CH-15 The Creation and Diffusion of Culture – Consumer Behaviour: Buying, Having, Being : Book Guide

Chapter 15 The Creation and Diffusion of Culture CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When students finish this chapter they should: •Understand cultural production as a process by which certain styles, products, and trends become accepted by popular culture, while others die out. •Understand the distinction between high and low culture. •Understand in what way many modern marketers are reality engineers. •Understand the diffusion of innovation as a process whereby a new product, service, or idea spreads throughout a population. •Understand how new products, services, and ideas spread through a population, and why different types of people are more or less likely to adopt them. •Understand the way many people and organizations play a role in the fashion system that creates and communicates symbolic meaning to consumers. •Understand various models of fashion that can be used to predict what products or ideas will catch on and which will not. CHAPTER SUMMARY •The styles prevalent in a culture at any given time often reflect underlying political and social conditions. The set of agents responsible for creating stylistic alternatives is called a culture production system. Factors such as the types of people involved in this system and the amount of competition by alternative product forms influence the choices that eventually make their way to the marketplace for consideration by end consumers. •Culture is often described in terms of high (or elite) forms and low (or popular) forms. Products of popular culture tend to follow a cultural formula and contain predictable components. On the other hand, these distinctions are blurring in modern society as imagery from “high art” is increasingly being incorporated into marketing efforts. •Reality engineering occurs as elements of popular culture are appropriated by marketers and converted to vehicles for promotional strategies. These elements include sensory and spatial aspects of everyday existence, whether in the form of products appearing in movies, odours pumped into offices and stores, billboards, theme parks, or video monitors attached to shopping carts. •Diffusion of innovation refers to the process whereby a new product, service, or idea spreads through a population. Innovators and early adopters are quick to adopt new products while laggards are very slow. A consumer’s decision to adopt a new product depends on his or her personal characteristics as well as on characteristics of the innovation itself. Products stand a better chance of being adopted if they demand relatively little change in behaviour from users, are easy to understand, and provide a relative advantage compared to existing products. •The fashion system includes everyone involved in the creation and transference of symbolic meanings. Meanings that express common cultural categories (e.g., gender distinctions) are conveyed by many different products. New styles tend to be adopted by many people simultaneously in a process known as collective selection. Perspectives on motivations for adopting new styles include psychological, economic, and sociological models of fashion. •Fashions tend to follow cycles that resemble the product life cycle. The two extremes of fashion adoption – classics and fads – can be distinguished in terms of the length of this cycle. LECTURE/DISCUSSION IDEAS XVI. CULTURAL SELECTION – Culture creates meaning for products; meaning is transferred to consumer through advertising and fashion; the selection process is like a filter that resembles a funnel A. How Do We Know What’s ‘In’? – Choices of food, clothes, cars, toys, music, etc. are influenced through media, family, friends, and fantasy •Styles reflect societal trends (social and political) •Designers anticipate what consumers will want •Trends travel quickly and widely •Media plays a role •Style is risky at first, and then becomes acceptable Class Interaction Opportunity: What new styles have you seen appear in the last six months? How many of these styles appear on television (in ads or on shows)? How long do you think the styles will last? B. Culture Production Systems – The set of influencers responsible for creating and marketing a cultural product C. Components of a CPS •Creative subsystem: generates new symbols and/or products (e.g., Madonna) •Managerial subsystem: responsible for selecting, making, producing, and distributing (e.g., record label) •Communications subsystem: gives new product symbolic attributes (e.g., media, advertising, publicity to promote albums)  The culture production system concept in some ways resembles that of a conventional distribution channel. However, the production of culture perspective does not necessarily focus upon manufacturer, wholesaler, and retailer functions, and it tends to deal with the spread of ideas or tastes rather than with physical product movement.i 1. Cultural gatekeepers – Responsible for filtering information for the consumer (e.g., disc jockeys, retail buyers, movies, talk shows, interior designers, print media) •Consumerspace – customers and companies act as partners; lead users; voice of the consumer data Class Interaction Opportunity: Who do you think might be classified as a cultural gatekeeper? Explain.  Many judges of 'tastemakers' influence the products that are eventually offered to consumers. These judges, who can be thought of as cultural gatekeepers, are responsible for filtering the overflow of information and materials intended for consumers. These agents include movie, restaurant, and car reviewers, interior designers, disc jockeys, retail buyers, magazine editors, and other consumer surrogates. Collectively, this set of agents is known as the throughput sector.ii D. High Culture and Popular Culture – Mozart and U2 •Art product: an object of aesthetic contemplation (no functional value; painting) •Craft product: admired for the beauty with which it performs some function (ceramic ashtray) 1. High art versus low art – (e.g., art firms vs. television commercial)  Students will be amused and enlightened by a discussion of the Barbie doll (and her friends) as a cultural icon and as an art form. Barbie has been painted by Andy Warhol, and her likeness has been featured in museum shows and in movies. Students may be aware of a character in Rudy Rucker’s cyberpunk novel, Wetware, called Kendoll, but they may not know that Barbie dolls have been exhibited at the Smithsonian Institution and the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.iii  The “art” of marketing is being explored for the potential to use a keen aesthetic sense to market retail areas to tourist and locals. Sometimes, it can go too far, however. Harrod’s in London, England, for example, has museum-quality displays that are not to be touched by shoppers. 2. Cultural formulae – In popular art forms there are consistent roles and props; for the mass market •Reality engineering – Elements of popular culture are appropriated by marketers and used for promotional strategies •Cultivation hypothesis – Perspective emphasizing media’s ability to distort consumers’ perceptions of reality Class Interaction Opportunity: Think of an illustration where a cultural formula might be used in marketing a product. E. Product Placement – The insertion of specific products and/or use of brand names in movies, TV, books, and plays (‘seal of approval’) •Branded entertainment – Advertisers showcase their products in longer-form narrative films or shows instead of brief commercials (Survivor; America’s Next Top Model) •Product incongruency can lead to negative brand attitudes if the product seems out of place with the show  Product placement in television programs is developing rapidly in Spain due to the severity of advertising clutter. This form of product placement flourishes in Spain due to the success of homegrown sitcoms and the lack of legal restrictions. However, the industry has adopted a form of self-regulation: product placement has to be natural and non-obtrusive and products, such as alcohol, tobacco and those harmful to children, are not allowed.iv Class Interaction Opportunity: What movies or television shows have you seen lately that contained commercial products? What were they? What are your reactions and those around you? 1. Advergaming – Online games merge with interactive advertisements that target specific types of consumers •Plinking: the act of embedding a product or service link in a video II. THE DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS – Whereby a new product, service, or idea spreads through a population A. How Do We Decide to Adopt an Innovation? – Design-making sequence •Six stages: awareness, information, search, evaluation, trial, and adoption •Five levels: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, laggards •Innovators – 2.5% of the population; are category specific (clothes OR food) •Early adopters vs. innovators – both are similar except for the degree of concern for social acceptance B. Types of Innovations •Continuous innovation – modification of an existing product (e.g., new colours for kitchen appliances) •Dynamically continuous innovation – a more pronounced change in existing product (e.g., automatic ice maker in refrigerator) •Discontinuous innovation – major changes in how we live (microwave) Class Interaction Opportunity: Have teams of students write down examples of (1) continuous innovations, (2) dynamically continuous innovations and (3) discontinuous innovations. Ask the teams to discuss the significance of these innovations. Class Interaction Opportunity: Is the diffusion of innovation process different via the Internet compared to conventional channels? Explain with an example. 1. Prerequisites for successful adoption – Factors necessary for success •Compatibility: must fit consumer’s lifestyle •Trialability: reduce risk by letting consumer try it (e.g., trial size containers) •Complexity: the lower the better •Observability: innovations that are observable spread faster (e.g., fanny pack) •Relative advantage: must provide advantages other products don’t Class Interaction Opportunity: What do you think were the three most important innovations in your lifetime? In your parent's lifetime? In your grandparent's lifetime?  It is important to emphasize that relative advantage does not just mean adding a product attribute that may or may not be desired. One company offered a new type of deodorant made with Vitamin D, and touted this addition as a relative advantage over other brands. Unfortunately, the company failed to convince consumers that spraying Vitamin D on their armpits was something to be desired, and the brand failed. IV. THE FASHION SYSTEM – All who are involved in creating symbolic meanings and transferring those meanings to cultural good; context-dependent: many products do not have one precise meaning but can be interpreted in many ways •Fashion: process of social diffusion by which a new style is adopted by consumers •A fashion (or style): a particular combination of attributes •In fashion: a particular combination is now viewed as positive A. Cultural Categories – Basic ways we characterize the world; meanings assigned to products for different categories of purpose (i.e., leisure clothes/work clothes); cultural categories affect products and styles, e.g., movie costumes affecting the apparel and accessory industries Class Interaction Opportunity: What are some fashions (fads) that have been started by popular movies?  People’s postures seem to be affected by dominant clothing fashions, a phenomenon sometimes remarked upon by photographers and historians. Even when posing nude, models in the late-Victorian era tended to protrude the rear portion of their anatomies to resemble bustles, while nudes in the 1920s tended to slouch like the debutantes of the time, and their counterparts in the 1940s stuck out their chests while tucking in their stomachs, producing the period’s popular hourglass figure.v B. Behavioural Science Perspectives on Fashion – Fashion products are aesthetic objects and rooted in art and history 1. Psychological models of fashion – People conform to the basic outline of fashion but add their personal touch to be unique o Fashion and sexuality – Shifting erogenous zones account for fashion changes (zones become the object of interest as they reflect societal trends) •Victorian era emphasized shoulders •Early 20th century – ankle •1930’s – the back •1960’s – the legs •1970’s – the breasts •1980’s – deemphasized the breasts •Today we seem to emphasize the midriff – possible expanding of focus away from only women? 2. Economic models of fashion – Limited items have high value, easy to get are less desirable; rare objects command respect and prestige I. Conspicuous consumption – The wealthy consume to display their property; parody display where low-status or inexpensive products are deliberately adopted 3. Sociological models of fashion – Relationship between product adoption and class structure •The trickle-down theory •Dominant styles originate with upper class and trickle-down •Subordinate groups try to adopt upper class symbols •Superordinate groups look below them and change fashion when they are copied •Modifications (mass culture developments) to the trickle-down theory: •Modern consumers have more choices (technology) •Mass fashion has replaced elite fashion •Trickle-across effect: consumers copy leaders similar to them •Trickle-up: some fashions originate with lower classes (urban youth) C. A ‘Medical’ Model of Fashion – Meme theory; tipping point D. Cycles of Fashion Adoption – Range from a month to a century (e.g., Power Rangers); follow a predictable sequence o Fashion acceptance cycle – diffusion of innovations •Introduction stage: song listened to by a small number •Acceptance stage: song increases social visibility and accepted by many (Top 40) •Regression stage: song reaches social saturation (over played) and drops off charts o Classics – A fashion with an extremely long acceptance cycle (e.g., Keds) o Fads – A very short-lived fashion (e.g., hula hoops, ‘pet rocks’, bop-it) • Non-utilitarian – no meaningful function •Adopted on impulse •Diffuses rapidly, gains quick acceptance, and dies Class Interaction Opportunity: What are some of the latest fads? Who is someone who was responsible for starting a fad? How did this happen? 1. Fad or trend? Will the innovation endure as a long-term trend, or is it just a fad? Questions to predict: •Does it fit with basic lifestyle changes? •What are the benefits? •Can it be personalized? •Is it is trend or a side-effect? •What other changes have occurred in the market? •Who has adopted the change? END-OF-CHAPTER SUPPORT MATERIAL Summary of Special Feature Boxes 1. CB As I See It Annamma Joy, Faculty of Management, UBCO conducts research that explores the ways that consumers experience the aesthetics of fashion and art, including the impacts of advertising to cultural associations, and the relationship aesthetics have to the body. She looks at sensory experiences in how consumers perceive art and fashion, and how luxury clothing is perceived as wearable art – examining its relationship to body image and self-identity. Her research finds that consumers not only view fashion with their eyes, but through the lens of their inner selves. 2. Consumers in Focus – Impact of Strategic Placements Strategically placing products is a controversial practice in marketing. This box discusses the practices, and reasons for their increased used. Examples are presented of how companies integrate the marketing messages and products into schools and other locations common to kids and youth, as well as gather information from these segments for product development. 3. Consumers in Focus II – Impact of Strategic Placements This box looks at the tension between dominant and subordinate groups; it highlights a basic paradox of fashion. A brand often has cachet because only a select group of people own it—either because it is expensive or perhaps because only people “in the know” select it. As more consumers outside this inner circle start to adopt it, it is no longer exclusive and its original meaning is lost. Therefore, the item is a victim of its own success. Some companies limit access to some of their models to retain exclusivity. Review Questions 1. What is collective selection? Give an example. Answer: We term the process by which certain symbolic alternatives are chosen over others collective selection. As with the creative subsystem, members of the managerial and communications subsystems also seem to develop a common frame of mind. Although products within each category must compete for acceptance in the marketplace, they can usually be characterized by their adherence to a dominant theme or motif—be it “The Western Look,” “New Wave,” “Danish Modern,” or “Nouvelle Cuisine.” 2. Describe a culture production system (CPS) and list its three components. What is an example of such a CPS? Answer: A culture production system (CPS) is the set of individuals and organizations responsible for creating and marketing a cultural product. A culture production system has three major subsystems: • A creative subsystem responsible for generating new symbols and products. • A managerial subsystem responsible for selecting, making tangible, mass producing, and managing the distribution of new symbols and products. • A communications subsystem responsible for giving meaning to the new product and providing it with a symbolic set of attributes that it then communicates to consumers. An example of the three components of a culture production system for a music release would be: 1) a singer (e.g., rapper Eminem, a creative subsystem); 2) a company (e.g., Interscope Records, which manufactures and distributes Eminem’s albums, a managerial subsystem); and 3) the advertising and publicity agencies hired to promote the albums (a communications subsystem). 3. Define a cultural gatekeeper, giving three examples. Answer: Many judges or “tastemakers” influence which products we as consumers get to consider. These cultural gatekeepers are responsible for filtering the overflow of information and materials intended for customers. Gatekeepers include movie, restaurant, and car reviewers; interior designers; disc jockeys; retail buyers; and magazine editors. Collectively, social scientists call this set of agents the throughput sector. 4. Describe the difference between arts and crafts. Answer: We view an art product primarily as an object of aesthetic contemplation without any functional value. In contrast, we admire a craft product, because of the beauty with which it performs some function (e.g., a ceramic ashtray or hand-carved fishing lures). 5. What is a cultural formula? Give an example. Answer: Mass culture churns out products specifically for a mass market. These products aim to please the average taste of an undifferentiated audience. Rather than being unique, they are predictable because they follow certain patterns. Many popular art forms, such as detective stories or science fiction, generally follow a cultural formula, in which certain roles and props often occur consistently. Romance novels are an extreme case of a cultural formula. Computer programs even allow users to “write” their own romances by systematically varying certain set elements of the story. 6. What is new vintage? How is this an example of reality engineering? Answer: Reality engineering occurs as marketers appropriate elements of popular culture and convert them for use as promotional vehicles. It’s hard to know what’s real anymore; even “used jeans” get created by specialists who apply chemical washes, sandpaper, and other techniques to make a new pair of jeans look like they’re ready for retirement. The industry even has a term for this practice that sums up the contradiction: new vintage. 7. Define product placement and list three examples of it. How is this practice the same or different from branded entertainment? Answer: Product placement refers to the insertion of specific products and the use of brand names in movie and TV scripts. This strategy actually is a long-standing tradition in movies, though the placements are more blatant and financially lucrative today. In the heyday of the major Hollywood studios, brands such as Bell telephones, Buick cars, Chesterfield cigarettes, Coca-Cola, De Beers diamonds, and White Owl cigars regularly appeared in films. For example, in a scene in the classic “Double Indemnity” that takes place in a grocery store, the director Billy Wilder had some products like Green Giant vegetables facing the camera while others “mysteriously” were turned around to hide their labels. And a scene set in a kitchen in “All About Eve” starring Bette Davis clearly shows boxes of Sunshine Hi-Hos crackers. Indeed, the practice dates at least as far back as 1896, when an early movie shows a cart bearing the brand name Sunlight (a soap made by Lever Brothers, now known as Unilever) parked on a street. Perhaps the greatest product placement success story was Reese’s Pieces; sales jumped by 65 percent after the candy appeared in the film E.T. The practice of product placement is becoming so commonplace (and profitable) that it’s evolving into a new form of promotion called branded entertainment, where advertisers showcase their products in longer-form narrative films instead of commercials. 8. What is advergaming? Give an example. Answer: As gaming goes mass market, many marketers are turning on to a new strategy called advergaming, where online games merge with interactive advertisements that let companies target specific types of consumers. 9. What is the diffusion of innovations? Answer: Diffusion of innovations refers to the process whereby a new product, service, or idea spreads through a population. The rate at which a product diffuses varies. For example, within 10 years after its introduction, 40 percent of U.S. households watched cable TV, 35 percent listened to compact discs, 25 percent used answering machines, and 20 percent bought colour TVs. It took radio 30 years to reach 60 million users and TV 15 years to reach this number. In contrast, within 3 years 90 million of us were surfing the web. 10. Define innovators, early adopters, and laggards? Answer: Roughly one-sixth of the population (innovators and early adopters) are very quick to adopt new products, and one-sixth of the people (laggards) are very slow. Even though innovators represent only about 2.5 percent of the population, marketers are always interested in identifying them. These are the brave souls who are always on the lookout for novel products or services and who will be the first to try a new offering. Just as generalized opinion leaders do not appear to exist, innovators tend to be category-specific as well. Early adopters share many of the same characteristics as innovators, but an important difference is their degree of concern for social acceptance, especially with regard to expressive products, such as clothing, cosmetics, and so on. 11. Describe the differences among continuous innovations, dynamically continuous innovations, and discontinuous innovations, providing an example of each. Which type are consumers least likely to adapt? Answer: A continuous innovation refers to a modification of an existing product, such as when General Mills introduces a Honey Nut version of Cheerios or Levi’s promotes shrink-to-fit jeans. A marketer may do this to set a brand apart from its competitors. Most product innovations are of this type; that is, they are evolutionary rather than revolutionary. The company makes small changes to position the product, add line extensions, or merely alleviate consumer boredom. A dynamically continuous innovation is a more pronounced change in an existing product, as represented by self-focusing 35-mm cameras or touch-tone telephones. These innovations have a modest impact on the way people do things, requiring some behavioural changes. When IBM introduced its Selectric typewriter, which uses a typing ball rather than individual keys, the new design permitted secretaries to instantly change the typeface of manuscripts by replacing one Selectric ball with another. A discontinuous innovation creates major changes in the way we live. Major inventions, such as the airplane, the car, the computer, and the television have radically changed modern lifestyles. The personal computer has replaced the typewriter, and it has created the phenomenon of “telecommuters” by allowing many consumers to work from their homes. Of course, the cycle continues, as new continuous innovations (e.g., new versions of software) are constantly being made for computers. Dynamically continuous innovations such as the “mouse” and trackballs compete for adoption, and discontinuous innovations such as streaming video transmitted on cell phones start to appear in stores. 12. What is the difference among the terms “fashion,” “a fashion,” and “in fashion?” Answer: Fashion is the process of social diffusion by which a new style is adopted by some group(s) of consumers. In contrast, a fashion (or style) refers to a particular combination of attributes. And, to be in fashion means that some reference group positively evaluates this combination. Thus, the term Danish Modern refers to particular characteristics of furniture design (i.e., a fashion in interior design); it does not necessarily imply that Danish Modern is a fashion that consumers currently desire. 13. Summarize some of the major approaches to understanding fashion from the perspectives of psychologists, economists, and sociologists. Answer: Many psychological factors help to explain why people are motivated to be in fashion. These include conformity, variety seeking, personal creativity, and sexual attraction. For example, many consumers seem to have a “need for uniqueness:” they want to be different (though not necessarily too different). Economists approach fashion in terms of the model of supply and demand. Items that are in limited supply have high value, whereas those readily available are less desirable. Rare items command respect and prestige. The collective selection model we discussed previously is an example of a sociological approach to fashion. This perspective focuses on the initial adoption of a fashion (idea, style, etc.) by a subculture and its subsequent diffusion into society as a whole. Such diffusion often begins with youth subcultures like the hip-hop segment. 14. What is the trickle-down effect? List some reasons why it is no longer as valid as it used to be. Answer: Trickle-down theory, first proposed in 1904 by Georg Simmel, has been one of the most influential approaches to understanding fashion. It states that there are two conflicting forces that drive fashion change. First, subordinate groups try to adopt the status symbols of the groups above them as they attempt to climb up the ladder of social mobility. Dominant styles thus originate with the upper classes and trickle down to those below. However, this is where the second force kicks in: Those people in the superordinate groups are constantly looking below them on the ladder to ensure that they are not imitated. They respond to the attempts of lower classes to “impersonate” them by adopting even newer fashions. These two processes create a self-perpetuating cycle of change—the machine that drives fashion. It is no longer as valid due to effects like trickle-across and trickle-up. 15. What is the difference between a fad, a fashion, and a classic fashion life cycle? Answer: Fashions are characterized by slow acceptance at the beginning, which (if the fashion is to “make it”) rapidly accelerates, peaks, and then tapers off. We can identify different classes of fashion by considering the relative length of the fashion acceptance cycle. Many fashions exhibit a moderate cycle, taking several years to work their way through the stages of acceptance and decline; others are extremely long-lived or short-lived. A classic is a fashion with an extremely long acceptance cycle. It is in a sense “anti-fashion” because it guarantees stability and low risk to the purchaser for a long period of time. A fad is a very short-lived fashion. Relatively few people usually adopt a fad product. Adopters may all belong to a common subculture, and the fad “trickles across” members but rarely breaks out of that specific group. CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR CHALLENGE Discussion Questions 1. Watchdog groups have long decried product placements for blurring the line between content and advertising without adequately informing viewers. And the networks themselves appear to be divided on how far they want to open the gate. “You've got to wonder when it starts to destroy the entertainment value,” asks one former television executive. How do you see the future of product placement? Will it get out of hand and create a consumer backlash, or is it a valuable alternative to traditional advertising? Answer: Not only is the popularity of product placement as a promotional technique increasing, but product placement blatancy is also increasing. In a 2005 episode of CSI New York, an agent’s phone rings. His partner says, “Hey, what is that song?” He replies, “Oh, that’s the new Cold Play song.” He then goes on very nonchalantly, but the obvious nature of the plug is surpassed only by the fact that on the next commercial break, the first ad is for Cold Play’s latest release. 2. Is advertising an art or a craft? Which should it be? Answer: Remember that an art product is primarily an object of aesthetic contemplation without any functional value. In contrast, we admire a craft product, because of the beauty with which it performs some function (e.g., a ceramic ashtray or hand-carved fishing lures). Although the people involved in the creation of advertisements are very creative, even artistic, if an advertisement has no functional value, then it is of no value to the company. In contrast, advertisements do go about the function of trying to achieve some objective, often in an artistic manner. 3. Sometimes market research findings influence artistic decisions, as when a movie ending was reshot to accommodate consumers’ preferences. Many people would most likely oppose this practice, claiming that books, movies, records, or other artistic endeavors should not be designed to merely conform to what people want to read, see, or hear. What do you think? Answer: The instructor should encourage students to review the relevant discussion in the text concerning aesthetic marketing research and then express their thoughts and feelings regarding the use of consumer research for these purposes. 4. Due to higher competition and market saturation, marketers in industrialized countries are increasingly trying to develop third-world markets by encouraging people in underdeveloped countries to desire Western products. Asian consumers alone spend $90 billion a year on cigarettes, and American tobacco manufacturers continue to push relentlessly into these markets. Cigarette advertising, often depicting glamorous Western models and settings, is found just about everywhere, on billboards, buses, storefronts, clothing, and many major sports and cultural events are sponsored by tobacco companies. Some companies even hand out cigarettes and gifts in amusement areas, often to preteens. Should this practice be encouraged, even if the products being marketed may be harmful to consumers’ health (e.g., cigarettes) or if they divert needed money away from the purchase of essentials? If you were a trade or health official in a Third-World country, what guidelines, if any, might you suggest to regulate the import of luxury goods from advanced economies? Answer: This question represents a controversial aspect of marketing activities that has received considerable attention from many and diverse parties. Students should be encouraged to review popular press commentaries and raise this question with others, both within and outside the business arena. 5. Comment on the growing practices described as reality engineering. Do marketers “own” our culture? Should they? Answer: Students’ answers should address whether marketing activities exert a self-fulfilling prophecy on popular culture, the role of product placement, and how media influences consumers’ perceptions of reality. Reality engineering involves marketers shaping perceptions and experiences to influence consumer behavior, often blurring the line between reality and marketing. While marketers significantly impact cultural trends and values, they don’t "own" our culture. Instead, they reflect and amplify existing cultural dynamics. The ethical question is whether their influence respects cultural authenticity or manipulates it for profit. 6. If you worked in marketing research for a cosmetics firm, how might you apply the lead user concept to help you identify new product opportunities? Answer: A lead user is an involved, experienced customer who is very knowledgeable about the field. One approach to using this concept would be to conduct focus groups of identified lead users. These are the ones who would know what is happening in the industry from the consumer’s perspective. 7. Many consumers around the world seem to be willing to suffer for the sake of fashion. Others argue that we are merely pawns in the hands of designers who conspire to force unwieldy fashions down our throats. What do you think? What is and what should be the role of fashion in our society? How important is it for people to be in style? What are the pros and cons of keeping up with the latest fashions? Do you believe that we are at the mercy of designers? Answer: Responses will largely be based on how consumers view fashion and how willing they are to sacrifice to incorporate fashion into their lives. The “should” element of this question may bring forward some idealistic responses. Most students will likely take the approach that consumers are free to do as they choose and that fashion “should” be what consumers want it to be. Fashion influences and reflects personal and cultural identity, but its role should balance self-expression with practicality. While keeping up with trends can offer social status and creativity, it can also lead to superficiality and environmental concerns. Designers set trends, but consumers ultimately drive fashion through their choices and preferences. We are influenced but not entirely at the mercy of designers; individual agency and critical thinking shape our fashion decisions. Experiential Exercises 8. If you were a consultant to a toy company, what would you forecast as the next big trend in this market? Survey toy stores and watch what kids are playing with now to help you with your prediction. Answer: Such trends are very difficult to predict, but as students provide their comments on this question, highlight the concepts of fashions, fads, and classics. Which type is likely to be responsible for the next hit? As a consultant, I’d forecast that interactive and STEM-focused toys will be the next big trend. Kids increasingly enjoy toys that blend play with education, such as coding kits and augmented reality games. Observing current preferences for tech-driven, hands-on learning experiences supports this prediction. Keeping an eye on emerging technologies and educational trends will be key in identifying future market shifts. 9. How might the rise of peer-to-peer music sharing influence the structure of the music CPS? One hypothesis is that this method erodes the dominance of the big labels because listeners are more likely to access music from lesser-known groups. Survey your friends to determine if this in fact happening. Are they listening to a wider variety of artists or just downloading more of the big-time groups? Answer: We term the set of agents responsible for creating stylistic alternatives a culture production system (CPS). Factors such as the types of people involved in this system and the amount of competition by alternative product forms influence the choices that eventually make their way to the marketplace for consideration by end consumers. There is strong evidence that with the advent of digital music file formats, peer-to-peer file sharing, and digital music players, people are listening to a greater variety of music and being exposed to groups and genres that they otherwise might not be. 10. Read several romance or action novels to see if you can identify a cultural formula at work. Do you see parallels among the roles different characters play (e.g., the hero, the evildoer, the temptress, etc.)? Answer: Popular art forms can follow a cultural formula in which certain roles and props often occur consistently. Romance novels are an extreme case of a cultural formula. Computer programs even allow users to “write” their own romances by systematically varying certain set elements of the story. Given that, it should be fairly easy for students to define a cultural formula by simply scanning various romance novels. 11. Watch 12 hours of TV shows and keep a log of all product placements you see. What are the dominant products being inserted into programs? Answer: As students report their results, be sure to discuss the implications of these placements for the product categories as well as the brands involved. After logging 12 hours of TV shows, dominant product placements often include technology (smartphones, laptops), fast food brands, beverages (sodas, energy drinks), and cars. These products are strategically placed to enhance realism and appeal to viewers, reflecting popular consumer preferences and brand visibility in everyday contexts. CASE STUDY TEACHING NOTES 1. What type of innovation does the Neurio represent? What are the implications of your categorization with respect to marketing the product? Answer: As noted in Chapter 15, innovations can be categorized according to the level of behavioural change that they demand from adopters. As an innovative technology in the smart-meter space, Neurio is a discontinuous innovation that would likely create major changes in the way we live. Unlike a continuous innovation or a dynamically continuous innovation that build on an existing product, Neurio is a new solution for smarter energy usage. However, in order for a new product such as Neurio to succeed, several factors must be taken into consideration: •Neurio should be compatible with consumers’ lifestyles. If in operating Neurio, another aspect of the consumers’ lifestyle is inhibited (i.e. Neurio is too time-intensive to learn/operate), adoption of the new product is unlikely. •Neurio should be tried. Because an unknown product is accompanied by perceived risk, people are more likely to adopt a new product if they can experiment with it prior to making a commitment. A free-trial period, for example, could lower the perceived risk of using Neurio. •Neurio should be low in complexity. Products that are easier to understand are likely to be chosen over a competitor’s. •Neurio should be easily observable. By making the Neurio visible and accessible, other consumers will be aware of its use and what benefits it could provide. •Neurio should offer relative advantage over other products. By positioning itself as providing instantaneous ability to manage electricity use (unlike traditional energy meters), Neurio will likely convince consumers that it provides a benefit other products cannot offer. 2. What challenges do you foresee for consumers in adopting this type of technology? Why? How can these challenges be overcome? Answer: As a discontinuous innovation, Neurio relies on adoption by formal and informal gatekeepers such as retail buyers, opinion leaders, friends, family and neighbors. Gatekeepers filter the flow of information intended for consumers and thereby influence the adoption of a product. Because consumers tend to be more influenced by opinion leaders who are similar to them, Neurio must find ways to effectively target and encourage adoption among these gatekeepers. In addition, the demand for Neurio may also rely on the popularity of sustainability and climate change mitigation. As noted in Chapter 15, the fashion system creates symbolic meanings and transfers those meanings to cultural goods. As a result, purchasing Neurio, for example, could be construed as being “environmentally-friendly” or “sustainable.” However, as cycles of fashion change, and new issues in science arise, Neurio may be vulnerable here. To overcome this, Neurio can attempt to extend the fashion cycle so that it becomes less of a fad and more of a classic, the latter of which has an extremely long acceptance cycle. Enduring trends tend to accommodate consumers’ desire for individuality and lifestyle-fit. As a result, Energy Aware must position Neurio in terms of the values and corresponding norms of target consumers rather than consumer trends. 3. With respect to adoption, which consumer classification (e.g., innovators, early adopters, early majority, laggards) will be the most difficult to convince that the Neurio is a product worth adopting? What specific strategies would you utilize in targeting each of these groups? Answer: Not all consumers adopt an innovation at the same rate. As noted in Chapter 15, consumers can be placed into approximate categories based on their likelihood of adopting an innovation: innovators, early adopters, early majority and laggards. These categories of adopters can be related to phases of the product life cycle concept and require specific marketing strategies. Innovators on the lookout for novel developments will be the first to try a new offering. As a result, emphasizing Neurio’s innovative developments in home energy management would likely appeal to these consumers’ risk-taking frame-of-mind. Although early adopters share many of the same characteristics as innovators, they desire a high degree of social acceptance. As a result, developing a marketing strategy that emphasizes socially-accepted, and fashionable values and norms such as being “sustainable,” are likely to encourage adoption among these consumers. This strategy will likely affect the early majority who tend to adopt the new innovation after it has “caught-on” with early adopters. The late majority and laggards are more skeptical of new innovations and are most likely Energy Aware’s most difficult consumer groups. As noted in Chapter 15, because the expectations and goals of consumers’ vary, marketers should alter their strategy over time to appeal to the relevant target market. As a result, by lowering the price of Neurio after it has been on the market for some time, Energy Aware may be able to meet these later consumers’ product skepticism and encourage adoption. 4. What type of communication and public relations efforts would you recommend to Janice? Why? Answer: Janice’s communication and public relation efforts should vary based on the level of diffusion of the innovation and which consumer group she is targeting. Given that Neurio is at the point of entry to market, Janice must focus on facilitating adoption among innovators and early adopters who typically possess vast social networks (and are likely to trigger a trickle-effect in terms of adoption). As noted in Question 3, these consumers are risk-takers and enjoy novel technologies. These consumers are also highly educated and influencers. As a result, Janice should develop a communication strategy that emphasizes the innovativeness of the product as well as the strong relative advantage that Neurio has over other competitor products. FIELD PROJECT IDEAS Individual Assignments 1. Ask students to give a report on a fad with which the student is familiar (e.g., pet rocks, hula hoops, leisure suits, hair styles, clothing, food, etc.) Have students try to find some documentation of the rise and fall of this fad. Answer: Report on a Fad: Students should research the lifecycle of a chosen fad, including its origins, peak popularity, and decline. They can use articles, advertisements, and historical records to document how and why the fad emerged and eventually faded. 2. Ask students to identify the type of adopter they seem themselves as. Why would they describe themselves as so? Answer: Adopter Type: Students should self-assess their adopter type (innovator, early adopter, early majority, late majority, laggard) based on their behavior towards new products or trends, explaining their classification with personal examples of adoption patterns. Individual or Team Assignments 3. Ask students or the entire class to brainstorm a list of products that perceive as ‘high’ culture versus ‘low’ culture. Why do they classify them as such? Which appeal to them more? Answer: High vs. Low Culture Products: Students can list products like haute couture as high culture and fast fashion as low culture. They classify these based on perceived prestige, exclusivity, or commonality. Personal preference will reveal which appeals more and why. 4. Rent a movie of your choice. Find ten different consumer products that would be natural fits for product placement in the movie you just watched (these should be products for which a branded placement does not already exist in the film). Position the products (through description of the scene) where they should most appropriately be used. Explain why companies (the ten products) should be willing to pay for the exposure your group has suggested. Answer: Movie Product Placement: For a rented movie, suggest ten products for natural integration (e.g., a luxury watch in a high-stakes scene). Describe scenes where these products fit seamlessly. Companies would value this placement for targeted exposure and enhanced brand visibility. 5. Find a product placement agency. Interview someone at this agency as to the general nature of product placement and how these “deals” come about. How is the practice of product placement changing? What is different about this practice today as opposed to 10 or 20 years ago? Answer: Product Placement Agency Interview: Interviewees will explain how product placements are negotiated, the evolving nature of these deals, and differences from past practices, such as increased digital integration and data-driven decisions compared to traditional methods. 6. Have groups select a product category of interest to them. Have them develop a formal strategy to reality engineer the product. Include specific tactics relating to different components of the marketing mix. Answer: Product Category Strategy: Develop a strategy for the selected product category, addressing elements like product design, pricing, distribution, and promotion. Specific tactics might include influencer partnerships, targeted advertising, and strategic placement to maximize market impact. eLAB Individual Assignments 1. Go to http://www.michaelkors.ca/ and www.esteelauder.com. What’s new in fashion, style, and cosmetics? Either of these sites might give you some clue. After visiting the websites, list what you perceive to be the top five trends in female fashion for this year. Remember, fashion may be more than just clothing. Report your opinions to the class. Answer: Top Trends in Female Fashion: From Michael Kors and Estée Lauder, top trends may include bold color palettes, oversized accessories, sustainable fabrics, athleisure integration, and tech-enhanced beauty products. These trends reflect contemporary style and evolving consumer preferences. 2. Go to www.cadillac.com. Find all the information that you can on the newest model of the Cadillac Escalade. What changes have been made to this vehicle? To what extent do you think these changes have been made in response to the desires of the target market? Discuss the nature of pop culture in the development of this model. Answer: Cadillac Escalade Updates: The newest Cadillac Escalade features updated technology, enhanced luxury interiors, and advanced safety systems. These changes cater to luxury consumers seeking cutting-edge features and comfort, influenced by pop culture’s emphasis on high-tech and opulent lifestyles. 3. Go to www.fashionknockoffs.com. Why do you think that the knockoff industry has become so big? Discuss this in terms of the fashion concepts discussed in the chapter. Also, include a discussion of the economics of buying such brands (how much does the real thing cost?). Answer: Knockoff Industry Growth: The knockoff industry thrives due to demand for high fashion at lower prices and the allure of trends without the premium cost. Economically, real designer items are significantly more expensive, prompting consumers to seek affordable alternatives. 4. Go tohttp://www.brandchannel.com/category/brandcameo/. Select five different films that have a high number of brands placed in them. Then, look up reviews for each film as well as how the film did at the box office and in home video. What impact do you think each of the placements had for the brand? Answer: Film Brand Placements: In films with prominent brand placements, such as “James Bond” or “Transformers,” brands gain high visibility and association with the film’s themes. Positive reviews and box office success can amplify brand impact, leveraging the film’s popularity for enhanced brand recognition. eLAB Team Assignments 1. Go to http://disney.go.com, www.universalstudios.com, www.seaworld.com, and www.sixflags.com. How do these organizations use reality engineering? What evidence does your group find that the technique is being used? Which site did your group find to be the most attractive? Why? Which site seemed to cross cultural lines in its appeal to the consumer? How did you know this? What evidence do you see of trends in entertainment? Do any of the sites advertise “virtual” experiences? If so, which ones and how do they do it? Report your group’s findings to the class. Answer: Reality Engineering in Theme Parks: Disney, Universal Studios, SeaWorld, and Six Flags use reality engineering by creating immersive environments that blend entertainment with real-life experiences. Disney’s site was the most attractive due to its engaging visuals and user experience. Universal Studios and SeaWorld appeal across cultures through their global franchises and diverse attractions. Trends in entertainment include interactive and virtual experiences, with Universal Studios offering virtual reality attractions. 2. Go to www.originalsoupman.com . Do some research to find out the relationship between this company and the Soup Nazi of Seinfeld fame. How do you think the program influenced the success of this company? Answer: Soup Nazi Influence: The Original Soupman leveraged its association with the "Soup Nazi" character from Seinfeld to boost brand recognition and attract fans of the show. This pop culture connection significantly enhanced the company’s visibility and appeal. PROFESSORS ON THE GO! Chapter Objectives
When students finish this chapter they should understand why: •Cultural production is a process by which certain styles, products, and trends become accepted by popular cultures, while others die out What new styles have appeared in the last six months? How many of these styles appear on television (in ads or on shows)? How long do you think the styles will last? •There is a distinction between high and low culture Go to a contemporary magazine and find illustrations of high and low culture. Indicate what type of consumers might be attracted to these different messages. •Modern marketers are reality engineers Rent a movie of your choice. Find ten different consumer products that would be natural fits for product placement in the movie you just watched (these should be products for which a branded placement does not already exist in the film). Position the products (through description of the scene) where they should most appropriately be used. Explain why companies (the ten products) should be willing to pay for the exposure your group has suggested. Discuss issues of ethics as they apply to reality engineering. Support your ideas with examples. Find a product placement agency. Interview someone at this agency as to the general nature of product placement and how these “deals” come about. How is the practice of product placement changing? What is different about this practice today as opposed to 10 or 20 years ago? Have groups select a product category of interest to them. Have them develop a formal strategy to reality engineer the product. Include specific tactics relating to different components of the marketing mix. •The diffusion of innovation is a process whereby a new product, service, or idea spreads throughout a population Find a product and describe how it was first introduced and how it has become diffused into our economy. Does it seem to fit the stages described in the text? •New products, services, and ideas spread through a population, and why different types of people are more or less likely to adopt them How would you describe yourself in terms of a product adopter? Your family and friends? •Many people and organizations play a role in the fashion system that creates and communicates symbolic meaning to consumers What role do MTV and other teen media programs have in establishing fashion? How do older adults get information on fashion? How do older adults get information on fashion in business attire? It should be apparent from the chapter that art and culture are in a constant state of influencing each other. It is the dynamics of how these two elements of society influence each other that they also influence themselves. Discuss how fashion, music, and entertainment influence each other through pop culture. How have styles in fashion and in our economy impacted political and social conditions? Which came first, the style or the conditions? Go to www.fashionknockoffs.com. Why do you think that the knockoff industry has become so big? Discuss this in terms of the fashion concepts discussed in the chapter. Also, include a discussion of the economics of buying such brands (How much does the real thing cost?). •Various models of fashion can be used to predict what products or ideas will catch on and which will not Chose a new product that has recently been developed – do you think it will become a fad or a trend? Why? What do the questions indicate? ENDNOTES i Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Michael R. Solomon, "Competition and Cooperation Among Culture Production Systems," in Marketing Theory: Philosophy of Science Perspectives, eds. Ronald F. Bush and Shelby D. Hunt (Chicago: American Marketing Association, 1982), 269 72. ii Paul M. Hirsch, "Processing Fads and Fashions: An Organizational Set Analysis of Cultural Industry Systems," American Journal of Sociology 77 (1972) 4:639-59; Russell Lynes, The Tastemakers (New York: Harper and Brothers, (1954); Michael R. Solomon, "The Missing Link: Surrogate Consumers in the Marketing Chain," Journal of Marketing 50 (October 1986); 208-19. iii Alice Kahn, "A One-time Bimbo Be-comes a Muse," New York Times (September 29, 1991)3: H1. iv Marialuisa Taddia, “Product placement hits the spot,” Financial Times, March 2, 2004: 8. v Alison Lurie, The Language of Clothes (New York: Random House, 1981). Solution Manual for Consumer Behaviour: Buying, Having, Being Michael R. Solomon, Katherine White, Darren W. Dahl 9780133958096