CH-5 The Self – Consumer Behaviour: Buying, Having, Being : Book Guide

Chapter 5 The Self CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When students finish this chapter they should: •Understand that the self-concept strongly influences consumer behaviour. •Understand how marketing communications can influence consumer self-esteem. •Understand that products often play a key role in defining the self-concept. •Understand that society’s expectations of masculinity and femininity help to determine the products we buy to meet these expectations. •Understand that the way we think about our bodies (and the way our culture tells us we should think) is a key component of self-esteem. •Understand that our desire to live up to cultural expectations of appearance can be harmful. •Understand that every culture dictates certain types of body decoration or mutilation. CHAPTER SUMMARY •Consumers’ self-concepts are reflections of their attitudes toward themselves. Whether these attitudes are positive or negative, they will help to guide many purchase decisions; products can be used to bolster self-esteem or to “reward” the self. •Many product choices are dictated by the consumer’s perception of a similarity between his or her personality and the attributes of a product. The symbolic interactionist perspective on the self states that each of us actually has many selves, and a different set of products is required as props to play each role. Many things other than the body can also be viewed as part of the self. Valued objects, cars, homes, and even attachments to sports teams or national monuments are used to define the self when these are incorporated into the extended self. •A person’s gender-role identity is a major component of self-definition. Conceptions about masculinity and femininity, largely shaped by society, guide the acquisition of “sex-typed” products and services. •Advertising and other media play an important role in socializing consumers to be male and female. Although traditional women’s roles have often been perpetuated in advertising depictions, this situation is changing somewhat. The media do not always portray men accurately, either. •A person’s conception of his or her body also provides feedback to self-image. A culture communicates certain ideals of beauty, and consumers go to great lengths to attain these. •Sometimes these activities are carried to an extreme when people try too hard to live up to cultural ideals. One example is found in eating disorders, wherein women in particular become obsessed with thinness. •Many consumer activities involve manipulating the body, whether through dieting, cosmetic surgery, or tattooing. •Body decoration and/or mutilation may serve such functions as separating group members from non-members, or marking the individual’s status or rank within a social organization or within a gender category (e.g., homosexual), or even providing a sense of security or good luck. LECTURE/DISCUSSION IDEAS VI. PERSPECTIVES ON THE SELF – Consumers’ self feelings shape their consumption  The value placed on individuality and a distinction between an inner and an outer self developed with the self-consciousness wrought by Puritanism between 1500 and 1800. The notion of secular fulfillment (and the conflict between an individual's needs and those of society) that drives much of modern-day hedonistic marketing was a dominant issue in the Romantic period (the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century).i  According to objective self-awareness (OSA) theory, our conscious attention flips back and forth between the self and the external world. When a person is in an OSA state, he or she sees the self as others do, which usually arouses negative feelings, because we are often critical of the image we see. A somewhat similar perspective regards self-awareness as a feedback loop, much like the regulatory mechanism in a thermostat. We check our current self against our goals, altering our behaviour if necessary to get back on track.ii There is also evidence that self-assessment may also occur when consumers compare themselves to their most negative self-images, the undesired self.iii A. Does the Self Exist? – Yes! B. Self-Concept – Attitude a person holds toward oneself o Components of the self-concept •Content: facial attractiveness and mental aptitude •Positivity or negativity (self-esteem) •Intensity, stability, and accuracy (assessment and reality) 1. Self-Esteem – attitude toward oneself; self-esteem (advertising) Class Interaction Opportunity: What are some examples of ads that promote self-esteem? 2. Real and ideal selves •Actual self: realistic appraisal of qualities we have and don’t have •Ideal self: what we would like to be •Impression management C. Multiple Selves – Based on role identities, we are a number of different people (husband, boss, student) Class Interaction Opportunity: How many multiple selves (role identities) do you have? 1. Symbolic interactionism – Many social selves (self-fulfilling prophesy) 2. The looking-glass self – Imagining other’s reactions toward us D. Self-Consciousness – Feeling painfully aware of ourselves at times (e.g., one notices a spot on clothes, yet people may pick their nose at a stoplight). II. CONSUMPTION AND THE SELF-CONCEPT – ‘Props’ are important in the roles we play A. Products That Shape the Self: You Are What You Consume •Food (e.g., vegetarian or meat and potatoes) •Leisure activities (e.g., racquetball or bowling) •Car (Porsche or Kia) •Loss of self – reaction when treasured objects are lost or stolen •Symbolic self-completion theory – people complete their self-definition by acquiring symbols associated with it. Class Interaction Opportunity: Have you ever had your home burglarized? What did they take? How did this make you feel? B. Self/Product Congruence – Consistency between our self-image and purchases •Problems with the congruence concept – not all products fit description, e.g., theory may work with perfume but not with toasters.  A common way to assess these matches is to use a technique known as the Q-sort. Consumers sort various products into categories according to the extent each is associated or not associated with the self.iv  People are more likely to rate more socially desirable products as similar to themselves; person/product congruence also increases with ownership.v C. The Extended Self – In some cultures, possessions are buried with the dead D. Levels of the Extended Self – Four levels •Individual level: you are what you wear (car, jewelry) •Family level: includes your house and furniture •Community level: your neighborhood and home town •Group level: your religion, flag, sports team  The degree to which people incorporate their communities into their selves helps to predict how cohesive and safe a neighborhood will be. One study that examined suburban areas found a relationship between the use of "territorial markers," such as shrubs, to indicate one's property and willingness to defend one's neighborhood. Another group of researchers also found that residents who personalized their homes by displaying property markers and holiday decorations were more attached to their communities and that these actions also deterred property crimes.vi C. The Digital Self – Today there are many ways to build a virtual profile, starting with the basics, like an avatar for a virtual game site. Every touch point in your social media life (photos, posts etc.) is an outlet for your digital profile. D. Wearable Computing – Digital interactions are becoming simpler as devices are being inserted into our clothing and are transforming basic accessories (i.e. Apple Watch and Google Glass). Consumers are increasingly identifying with and embracing such devices. III. GENDER ROLES – We tend to conform with culture’s expectations but the guidelines evolve. 1. Gender Differences in Socialization o Gender goals and expectations •Men stress self-assertion and mastery – agentic goals •Women stress affiliation and harmony – communal goals Class Interaction Opportunity: Do you think that men and women react differently to the same stimulus, such as a baby picture? Class Interaction Opportunity: Marketing is sometimes criticized for being macho because it stresses competition, uses the language of warfare, and words such as penetration, power, control, manipulation, etc. Do you agree? Give specific examples to support your view. 2. Gender versus sexual identity – Masculinity and femininity are not biological 3. Sex-typed products – Car is a masculine product; boys’ and girls’ toys; pink phones Class Interaction Opportunity: Why do you suppose we have boys' and girls' toys? Is society or marketing responsible for this? B. Androgyny – Possession of both masculine and feminine traits 1. Gender-bending products – A traditionally sex-typed item adapted to the opposite gender  The decision about how to portray a man or a woman (for example, whether a woman's family, sexuality, or professional life be emphasized) should take into consideration the intended function of the product. Consumers are most comfortable with role portrayals that are consistent with the product in question; a family role should be emphasized for family products, and so on.vii C. Female Roles – Play different roles in different contexts; often to subdivide the female market into segments  Researchers studied 132 British ads and found women were portrayed in four basic roles: as mothers, partners, sex objects, or career women. Men were shown in a much broader range of roles, and were more likely to be targets of funny or striking ads. Possible explanations: budgets less than comparable to gender-neutral or ads aimed at men – underspending in the whole process from the initial idea to execution to global outlook. Women’s advertising is treated with less seriousness. The majority of ad people are men, and they listen to what they want to hear from women in focus groups, etc. and ... most ads directed at women are successful. Could they be more successful?viii D. Male Roles – Tough, aggressive, muscular but also compassionate; changing male attitudes – the metrosexual and the ubersexual Class Interaction Opportunity: Can you think of an ad in which the male is a sex object?  Metrosexuals – urban males who blend macho attitudes with a heightened focus on their appearance and more in touch with their emotions – have the attention of marketers of products ranging from beer to cable television to skin-care. “Men are tired of being depicted as Neanderthals,” said Tom Bick, senior brand manager for Miller beer. Miller’s beer has been reworked to focus on it as an intelligent alternative to other beers and to portray its drinkers as people who stand apart from the crowd.x E. Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Consumers – Interested in graduate school, physical fitness, self-improvement, more stress in daily lives, self-employed 1. Segmenting the gay market – One survey identified five distinct market segments. IV. BODY IMAGE – Subjective evaluation of one’s physical self A. Body Cathexis – A person’s feelings about aspects of his or her body B. Ideals of Beauty – Physical features, clothing styles, cosmetics, hair styles, skin tone, youthfulness, muscular tone, etc. 1. Is beauty universal – Bound feet, skinny waists, inserted plates in lips, long necks, tan, white, breast reduction/enlargement; mass media plays a significant role 2. The Western ideal of beauty – Big round eyes, tiny waists, large breasts, blond hair and blue eyes 3. Ideals of beauty over time – Realignment of sexual dimorophic markers 4. Is the ideal getting real? – Dove’s campaign for real beauty 5. Male ideals of beauty – Strongly masculine, muscled body C. Working on the Body – Diet food/drink, tanning salons 1. Hair and the self 2. Fattism – “You can never be too thin or too rich” 3. Body image distortions – Diet and exercise (dieting, low fat, low-calorie, Weight Watchers); unrealistic standards - Barbie is unnaturally long and thin; eating disorders - anorexia and bulimia; exercise addiction - compulsive runners Class Interaction Opportunity: Some analysts espouse the idea that society is punishing women for their achievements by forcing them to live a daily regimen of semi-starvation. What do you think is the role of marketing in distorting and perpetuating appearance ideals in women? In men?  Bulimic women perceive their bodies to be very large, and their ideal body size to be extremely thin. Female bulimics in university are often obsessed with weight, appearance, and academic performance, and they have severely negative self-concepts.xi 4. Cosmetic surgery – Silicon implants, liposuction, face lifts 5. Body decoration and mutilation – Why? •To separate group members from non-members •To place the individual in the social organization •To place the person in a gender category •To enhance gender-role identification •To provide a sense of security •To indicate desired social conduct •To indicate high status or rank 6. Tattoos – Body art traditionally associated with social outcasts 7. Body piercing – Body decorating with metallic inserts END-OF-CHAPTER SUPPORT MATERIAL Summary of Special Feature Boxes 1. CB As I See It Dr. Steve Kates, Simon Fraser University conducts research on the expression of the self through brand use. He has found that if brands achieve a moral fit with the values and beliefs of a market segment of consumers (e.g., gay consumers) then it may earn brand loyalty as a result of achieving legitimacy. This brand loyalty may not remain however, as societal morals and values are always in flux and it may be that gay men may come to expect all brands to be “gay friendly,” eliminating the uniqueness of the brand’s legitimacy within the gay market. 2. Consumers in Focus I: Vanity Sizing This box discusses the phenomenon known as “vanity sizing.” Since the average individual in western societies is larger today (body size) than in the past, clothing manufacturers and retailers have made a calculated adjustment. In other words, what was once considered extra-large may be labelled as large today. This adjustment has occurred to help reduce the likelihood that a consumer’s self-concept is hurt or damaged. 3. Consumers in Focus II: Embodied Cognition This box addresses embodied cognition and asks questions like: to what extent do the products we buy influence how we define ourselves? The embodied cognition approach is consistent with consumer behaviour research that demonstrates how changes in self-concept can arise from usage of brands that convey different meanings. 4. Consumers in Focus III: New Role of Fathers This box discusses how male roles have been changing in recent years. One study revealed that contemporary fathers have different priorities. 1. Modern fathers strive to be active contributors to their children’s lives. 2. There’s no such thing as a “modern dad” archetype. 3. Unlike the view in previous generations, simply being the financial provider is not enough. 5. Consumers in Focus IV: Tinder This box discusses the online matchmaking app that is very focused on physical appearance, known as Tinder. While it is very popular, the app has been heavily criticized for being “shallow” and focusing too much on external appearances. 6. Consumers in Focus V: Body Image A major concern with body image is the increasing prevalence of eating disorders, and this box claims that those dealing with such issues often communicate with one another and even perpetuate the social trend towards ultrathin through online posts. 7. Marketing Insight I: Impression Management Too many graduating students are showing up for interviews and making poor first impressions (with sloppy or revealing clothing). Opportunities for impression management abound, and this includes how you act at business dinners or networking events. 8. Marketing Insight I: Tattoo Regret Tattoo popularity is increasing, and as such so is the inevitable need for tattoo removal services – most often through laser devices as described in this box. Review Questions 1. How do Eastern and Western cultures tend to differ in terms of how people think about the self? Answer: The emphasis on the unique nature of the self is much greater in Western societies. Many Eastern cultures instead stress the importance of a collective self, where a person derives his identity in large measure from his social group. Both Eastern and Western cultures see the self as divided into an inner, private self, and an outer, public self. Where they differ is in terms of which part is seen as the “real you” – the West tends to subscribe to an independent view of the self that emphasizes the inherent separateness of each individual. 2. List three dimensions by which we can describe the self-concept. Answer: •Content—facial attractiveness versus mental aptitude; •Positivity or negativity—self-esteem; and •Intensity, stability over time, and accuracy – the degree to which one’s self-assessment corresponds to reality 3. Compare and contrast the real versus the ideal self. List three products for which each type of self is likely to be used as a reference point when a purchase is considered. Answer: The ideal self is a person’s conception of how he or she would like to be, whereas the actual self refers to our more realistic appraisal of the qualities we have and don’t have. 4. What does “the looking glass self” mean? Answer: This process of imagining the reactions of others toward us is known as “taking the role of the other,” or the looking-glass self. According to this view, our desire to define ourselves operates as a sort of psychological sonar: we take readings of our own identity by “bouncing” signals off others and trying to project what impression they have of us. 5. How might the "digital self" differ from a consumer's self-concept in the real world, and why is this difference potentially important to marketers? Answer: Consumers can more easily design their ideal digital selves and even have multiple versions across several platforms. Digital items are inexpensive and more easily adjusted to try out different personas and explore how different digital selves feel. 6. How do feelings about the self influence the specific brands people buy? Answer: Because many consumption activities are related to self-definition, it is not surprising to learn that consumers demonstrate consistency between their values and the things they buy. Self-image congruence models suggest that products will be chosen when their attributes match some aspect of the self. These models assume a process of cognitive matching between product attributes and the consumer’s self-image. 7. Define the extended self and provide three examples. Answer: Those external objects that we consider a part of us comprise the extended self. In some cultures, people literally incorporate objects into the self—they lick new possessions, take the names of conquered enemies (or in some cases eat them), or bury the dead with their possessions. In addition to shoes, of course, many material objects ranging from personal possessions and pets to national monuments or landmarks, help to form a consumer’s identity. 8. What is the difference between agentic and communal goals? Answer: Many societies expect males to pursue agentic goals that stress self-assertion and mastery. On the other hand, they teach females to value communal goals, such as affiliation and the fostering of harmonious relations. 9. Is masculinity/femininity a biological distinction? Why or why not? Answer: Unlike maleness and femaleness, masculinity and femininity are not biological characteristics. A behaviour considered masculine in one culture might not be viewed as such in another. For example, the norm in Canada is that male friends avoid touching each other (except in “safe” situations such as on the football field). 10. Give two examples of sex-typed products. Answer: Marketers often encourage the gender typing of products such as Princess telephones, boys’ and girls’ bicycles, or Luvs colour-coded diapers. 11. What is body cathexis? Answer: Body cathexis means a person’s feelings about his or her body. The word cathexis refers to the emotional significance of some object or idea to a person, and some parts of the body are more central to self-concept than are others. 12. Have ideals of beauty in Canada changed over the last 50 years? If so, how? Answer: A study of almost 50 years of Playboy centerfolds shows that the women have become less shapely and more androgynous since Marilyn Monroe graced the first edition with a voluptuous hourglass figure of 37–23–36. However, a magazine spokesman comments, “As time has gone on and women have become more athletic, more in the business world, and more inclined to put themselves through fitness regimes, their bodies have changed, and we reflect that as well. But I would think that no one with eyes to see would consider playmates to be androgynous. 13. What is fattism? Answer: Fattism is an obsession with weight. 14. How did tattoos originate? Answer: Tattoos have a long history of association with people who are social outcasts. For example, the faces and arms of criminals in sixth- century Japan were tattooed as a means of identifying them, as were Massachusetts prison inmates in the nineteenth century and concentration camp internees in the twentieth century. Marginal groups, such as bikers or Japanese yakuze (gang members) often use these emblems to express group identity and solidarity. CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR CHALLENGE Discussion Questions 1. How prevalent is the Western ideal among your peers? How do you see this ideal evolving now (if at all)? Answer: The prevalence of the “Western Ideal” will depend on the country of the student body. Even in Canadian or other western cultures, the Western ideal of beauty—big round eyes, tiny waists, large breasts, blond hair, and blue eyes—may be changing. The more enlightening discussion should come out of the “evolution” portion of the question. There is quite a bit of material in this text that indicates that the ideal is changing, based on changes that marketers have made in recent times. The question is, will individuals agree with this information? 2. Some historians and social critics say our obsession with thinness is based less on science than on morality. These critics argue that the definition of obesity has often arbitrarily shifted throughout history. Indeed, being slightly overweight was once associated with good health (as we’ve seen, in some parts of the world it still is) in a time when many of the most troubling diseases were wasting diseases like tuberculosis. Plumpness used to be associated with affluence and the aristocracy (King Louis XIV of France padded his body to look more imposing); while today it is associated with the poor and their supposedly bad eating habits. What do you think? Answer: Does the social definition of obesity change throughout time? Some of the same material that came out in question 2 might come out in the discussion of this question. However, students might also have a difficult time relating to this question, given that such changes have not occurred heavily within the realm of their memory. 3. Should fast food restaurants be liable if customers sue them for contributing to their obesity? Answer: This has been a hot topic since the release of the movie “Supersize Me.” Various people have pursued lawsuits claiming that a fast food company caused them to be obese (none of them have won). The information from the documentary has been countered by people who have demonstrated that a fast food diet can be healthy (many have been in the press). This discussion/debate should be pretty even in terms of the number of people on each side. There will be those claiming that fast food companies have been unethical in their marketing of unhealthy products, as well as those that will claim that consumers have accountability and responsibility for what they consume. 4. How might the creation of a self-conscious state be related to consumers who are trying on clothing in dressing rooms? Does the act of preening in front of a mirror change the dynamics by which people evaluate their product choices? Why? Answer: When people try on clothing in a dressing room, the presence of others and mirrors might create a self-conscious state. In an outfit, a person’s self-consciousness is likely to be heightened. They may “check themselves out” in a mirror, ask other people how something looks, or listen to someone tell them that they look good. These acts and interactions will determine whether a potential customer feels confident wearing the outfit and, therefore, is willing to buy it. 5. Is it ethical for marketers to encourage infatuation with the self? Answer: Encourage students to think about self-infatuation and the related concepts of self-consciousness and self-esteem. Encouraging infatuation with the self in marketing can be ethically problematic. While it may boost consumer engagement and drive sales, it can also contribute to unhealthy self-obsession and unrealistic standards. Promoting self-infatuation might exploit vulnerabilities and foster shallow self-worth based on material possessions or external validation. Ethically, marketers should strive to balance promoting products with fostering positive, healthy self-perceptions. They should consider the long-term impact on consumers' mental well-being and avoid strategies that reinforce negative self-image or excessive consumerism. Responsible marketing should promote genuine self-improvement and self-esteem rather than superficial infatuation. 6. Some consumer advocates have protested the use of super-thin models in advertising, claiming that these women encourage others to starve themselves in order to attain the ‘waif’ look. Other critics respond that the media’s power to shape behaviour has been overestimated, and it is insulting to people to assume that they are unable to separate fantasy from reality. What do you think? Answer: An instructor might want to seek volunteers or to simply select two teams each consisting of one male and one female student. Give each team an opportunity to present their side of the argument and then allow time for rebuttal. (Possible In-Class Activity.) The debate about using super-thin models in advertising involves both ethical and psychological considerations. Critics argue that such portrayals can contribute to unhealthy body image issues and eating disorders, as they often set unrealistic beauty standards. This can pressure some individuals to emulate these extremes, leading to harmful behaviors. On the other hand, the media’s impact varies among individuals, and not everyone may internalize these images or feel influenced. However, ethical marketing should prioritize promoting diverse and healthy body types, considering the potential negative impact on vulnerable audiences and fostering a more inclusive representation of beauty. 7. Does sex sell? There’s certainly enough of it around, whether in print ads, television commercials, or on websites. Perhaps the appropriate question is not does sex sell, but should sex sell? What are your feelings about this blatant use of sex to sell products? Do you think this tactic works better when selling to men than to women? Does exposure to unbelievably attractive men and women models only make the rest of us “normal” folks unhappy and insecure? Under what conditions (if any) should sex be used as a marketing strategy? Answer: The responses to this question will depend on the background of students in each class. Ideally, responses will range from “sex should not be allowed to sell” to “more sex should be used to sell” and a healthy debate will ensue. Business and marketing students, however, often favour the rights of the company to engage in practices such as this to promote their brands. Some will likely bring up the argument that as long as promotional practices are legal, there is nothing wrong with them. Others may disagree from an ethical perspective. Still others will argue that compared to many European countries, the use of sex in advertising in Canada is mild and that Canadians are too uptight about sex. Others may point out that there are many countries (i.e., countries with high Muslim populations) where there is far less sex and nudity allowed by law. Sex can sell by grabbing attention and creating memorable ads, but its effectiveness varies and raises ethical concerns. When used excessively, it can perpetuate stereotypes, objectify individuals, and contribute to unrealistic beauty standards, making consumers feel inadequate or insecure. This tactic often works differently for men and women, potentially appealing more to one gender based on the context and product. While sex appeal can be effective in grabbing attention, it should be used responsibly, ensuring it aligns with the brand’s values and avoids exploiting or demeaning individuals. Ideally, it should complement, not overshadow, the product’s genuine benefits and qualities. 8. Some activists object to Axe’s male-focused marketing; they claim that its commercials demean women. On the other hand, Dove’s campaign has been applauded because it promotes a healthy body image for girls. Guess what? Both Axe and Dove are owned by Unilever. Is it hypocritical for a big company to sponsor positive messages about women in one of its divisions while it sends a different message in another? Answer: Some students will be supportive of Unilever because they feel that companies should have the freedom to market their product to maximize sales and that consumers have the choice not to listen to these messages. Other points that may be raised are that: consumers enjoy the Axe commercials or the company would not continue to air them; if the commercials had a negative impact on sales or on consumers’ attitudes they would be dropped; or, the Axe commercials are just mirroring society’s views on male identity. Other students will argue that Unilever has a social responsibility to all consumers not to portray women on a demeaning manner, and that Unilever should have a consistent portrayal of women in all of its advertising. Yes, it can be seen as hypocritical for a company like Unilever to sponsor conflicting messages across its brands. Promoting positive body image through Dove’s campaigns while simultaneously using objectifying and demeaning tactics in Axe’s marketing undermines the credibility of their commitment to ethical advertising. This disparity may suggest that the company prioritizes profit over consistent ethical values. Ideally, a company should align all its brands with its core values and avoid contradictions that could undermine its integrity and confuse consumers about its true stance on social issues. Experiential Exercises 9. Watch a number of ads on TV and YouTube featuring men and women. Try to imagine the characters with reversed roles (i.e., the male parts played by women and vice versa) Can you see any differences in assumptions about gender-typed behaviour? Answer: Students will have fun with this challenge though it will be an eye-opener to some. An example of an ad that has women and men playing their traditional roles is a Duncan Hines cake mix commercial. The commercial shows the wife/mother making a cake. When the cake is ready, the father/husband and children are smiling and happy. The ad then says, “Nothin’ says lovin’ like a cake from the oven.” If one switches the roles of the man and woman, the ad somehow would not correspond to our image of having a cake baked by someone who loves us. Most of the time we will want to see ads that reflect a reality as we normally perceive it. (Possible Field Project Idea) Reversing gender roles in ads often highlights stark differences in societal assumptions about behavior. For example, ads depicting men in nurturing or domestic roles might seem unconventional or humorous, while women in traditionally masculine roles might challenge stereotypes or appear forced. Ads with women as assertive or aggressive characters can be perceived as less acceptable compared to men in similar roles. These role reversals underscore ingrained gender norms and biases, revealing how certain behaviors and attributes are culturally assigned and accepted differently based on gender. Such exercises can reveal the underlying assumptions and stereotypes in marketing and highlight the need for more equitable portrayals. 10. Construct a “consumption biography” of a friend or family member. Make a list and/or photograph his or her most favourite possessions and see if you or others can describe this person’s personality just from the information provided by this catalogue. Answer: Students might like to bring in a short videotape of the types of products the subject owns. This is usually a fun exercise, as students love to guess who the subject is. Usually, of course, they can pinpoint the person and come close to describing the person’s personality. (Possible Individual Field Project.) To construct a “consumption biography,” start by listing or photographing a friend or family member's favorite possessions, such as their favorite books, gadgets, clothing, or home decor. Analyze these items to infer aspects of their personality. For instance, a collection of classic literature might suggest intellectual interests, while an extensive array of sports gear could indicate a passion for fitness. High-end tech gadgets might reflect a fascination with innovation, and a well-curated art collection might reveal an appreciation for creativity and aesthetics. By examining these possessions, you can create a profile that reflects their values, interests, and lifestyle, offering insights into their personality based on their consumption choices. 11. Interview victims of burglaries or people who have lost personal property in floods, ice storms, or other natural disasters. How do they go about reconstructing their possessions, and what effect did the loss appear to have on them? Answer: This project may be somewhat difficult to do if no losses have occurred. An alternative is to have students watch news broadcasts and record their impressions of the responses and demeanor of the interviewed subjects, of which there are many stories about losses and difficulties encountered as of recent. How does a marketer deal with these situations? See if the students can find marketing responses that seem admirable and unacceptable. 12. Locate additional examples of self-esteem advertising and evaluate the probable effectiveness of these appeals. Is it true that “flattery gets you everywhere”? Answer: Most major magazines contain a variety of this type of advertisements. This is especially true of women’s fashion magazines and men’s sports magazines. These are the easy titles. To make the project more interesting, however, probe deeper. Go to mothers’ magazines and business magazines and see how self-esteem advertising appeals are used. Are they different from the fashion magazines and sports magazines? An additional question can be raised about this form of advertising for different market segment groups. For example, how is self-esteem advertising done for teens (a group that may suffer from lack of self-esteem) or minority ethnic groups (which might also suffer from low self- esteem)? Be sure to discuss conclusions with the class. The instructor could save the student examples for future class demonstrations. CASE STUDY TEACHING NOTES 1. How does the parent Kersh brand tap into the self-views of the consumers? Answer: As noted in Chapter 5, the self-concept refers to the beliefs a person holds about his or her own attributes and how he or she evaluates these qualities. The self-concept is complex and comprises of many attributes such as content (i.e. facial attractiveness or mental aptitude), positivity or negativity (i.e. self-esteem), intensity, stability over time and accuracy. Kersh taps into the self-views of their current consumers by creating a social comparison in which consumers compare an evaluation of themselves against a given media image. Late teen to middle-aged women who place an emphasis on being hip and trendy may be drawn, in particular, to Emma Hansen and the “wholesome, west-coast, bubbly attitude” that Kersh conveys. In this case, when a consumer compares some aspect of herself to an ideal, she engages in a process of impression management in which she strategically chooses clothing and other products that will reconcile her ideal and actual self. 2. Why does the fashion industry play such an important role in actual and ideal selves? Is this a positive aspect of the industry? Answer: As noted in Question 1, the fashion industry often uses clothing and other products to help consumers become more like their ideal selves – how they would like to be – rather than their actual selves – a more realistic appraisal of the qualities they do or do not have. This ideal self is partly shaped by elements of the consumer’s culture and can lead to impression management. As a result, the fashion industry can play an important role in self-monitoring. In particular, high self-monitors are likely to evaluate products in terms of the impressions that they make on others and develop a fixation on physical appearance. Although this could be perceived as a negative consequence of the fashion industry, the fashion industry can also play a more positive role in providing “props” that reinforce our identities in new and unfamiliar situations. Furthermore, according to symbolic self-completion theory, products such as clothing may help define the self especially when an identity role is yet to be adequately formed. This is not to diminish the potentially negative impact that the fashion industry can have on self-concept, and in particular, body image, only to outline how products can be used as a social crutch in times of uncertainty. 3. Why does the choice of Emma Hansen as the face of the brand mean so much? How do feature models influence the self-concept of a consumer? Answer: Although many Canadian women believe that qualities such as a positive attitude, being nice to others and a high self-esteem are what really make someone attractive, many cultures develop a beauty bias. In fact, preferences for some physical features over others are “wired in” genetically. However, an ideal of beauty often corresponds to cultural values and varies around the world. In B.C., the Western ideal of beauty often prevails. Emma Hansen’s big round eyes, tiny waist and athletic figure can play a role in reinforcing not only Kersh’s brand position, but also a Western ideal of beauty. Her features play a role in influencing the self-concept of consumers, planting in them the desire to conform to current standards of beauty. Because many consumers are motivated to match up to some appearance ideal, they often go to great lengths to change aspects of their physical selves and reinforce the importance of their physical self-concept. 4. As International Fashions looks to build brands in younger markets – do they need to give consideration to the type of models and imagery they attach to these new brands? Why? Answer: Despite a universal emphasis on self-image, the model of ideal beauty is starting to shift, especially in the West. Dove’s well-known Campaign for Real Beauty is one example of advertising that features women with “imperfect bodies” in a positive light. This lack of emphasis on an ideal physical appearance is especially impactful among children and young teens. Doll makers, for example, are responding to parent’s desire for more down-to-earth figures. Emme, a full-figure fashion doll, based on the voluptuous supermodel of the same name, has attained market acceptance. In this regard, if International Fashions is going to be successful in building brands in younger markets, it must consider the type of models and imagery they attach to the new brand. So the answer to the base question here is - YES. The desire to be thin has had a significant and negative impact on consumers’ lifestyles and no one has been more attuned to this than the parents of young children. What was once a focus on an unnatural ideal of thinness has now shifted towards acceptance of diverse images of beauty. By providing a more diverse group of child models, especially in the Western market, International Fashions may be able to more effectively capitalize on new trends in the younger market. FIELD PROJECT IDEAS Individual Assignments 1. Ask students to bring to class two brands within the same product category that project different images to the consumer. Have students discuss the projected images that are being projected by comparing and contrasting the two different brands. What techniques did the marketer use to project these images? Is the self-concept of the buyer important? Answer: Brand Comparison: Students present two brands from the same category, comparing their projected images. Discuss techniques like color schemes, celebrity endorsements, and messaging. Assess how self-concept aligns with these brand images and its influence on consumer choice. 2 Have students develop a set of scales to measure consumers' self-images and the image they have of a car, such as the Honda Accord. Students should administer the scales to 5 people who drive the selected car. Do the images appear to be compatible? Ask students to look through a number of magazines to find at least three examples of promotions that appear to be using Freudian concepts. Then have them explain the specific concepts to the class noting whether they are effective. Do they like the way the concepts are used? Are there any objections? Answer: Self-Image and Car Image: Develop scales to measure self-image and perceptions of a car like the Honda Accord. Administer these scales to car owners and compare results. Analyze Freudian concepts in ads from magazines, explaining their effectiveness and personal reception. 3. Assign students to collect advertisements that would tell a stranger something about their self-concept (and image). Have them put these ads on a poster board and bring them to class. Display the poster boards in class and see if the class can match the boards to the correct students. Answer: Self-Concept Ads: Students create a poster board of ads reflecting their self-concept. In class, peers match ads to students, exploring how well these ads represent personal identities and consumer self-perceptions. Team Assignments 4. Have students interview four people (one each in their 20's, 30's, 40's, 50's) to determine how important appearance is on the job. Ask students if they feel that an employee's appearance should be considered in performance evaluations. See if their attitudes change when the employee must deal directly with customers. This activity is also interesting when you ask the subjects about the proper appearance in church or at an important social function. Answer: Appearance and Job Importance: Interview individuals across age groups about the importance of appearance at work and in social settings. Discuss if appearance should impact job performance evaluations, especially in customer-facing roles. 5. Bring to class a sample of a personality inventory. (A good example can be found in a book by David Keirsey and Marilyn Bates, Please Understand Me, Prometheus Nemesis Book Company, 1984.) If possible, let the students take some form of the Myers-Briggs or another inventory so they can discover their own personality traits. Use the personality inventory to begin a discussion on the measurement of personality. Answer: Personality Inventory: Use a personality inventory like the Myers-Briggs to assess traits in class. Discuss how these inventories measure personality and reflect on individual traits and their implications for consumer behavior. Individual or Team Assignments 6. Ask students to interview the managers of two retail clothing stores of their choice. See if they can discover the degree to which the managers believe that consumers' personalities and self-images are important to the marketing and promotional activities of their store. Ask students if they are in agreement with the managers. Answer: Retail Manager Interviews: Students interview managers from two retail clothing stores to gauge how much they consider consumers' personalities and self-images in their marketing. Compare these insights with students' opinions on the relevance of these factors. 7. As mentioned in the Real World Applications, research shows that as people incorporate their communities into their "selves," the community tends to be safer. Ask a team of students to drive around in three neighborhoods (poor, average and rich) and observe some of the visible signs of safety or lack of safety. They could make a short videotape of what they observed. Answer: Community Safety Observation: Students drive through and videotape neighborhoods of varying socioeconomic status to observe visible signs of safety or insecurity. Analyze how community integration might influence these perceptions of safety. 8. If it is a holiday season when you cover this chapter, have a team of students drive through a few different neighborhoods to see how many visible signs of the holiday are displayed. Ask them about their observations. Once again, they could videotape what they see and show the video to the class. Answer: Holiday Decorations Survey: During the holiday season, students drive through different neighborhoods to document visible holiday displays. They should report their observations and present a video to the class highlighting variations in holiday enthusiasm. 9. Send students out in pairs to visit a store that they like. Ask students to observe and describe personalities of the sales force. Now send them to visit a store they dislike. Did they notice any difference in the personalities of the sales force? Do they think that poor or unexciting personalities will have an effect on salesmanship? Answer: Sales Force Personality Comparison: Students visit and assess the sales staff at a favored store versus a disliked store. They should compare the personalities and discuss whether staff demeanor affects their sales effectiveness. 10. Have students write an obituary for two products (e.g. Osh-kosh overalls, Calvin Klein purse). The obituary should talk about the individual personality of the products and should show the differences. Answer: Osh-Kosh Overalls: Once a staple in every child's wardrobe, Osh-Kosh Overalls embodied durability and classic Americana charm. Their rugged fabric and timeless design symbolized hard work and playfulness. Though they've faded from popularity, their legacy lives on in the memories of countless childhood adventures. Calvin Klein Purse: Known for its sleek elegance and modern sophistication, the Calvin Klein Purse was a must-have accessory for the fashion-forward. Its minimalist design and high-quality craftsmanship made it a symbol of refined taste. While no longer in vogue, it remains an icon of effortless style. eLAB Individual Assignments 1. Go to www.victoriassecret.com. How does this famous website use enhancement of the self to attract consumers? Would you expect males to visit the site as well as females? How could the site make it easier for males to purchase from the site (remember, males make up a significant portion of sales in the organization’s retail stores)? Is sizing easy on this site? How could it be improved? Answer: Victoria's Secret uses enhancement of the self by showcasing aspirational images that promote confidence and beauty. While the site primarily targets females, males could also visit, particularly for gifts. To make it more male-friendly, the site could include a dedicated section for men’s gift ideas and easy navigation. Sizing could be improved with a more intuitive size guide and fit recommendations. 2. Go to www.tattoo.com. Need a tattoo? Ever thought about getting one? Well, this website just might get you started in that direction. After reviewing the site, what are your impressions about tattooing? How is a self-concept involved in this process? What might cause you to get a tattoo if you don’t already have one? Pretend that you are going to get a tattoo – which one of the designs would you choose? Download it (or copy it). Bring it to class; show your choice; explain why it is really “you.” Answer: Tattoo.com introduces the world of tattooing with various designs and artist portfolios, emphasizing personal expression and identity. Self-concept plays a key role, as tattoos often reflect personal beliefs or milestones. If I were to get a tattoo, I’d choose a design that represents a meaningful aspect of my life. (Note: Provide the chosen design and explanation in class.) 3. Go to www.dailymakeover.com. Take the free demo. Upload a picture of yourself, perform a makeover that you feel genuinely suits you. Print a copy of the picture and bring it in to share with others who do the same. Evaluate the results in the context of the self-concept. Answer: Daily Makeover allows users to visualize different looks, aiding self-concept by enabling experimentation with appearance. After trying a makeover, the results highlight how personal style and self-image align. Sharing and discussing the makeover can offer insights into how external changes affect self-perception. eLAB Team Assignments 1. Go to www.bodypiercing.com. This interesting site presents a wealth of information about body piercing. What marketing efforts are used to attract potential users? What other products were advertised? What intrigued you the most about the website? What can you tell about the demographics of the visitors to this website? How did you determine this? Did the website interest you in getting “pierced”? Explain. How did your group react to the information on the site? As a group, visit several social networking sites. How are members at various sites expressing themselves? What kinds of information are they providing? What does that tell the reader about them? Are there differences between the various sites’ members and their expressions? Answer: BodyPiercing.com uses visually striking images and detailed descriptions to attract users interested in body piercing. The site promotes various piercing types, jewelry, and aftercare products. The most intriguing aspect was the variety of piercing styles and customization options. Demographically, the site likely attracts a younger, fashion-conscious audience, as evidenced by the modern design and trend-focused content. The site did not personally interest me in getting pierced, but my group found the information both educational and engaging. When exploring social networking sites, we observed members expressing themselves through profiles, posts, and shared media. Sites like Instagram and TikTok often showcase personal aesthetics and hobbies, while LinkedIn focuses on professional achievements. These expressions reveal users' interests and identities, with variations in tone and content reflecting the different purposes of each platform. PROFESSORS ON THE GO! Chapter Objectives
When students finish this chapter they should understand why: •The self-concept strongly influences consumer behaviour Ask students to bring to class two brands within the same product category that project different images to the consumer. Have students discuss the projected images by comparing and contrasting the two different brands. What techniques did the marketer use to project these images? Is the self-concept of the buyer important? Explain. •How marketing communications can influence consumer self-esteem Ask students to interview the managers of two retail clothing stores. See if they can discover the degree to which the managers believe that consumers’ personalities and self-images are important to the marketing and promotional activities of their store. Ask students if they are in agreement with the managers’ comments. •Products open play a pivotal role in defining the self-concept Send students out in pairs to visit a store that they feel reflects their self-concept. Ask students to observe and describe personalities of the sales force. Now send them to visit a store they feel does not reflect their self-concept (if the two students feel their self-concepts differ, each of them may choose a store that reflects their own self-concept and that may serve as the store that does not reflect the self-concept of the other). Did they notice any difference in the personalities of the sales force? Do they think that poor or unexciting personalities will have an effect on salesmanship? Assign students to collect advertisements that would tell a stranger something about their self-concept (and image). Have them put these ads on a poster board and bring them to class. Display the poster boards in class and see if the class can match the boards to the correct students. •Society’s expectations of masculinity and femininity help to determine the products we buy to meet these expectations Have students find media examples of men exhibiting agentic as well as communal goals. Have them do the same for women. How much did they find that each gender tended to adhere to the societal expectation? Ask students to compile a list of ten household chores. Then have each student interview two married couples (one newlywed and the other seasoned) to determine who usually performs that chore—the husband or the wife. If possible have students ask the subject when their spouse is not around. Do they agree? Have students share their findings with the class. Have student groups devise a list of traditional male traits with respect to personal care and hygiene. Then have them visit the cosmetics section of a major department store and interview salespeople with respect to the nature of their male customers. What are they buying, and how are they using it? Then have the groups compare their interview findings with their list of traditional characteristics. •The way we think about our bodies (and the way our culture tells us we should think about them) is a key component of self-esteem Have students find a good example of identity marketing in the media. Have the students share their examples during a discussion of such in class. Which ones do students see as being the greatest and most permanent modification to the consumer’s life? •Our desire to live up to cultural expectations of appearance can be harmful Have a male student and a female student interview separately three women and three men whom they think are just about the right weight for their height and bone structure. The students should ask the respondents if they think of themselves as overweight, underweight, or about right. Then, see if they can determine how the subjects reached their conclusions. And, ask the subjects if they are doing anything to keep their weight under control. Have they, or have others they know, ever taken harmful measures as a result? •Every culture dictates certain types of body decoration and/or mutilation that helps to identify its members Assign students to collect five ads that show male or female models exhibiting tattoos or body piercing (they may want to consult tattoo-related magazines or they may print ads from the Internet). Comment on the reason for the display. Did the model match the product be sold? Do people who do not have tattoos or body piercing relate well to the ad? How could you determine this? ENDNOTES I Roy F. Baumeister, Dianne M. Tice and Debra G. Hutton, "Self-Presentational Motivations and Personality Differences in Self-Esteem," Journal of Personality 57 (September 1989): 547-75. ii S. Duval and R.A. Wicklund. A Theory of Objective Self-Awareness (New York, Academic Press, 1972); Charles S. Carver and Michael F. Schleler, Attention and Self-Regulation: A Control-Theory Approach to Human Behaviour (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981); M. Joseph Sirgy, "Self-Cybernetic: Toward an Integrated Model of Self-Concept Processes." Systems Research 7 (1990): 1:19-32; iii Daniel M. Ogilvie, "The Undesired Self: A Neglected Variable in Personality Research," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52 (1987) 2: 379-85. iv M. Joseph Sirgy, "Self-Concept in Consumer Behaviour: A Critical Review," Journal of Consumer Research 9 (December 1982): 287-300. v George E. Belch and E. Laird Landon, Jr., "Discriminant Validity of a Product-Anchored Self-Concept Measure," Journal of Marketing Research 24 (May 1977): 252-56. vi Julian J. Edney, "Property, Possession and Performance: A Field Study of Human Territoriality," Journal or Applied Social Psychology 2 (1972) 3: 275-82; Barbara B. Brown and Carol M. Werner "Social Cohesiveness, Territoriality, and Holiday Decorations: The Influence of Cul-de-Sacs," Environment and Behaviour 17 (September 1985): 539-65. vii Lawrence H. Wortzel and John M. Frisbie, "Women's Role Portrayal Preferences in Advertisements: An Empirical Study," Journal of Marketing 38 (October 1974); 41-46. viii Fiona Harvey, “Still selling women short,” Financial Times, March 23, 2004: 11. ix Mark Landler, “Guys pan a car built by women, for women,” International Herald Tribune, March 6-7, 2004: 1, 4. x Jim Rendon, “Marketers plan a makeover for men,” International Herald Tribune, March 29, 2004: 1, 4. xi Donald A. Williamson, C. J. Davis, Anthony J. Goreczny, and David C. Blovin, "Body-Image Disturbances in Bulimia Nervosa: Influences of Actual Body Size," Journal of Abnormal Psychology 98 (1989) 1: 97-99; Mariette Brouwers, "Depressive Thought Content Among Female College Students with Bulimia," Journal of Counseling and Development 66 (May 1988): 425-8. Solution Manual for Consumer Behaviour: Buying, Having, Being Michael R. Solomon, Katherine White, Darren W. Dahl 9780133958096