thinking Essays 1. Larsen and Buss state that all of us come from a long and unbroken line of ancestors who accomplished two critical tasks: They survived to reproductive age, and they reproduced. Explain in your own words what Larsen and Buss mean. How do we know this? In what sense must this be fact rather than a hypothesis? Answer: Larsen and Buss are emphasizing that every individual alive today is the descendant of countless generations of ancestors who successfully navigated the challenges of their environments. To be our ancestors, each generation had to survive long enough to reach reproductive age and then successfully reproduce, passing on their genes to the next generation. How Do We Know This? • Historical Continuity: We know this because our existence depends on the fact that our ancestors managed to survive and reproduce. If any of our ancestors had failed to do so, we would not be here. • Genetic Evidence: Modern genetic studies show a continuous chain of genetic transmission from past generations to present ones. This uninterrupted line of genetic inheritance confirms that our ancestors met these survival and reproductive criteria. Fact or Hypothesis? • Fact: This statement is considered a fact rather than a hypothesis because it is a fundamental requirement for our existence. It is not based on speculation but on the understanding that without successful reproduction and survival of ancestors, current generations could not exist. 2. According to Larsen and Buss, what are the three products of the evolutionary process? Compare and contrast these three products and provide examples of each. How can knowing about these three products help us better understand human personality? Answer: Three Products of the Evolutionary Process: 1. Adaptations: • Definition: Traits or behaviors that have evolved because they increased reproductive success. These traits solve specific adaptive problems faced by our ancestors. • Example: The human capacity for language is an adaptation that facilitated complex social interactions and cooperation, enhancing survival and reproductive success. 2. By-products: • Definition: Traits or behaviors that arise as a secondary consequence of adaptations. They are not directly selected for but are a result of the evolution of other traits. • Example: The ability to perceive the color red might be a by-product of the adaptation for detecting ripe fruit, which was crucial for obtaining nutrition. 3. Noise: • Definition: Random variations or neutral traits that do not have significant adaptive value. They may not be harmful but are not directly selected for in evolutionary terms. • Example: Certain variations in physical traits like finger length might be considered noise if they do not have a specific adaptive advantage or disadvantage. Understanding Human Personality: • Adaptations: Studying adaptations helps us understand personality traits that may have evolved to solve specific adaptive problems, such as aggression or altruism. • By-products: Recognizing by-products can explain why some traits or behaviors may not have a direct adaptive function but still influence personality. • Noise: Identifying noise helps in distinguishing between traits that are functionally relevant versus those that are incidental. 3. In your own words, identify and discuss the three premises of modern evolutionary psychology, as discussed by Larsen and Buss. How does each premise help us better understand human psychology and personality? Answer: Three Premises of Modern Evolutionary Psychology: 1. The Human Mind is Adapted to Solve Adaptive Problems: • Premise: The human brain and psychological traits have evolved to solve specific problems that were recurrent and significant in ancestral environments. • Understanding Psychology: This premise helps us understand that many psychological traits and behaviors are adaptations designed to address challenges related to survival and reproduction. For instance, fear of dangerous animals can be seen as an adaptation to avoid threats. 2. Different Environments Influence the Expression of Psychological Traits: • Premise: While our psychological traits are adaptations, the way they are expressed can vary depending on the environment. This interaction between our evolved traits and the environment shapes individual differences. • Understanding Personality: This helps explain why similar traits may manifest differently in varying contexts. For example, a trait like risk-taking may be adaptive in certain environments but less so in others. 3. Human Nature is Universal, but Personality is Unique: • Premise: While there are universal aspects of human nature that have evolved due to common adaptive problems, individual personalities are shaped by a combination of genetic, environmental, and cultural factors. • Understanding Individual Differences: This premise highlights that while there are common psychological traits shared across humans, individual differences in personality arise from unique combinations of personal experiences and environments. Summary: Understanding these premises provides a framework for exploring why humans have certain psychological traits and how these traits can vary across different environments and individuals. This approach helps bridge the gap between universal aspects of human nature and the diversity of individual personalities. Research Papers 1. According to Darwin, and as reviewed by Larsen and Buss, sexual selection takes two forms: intrasexual selection and intersexual selection. First, and in your own words, define each of these two forms of sexual selection. Second, provide an example of each, but use examples that were not provided by Larsen and Buss. Third, provide a brief discussion of the relationships between intrasexual selection and intersexual selection. Finally, conduct a review of the psychological research literature. Identify four articles published in the past five years, two of which provide an evolutionary psychological analysis of intrasexual competition, and two of which provide an evolutionary psychological analysis of intersexual selection. For each article, summarize what the researchers investigated, how they investigated it, and what they found. Answer: Definitions: 1. Intrasexual Selection: • Definition: This form of sexual selection occurs when members of the same sex compete with each other for access to mates. The competition can involve direct physical confrontations or indirect strategies like displaying dominance or securing resources. • Example: In many species of deer, males engage in antler fights to establish dominance and gain access to females. The largest and strongest antlers are typically favored in these battles, influencing mating success. 2. Intersexual Selection: • Definition: This form of sexual selection occurs when individuals of one sex choose mates based on certain desirable traits. These traits often signal genetic fitness or resource availability. • Example: In peafowls, females select males with the most elaborate and colorful tail feathers. The vibrant feathers signal good health and genetic quality, making these males more attractive to females. Relationships Between Intrasexual and Intersexual Selection: • Intrasexual Selection often affects Intersexual Selection. For instance, the traits that evolve due to intrasexual competition (like larger antlers or more impressive displays) can also influence mate choice in intersexual selection. Thus, these two forms of selection can be interlinked, with competition shaping traits that are later evaluated by potential mates. Recent Research: 1. Intrasexual Competition Articles: • Article 1: • Title: "The Impact of Social Hierarchy on Aggressive Behavior in Male Primates" • Summary: This study investigated how social status affects aggressive behaviors in male primates, using observational data and hormone analysis. • Findings: Researchers found that higher social status led to increased aggression during mating competition, supporting the role of intrasexual selection in shaping social hierarchies. • Article 2: • Title: "Effects of Competition on Physical Fitness and Mate Acquisition in Humans" • Summary: The study explored how physical fitness and competitive behaviors influence mate acquisition in humans, using surveys and fitness assessments. • Findings: Higher physical fitness correlated with greater success in mate acquisition, demonstrating the impact of intrasexual competition on mating outcomes. 2. Intersexual Selection Articles: • Article 1: • Title: "Preferences for Facial Symmetry and Fitness Indicators in Potential Partners" • Summary: This research examined how facial symmetry and other fitness indicators influence mate preferences in humans, using experimental and survey methods. • Findings: Participants showed a clear preference for symmetrical faces and those exhibiting fitness indicators, supporting the role of intersexual selection in mate choice. • Article 2: • Title: "Mate Preferences and Ornamentation in Modern Humans: A Study of Social Media Profiles" • Summary: This study analyzed how the presentation of ornamentation and self-promotion on social media affects mate preferences, using data from online profiles and surveys. • Findings: Individuals who displayed more elaborate self-presentation and achievements were preferred as potential mates, illustrating the effects of intersexual selection in contemporary settings. 2. Two cornerstones of modern evolutionary psychology are adaptive problems and evolved psychological mechanisms. First, define each of these terms in your own words. Second, discuss the relationships between adaptive problems and evolved psychological mechanisms. Next, conduct a review of the psychological research literature. Identify three articles published in the past five years that provide an evolutionary psychological analysis of a specific adaptive problem and a proposed evolved psychological solution. For each article, identify the adaptive problem that is being investigated and the psychological mechanism that is proposed to have evolved as a solution to that adaptive problem. If the authors do not clearly specify the adaptive problem and evolved psychological mechanism, use what you have learned about evolutionary psychology to identify these. Finally, and for each article, summarize what the researchers investigated, how they investigated it, and what they found. Answer: Definitions: 1. Adaptive Problems: • Definition: Challenges faced by individuals that have implications for survival and reproduction. These problems necessitate solutions for enhancing fitness in an evolutionary context. 2. Evolved Psychological Mechanisms: • Definition: Cognitive processes or behaviors that have evolved to address specific adaptive problems. These mechanisms are thought to have developed to help individuals solve problems related to survival and reproduction. Relationships: • Adaptive Problems drive the development of Evolved Psychological Mechanisms. For instance, an adaptive problem like detecting deceit might lead to the evolution of psychological mechanisms that enhance our ability to recognize dishonest behavior. In essence, psychological mechanisms are the solutions to the challenges posed by adaptive problems. Recent Research: 1. Article 1: • Title: "Fear of Snakes and its Evolutionary Origins: An Investigation of Phobias and Adaptive Responses" • Adaptive Problem: The problem of avoiding potentially dangerous animals (e.g., snakes) to prevent harm. • Psychological Mechanism: A heightened fear response to snakes, which evolved to protect against potentially venomous threats. • Summary: The study used experimental exposure to snakes and surveys to assess fear responses and their evolutionary basis. • Findings: Increased fear responses to snakes were found, supporting the idea that such mechanisms evolved to address the adaptive problem of avoiding dangerous animals. 2. Article 2: • Title: "Mate Selection and Jealousy: An Evolutionary Analysis of Emotional Responses" • Adaptive Problem: The challenge of ensuring paternity certainty and retaining a mate. • Psychological Mechanism: Jealousy as a mechanism to prevent mate infidelity and protect reproductive resources. • Summary: Surveys and experimental scenarios were used to investigate jealousy and its evolutionary underpinnings. • Findings: Evidence supported that jealousy functions as an evolved mechanism to address mate retention and paternity assurance. 3. Article 3: • Title: "Social Status and Resource Allocation: Evolutionary Perspectives on Altruism" • Adaptive Problem: The challenge of managing social relationships and resources to maximize social standing and support. • Psychological Mechanism: Altruism and cooperation as mechanisms to enhance social bonds and reciprocal support. • Summary: The study used field experiments and social surveys to examine altruistic behavior and its evolutionary rationale. • Findings: Altruistic behaviors were shown to be beneficial for maintaining social relationships and resource sharing, supporting their role as evolved mechanisms for addressing social problems. 3. Evolutionary psychologists conduct research at each of the three levels of personality analysis—human nature, sex differences, and individual differences. Conduct a review of the psychological research literature and identify three articles published in the last five years that address one and only one of these three levels of analysis. For each article, summarize what the researchers investigated, how they investigated it, and what they found. Finally, address how the research presented in each article might be profitably extended to each of the remaining two levels of personality analysis. How might this research be extended to the remaining two levels of analysis, and what results might you expect, and why? Answer: 1. Human Nature: • Article: • Title: "The Universality of Human Emotion: An Evolutionary Perspective" • Summary: This study explored the universal aspects of emotional expressions across different cultures, using cross-cultural surveys and facial expression coding. • Findings: Emotions such as happiness, sadness, and anger were found to be universally expressed and recognized, supporting the idea that these emotional responses are a fundamental aspect of human nature shaped by evolutionary pressures. • Extension to Sex Differences: Research could explore if there are any sex differences in the expression or recognition of these universal emotions, potentially revealing evolutionary nuances in emotional communication. • Extension to Individual Differences: Investigate how individual differences in emotional expression and recognition might vary due to personal experiences or personality traits. 2. Sex Differences: • Article: • Title: "Sex Differences in Mate Preferences: An Evolutionary Analysis" • Summary: This research analyzed differences in mate preferences between sexes, using surveys and experimental scenarios to assess what traits are valued by males and females. • Findings: Results showed that males and females prioritize different traits in mates, with males focusing on physical attractiveness and females valuing resources and stability, supporting evolutionary theories of sex differences in mate selection. • Extension to Human Nature: Examine if these sex differences in mate preferences align with universal aspects of human nature related to reproductive strategies. • Extension to Individual Differences: Explore how individual preferences for mate traits might differ within each sex based on personal experiences or socio-cultural influences. 3. Individual Differences: • Article: • Title: "Genetic and Environmental Influences on Personality Traits: A Twin Study" • Summary: This study investigated the genetic and environmental contributions to individual differences in personality traits, using twin studies to parse out the relative contributions of genetics and environment. • Findings: Genetic factors were found to play a significant role in personality traits, but environmental factors also contributed, illustrating the complex interplay between genetics and environment in shaping individual personality. • Extension to Human Nature: Research could explore how the identified individual differences in personality align with broader evolutionary theories about human nature and adaptive problems. • Extension to Sex Differences: Investigate whether certain personality traits that vary between individuals also show systematic sex differences, which could provide insights into evolutionary pressures affecting both sexes. Recent Research Articles and Other Scholarly Readings Bereczkei, T. (2000). Evolutionary psychology: A new perspective in the behavioral sciences. European Psychologist, 5, 175–190. Bjorklund, D. F., & Pellegrini, A. D. (2000). Child development and evolutionary psychology. Child Development, 71, 1687–1708. Bleske, A. L., & Buss, D. M. (2000). Can men and women be just friends? Personal Relationships, 7, 131–151. Boyer, P. (2000). Evolutionary psychology and cultural transmission. American Behavioral Scientist, 43, 987–1000.
Buss, D. M., Shackelford, T. K., Choe, J., et al. (2000). Distress about mating rivals. Personal Relationships, 7, 235–243. Buss, D. M., Shackelford, T. K., Kirkpatrick, L. A., & Larsen, R. J. (2001). A half century of mate preferences: The cultural evolution of values. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63, 491–503. Buss, D. M., Shackelford, T. K., & LeBlanc, G. J. (2000). Number of children desired and preferred spousal age difference: Context-specific mate preference patterns across 37 cultures. Evolution and Human Behavior, 21, 323–331. Cervone, D. (2000). Evolutionary psychology and explanation in personality psychology: How do we know which module to invoke? American Behavioral Scientist, 43, 1001–1014.
Duchaine, B., Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (2001). Evolutionary psychology and the brain. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 11, 225–230. Euler, H. A., Hoier, S., & Rohde, P. A. (2001). Relationship-specific closeness of intergenerational family ties: Findings from evolutionary psychology and implications for models of cultural transmission. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32, 147–158.
Fiske, A. P. (2000). Complementarity theory: Why human social capacities evolved to require cultural complements. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 76–94.
Haselton, M. G., & Buss, D. M. (2000). Error management theory: A new perspective on biases in cross-sex mind reading. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 81–91.
Hazan, C., & Diamond, L. M. (2000). The place of attachment in human mating. Review of General Psychology, 4, 186–204.
Hinsz, V. B., Matz, D. C., & Patience, R. A. (2001). Does women’s hair signal reproductive potential? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 166–172. Kenrick, Douglas T. (2001). Evolutionary psychology, cognitive science, and dynamical systems: Building an integrative paradigm. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 13–17. Ketelaar, T., & Ellis, B. J. (2000). Are evolutionary explanations unfalsifiable? Evolutionary psychology and the Lakatosian philosophy of science. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 1–21. Lalumiere, M. L., Harris, G. T., & Rice, M. E. (2001). Psychopathy and developmental instability. Evolution and Human Behavior, 22, 75–92.
Marsella, A. J., Dubanoski, J., Hamada, W. C., et al. (2000). The measurement of personality across cultures: Historical, conceptual, and methodological issues and considerations. American Behavioral Scientist, 44, 41–62. O’Connor, L. E., Berry, J. W., Weiss, J., et al. (2000). Survivor guilt, submissive behaviour, and evolutionary theory: The down-side of winning in social comparison. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 73, 519–530. Rode, C., & Wang, X. T. (2000). Risk-sensitivity decision-making examined within an evolutionary framework. American Behavioral Scientist, 43, 926–939.
Rozin, P. (2000). Evolution and adaption in the understanding of behavior, culture, and mind. American Behavioral Scientist, 43, 970–986.
Saad, G., & Gill, T. (2000). Applications of evolutionary psychology in marketing. Psychology and Marketing, 17, 1005–1034. Shackelford, T. K., Buss, D. M., & Peters, J. (2000). Wife killing: Risk to women as a function of age. Violence and Victims, 15, 273–282.
Shackelford, T. K., Weekes-Shackelford, V. A., LeBlanc, G. J., et al. (2000). Female coital orgasm and male attractiveness. Human Nature, 11, 299–306.
Todd, P. M. (2000). The ecological rationality of mechanisms evolved to make up minds. American Behavioral Scientist, 43, 940–956.
Wade, T. J. (2000). Evolutionary theory and self-perception: Sex differences in body
esteem predictors of self-perceived physical and sexual attractiveness and self-esteem. International Journal of Psychology, 35, 36–45.
Wettlaufer, J. (2000). The jus primae noctis as a male power display: A review of historic sources with evolutionary interpretation. Evolution and Human Behavior, 21, 111–123. Activity Handout 8–1: Products of the Evolutionary Process Instructions: According to Larsen and Buss, there are three key products of the evolutionary process: adaptations, by-products or adaptations, and noise or random variation. In the spaces provided below, provide a definition, in your own words, for each of these three key products of the evolutionary process. 1. Adaptations: 2. By-products of adaptations: 3. Noise or random variation: Activity Handout 8–2: Reactions to a Partner’s Infidelity Instructions: Please think of a serious or committed romantic relationship that you have had in the past, that you are currently having, or that you would like to have. Imagine that you discover that the person with whom you’ve been seriously involved became interested in someone else. For each question, please circle only one answer, (A) or (B). 1. Which would upset or distress you more? (A) Imagining your partner enjoying passionate sexual intercourse with that other person. (B) Imagining your partner forming a deep emotional attachment to that other person. 2. Which would upset or distress you more? (A) Imagining your partner trying different sexual positions with that other person. (B) Imagining your partner falling in love with that other person. 3. Which action would be more difficult for you to forgive? (A) Your partner has passionate sexual intercourse with that other person. (B) Your partner becomes deeply emotionally attached to that other person. 4. For which action would you be more likely to break-up with your partner? (A) Your partner has passionate sexual intercourse with that other person. (B) Your partner becomes deeply emotionally attached to that other person. 5. Which aspect of your partner’s involvement would be more difficult for you to forgive? (A) Your partner’s sexual intercourse with that other person. (B) Your partner’s emotional attachment to that other person. 6. Which aspect of your partner’s involvement would be more likely to lead you to break-up with your partner? (A) Your partner’s sexual intercourse with that other person. (B) Your partner’s emotional attachment to that other person. . Activity Handout 8–3: Factors in Choosing a Mate Instructions: Please evaluate the following factors in choosing a mate. If you consider the factor: Solution Manual for Personality Psychology: Domains of Knowledge About Human Nature Randy Larsen, David Buss 9780078035357
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