This Document Contains Chapters 14 to 15 Chapter 14 – The Arts MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Whether beneficial or unbeneficial, all art is an expression of A. the innate need to be playful and engage in manual arts. B. a fundamental human capacity for symbolic and religious expression. C. state-level societies that can afford specialists. D. political domination of minorities by elites. E. the symbolic representation of form and the expression of creative imagination. Answer: E 2. When ideas are promoted by artful means and dramatically staged to challenge opinions, it is called A. staged art. B. culinary art. C. domestic art. D. performance art. E. narrative art. Answer: D 3. All peoples engage in artistic behavior as they use their imagination creatively to interpret, understand, and even enjoy life. The archaeological record suggests that humans have produced art for how many years? A. 250,000 B. 150,000 C. 80,000 D. 40,000 E. 10,000 Answer: D 4. The observation that all cultures include activities that provide aesthetic pleasure suggests all of the following except: A. humans may have an innate or acquired need to produce art. B. the human mind requires the stimulation of imaginative play, and art is a basic expression. C. all societies, from food-foraging bands to industrial states, include art in their culture. D. art is a necessary activity in which all normal, active members of society participate. E. art is a very specialized activity that likely led to the creation of distinct classes in society. Answer: E 5. All of the following are approaches that anthropologists bring to the study of art except: A. narrative approach. B. interpretive approach. C. aesthetic approach. D. cataloguing and description of art. E. assessing the economic value. Answer: E 6. Weavings, etchings, rock carvings, and tattoos are all classified as which kind of art? A. Visual B. Verbal C. Musical D. Performative E. Transformative Answer: A 7. If the animal figures on a Haida totem are highly stylized and represent only the most basic forms of animals, then the totem would be considered as A. representational. B. abstract. C. narrative. D. symbolic. E. performative. Answer: B 8. What interesting cultural substitution is in the Marcos Zapata painting of The Last Supper (ca. 1710-1773)? A. Instead of wine, the disciples are drinking beer B. The men are dressed in ponchos and wearing Andean hats C. Instead of sitting at a table, they are eating on the floor D. Instead of eating sheep, they are eating guinea pig E. Jesus is an Andean woman instead of a Jewish man Answer: D 9. Tattoos communicate through all of the following except: A. manner of execution. B. verbal words. C. style. D. sign-to-meaning correspondence. E. color. Answer: B 10. Tattoos are universal forms of body art that may initially date as far back as how many years ago? A. 10,000-40,000 B. 40,000-75,000 C. 5,000-10,000 D. 60,000-70,000 E. 10,000-12,000 Answer: A 11. All of the following statements about tattoos are correct except: A. tattoos are transformed into fine art through redefinition and framing based on formal and ideological qualities. B. tattoos were first brought to the U.S. by British Captain John Smith from the Pacific. C. tattoos can function as a mark of affiliation and identity for the bearer. D. there are class distinctions in tattoos and tattoo art. E. tattoos have long been one of the simplest ways of identifying the human as a social being. Answer: B 12. The Bushmen use many natural minerals and materials for their rock art. Which of the following is not a commonly used material? A. Bicarbonate B. Gypsum C. Ferric oxide D. Blood E. Silica Answer: A 13. Which of the following is not a common depiction of Bushmen rock art? A. Hunting scenes B. Women C. Drums D. Trance dancers E. Fly whisks Answer: C 14. During the first stage of trance, A. the shamans dance and invite others to participate. B. individuals experience iconic images and feel as if they are one with the deity. C. the individual does not initially experience an altered state. D. the nervous system generates patterns of dots, zigzags, curves, and lines. E. the individual begins to make sense of abstract forms based on cultural knowledge. Answer: D 15. Peyote art is a traditional form among the A. Cheyenne. B. Hurok. C. Huichol. D. Chumash. E. Comanche. Answer: C 16. Peyote buttons contain a psychotropic substance identified as a(n) A. acid base inhibitor. B. acid. C. alkaloid. D. barbiturate. E. phosphate. Answer: C 17. The interpretive approach to rock art among the Bushmen and all over southern Africa indicates a significant influence of A. hierarchical classes. B. egalitarianism. C. shamanism. D. hunting and gathering. E. spiritual lineage. Answer: C 18. Anthropologists prefer to use the term verbal arts rather than the term folklore because A. the term folklore is used only by linguists; the term verbal arts is used only by anthropologists. B. the term verbal arts sounds more sophisticated. C. the term verbal arts is more scientific. D. the term folklore implies lack of sophistication, and is a condescending term to use. E. the term folklore refers only to fairy tales. Answer: D 19. Legends, rhymes, jokes, chants, and dramas are all examples of which kind of art? A. Narrative B. Dramatic C. Visual D. Performative E. Verbal Answer: E 20. The narratives that make up the verbal arts include all of the following except: A. paintings. B. legends. C. myths. D. tales. E. epics. Answer: A 21. In the myth of Tabaldak and Odziozo, Tabaldak first created the Abenakis from stone, and then from living wood. What does this tell us about the functions of myths? A. Myths function to tell actual history; the Abenakis believe that they were originally made of wood. B. Myths bring humor into the lives of the Abenakis because they are so ridiculous. C. Myths function primarily to provide entertainment; the Abenakis know they were not made from wood, but like to tell this story to visiting anthropologists who are so gullible. D. Myths function to express a culture’s worldview; the Abenakis see themselves as belonging to the world of living things rather than to the nonliving world of stone. E. Myths provide knowledge of woodworking and stonemasonry to the Abenakis. Answer: D 22. In a literate society, the function of legends has been largely taken over by A. psychology. B. anthropology. C. sociology. D. history. E. political science. Answer: D 23. Semi-historical narratives that account for the deeds of heroes, the movements of peoples, and the establishment of local customs are called A. myths. B. legends. C. epics. D. tales. E. dramas. Answer: B 24. Which of the following is typically found in preliterate societies with a form of state political organization, serving to transmit and preserve a culture’s legal and political precedents and practices? A. Epics B. Legends C. Myths D. Tales E. Sagas Answer: A 25. Most of the situation comedies, soap operas, and adventure series shown on television are non-religious, non-historical, and appreciated primarily as a source of entertainment. Thus they may be classified as what kind of verbal arts? A. Dramas B. Legends C. Myths D. Epics E. Tales Answer: E 26. Your text describes a type of narrative found in many cultures in which a peasant father and his son, while traveling with their beast of burden, meet a number of people who criticize them. What is the motif? A. The “motif” refers to the psychological motives of the characters in a story, in this case, the desire of the son to do better than his father. B. The “motif” is meant to be the historical background to the story, in this case, the history of exploitation of the peasantry. C. The “motif” refers to the story situation, in this case, a father and son trying to please everyone. D. The “motif” is meant to be the physical environment in which the story occurs, in this case, the yam gardens of Ghana. E. The “motif” refers to the economic background, in this case, feudalism. Answer: C 27. Americans are familiar with the story of Cinderella. Similar stories may be found throughout the world: a poor, beautiful girl, downtrodden by her stepmother, receives supernatural aid to win the hand of a noble prince who is searching for a bride. Although the circumstances differ (the girl may be a rural peasant or a servant in a great house, the supernatural helper may be a fairy godmother or a goldfish, the prince may belong to European feudalism or the Aztec empire), all the stories exhibit the same basic A. motif. B. tonality. C. legend. D. mythological structure. E. epic. Answer: A 28. The “little songs” of the Bedouin are an outlet for taboo thoughts because they A. are heroic poems. B. are elaborately structured and used on ceremonial occasions. C. are sung by men only. D. express ideas and feelings that go against the moral system. E. are sung by older women only. Answer: D 29. Rarely has a culture been reported to lack any kind of music. Bone flutes and whistles have been found by archaeologists that date back approximately how many years ago? A. 10,000 B. 33,000 C. 42,000 D. 57,000 E. 100,000 Answer: C 30. The study of music in its cultural setting is called A. ethnohistory. B. ethnomusicology. C. ethnography. D. folklore. E. verbal arts. Answer: B 31. Which musical system divides the octave into five nearly equidistant tones? A. Octave B. Pentatonic C. Natural D. Tonal E. Formless Answer: B 32. Two people playing different patterns of beats at the same time is called A. syncopation. B. irregular repetition. C. polyrhythm. D. pentatonality. E. tone color. Answer: C 33. In Western music, the distance between the basic tone and the first overtone is called a(n) A. tone. B. pentatone. C. octave. D. scale. E. pentatonic scale. Answer: C 34. All of the following are functions of art except: A. art is a tremendous asset for the few societies that have it. B. art can be used to change people’s perceptions. C. art is employed to express political themes. D. art displays social status and spiritual identity. E. art offers insights into a culture’s worldview. Answer: A 35. Master Ghanaian carpenter Paa Joe is most known for A. temple altars. B. coffins. C. statues. D. wooden utensils. E. axes and other tools. Answer: B 36. During the Washington Peace March in the ’60s, thousands of people sang the song, “We Shall Overcome.” This song expressed a feeling of common purpose to counteract repression and reform society. It created a sense of unity among the diverse members of the crowd. This example illustrates which of the following functions of music? A. Geographical distribution B. Polyrhythms and scale C. Mythological features D. Social functions E. Economic functions Answer: D 37. Which Native American group did Jennifer Neptune study and assist? A. Navajo B. Gros Ventre C. Assiniboine D. Penobscot E. Cherokee Answer: D 38. Jennifer Neptune was asked by a Native American elder to make a reproduction of a clothes item from the late 18th century seen in a photograph of material artifacts from his tribe. This work allowed the current tribal members to appreciate the rich cultural past of their own tribe. What was this item that she reproduced? A. Pants (leggings) B. Hat C. Skirt D. Collar E. Waistcoat Answer: D 39. Among Australian aborigines, the ancestors’ tracks on the earth are known in song as A. dreamlines. B. songlines. C. little songs. D. journey songs. E. echoes. Answer: B 40. Maori rugby teams play a haka before each match. What is this? A. Traditional war dance and song B. The national anthem of New Zealand C. A dice game using bones D. Scrimmage with other players E. A traditional waltz between men Answer: A TRUE/FALSE 1. Art is universal to human societies. Answer: True 2. Originally, the objects from the tomb of Tut-ankh-amen were made for public display. Answer: False 3. Some form of visual art is a part of every historically known human culture. Answer: True 4. An art form that has developed recently is tattooing. It involves the puncturing and coloring of human skin with symbolic designs. Answer: False 5. The interpretative approach can be used to better understand the meaning of rock paintings in southern Africa. Answer: True 6. In the process of construal, the brain tries to make sense of entopic images. Answer: True 7. The interpretive approach indicates that shamanism has played a significant historical role in the rock art throughout eastern and northern Africa. Answer: False 8. Huichol Indians use the roots of the Chama cactus for their trances. Answer: False 9. The word “folklore” is used today to distinguish between folk art and fine art. Answer: False 10. The word “myth,” as used by anthropologists, means something that is widely believed to be true but probably is not. Answer: False 11. To some extent, in literate societies, the function of legends has been taken over by history. Answer: True 12. The significance of tales to anthropologists is partly in their distribution across cultures. Answer: True 13. In all cultures, the words of songs constitute a type of poetry. Answer: True 14. Ethnomusicology began in the early 20th century. Answer: False 15. Zale Seck is a West African artist from Senegal whose paintings express political and social themes significant in our contemporary global world. Answer: False 16. The “coffin plane” now in the Smithsonian Museum in Washington, D.C., made only one independent flight before being stored as an art form. Answer: False 17. Music plays an important role in cultural preservation. Answer: True 18. Jennifer Neptune worked with the Penobscot Indians to recover an earlier type of hunting tool tradition. Answer: False 19. Oral tradition helps Aborigines claim extensive indigenous land ownership. Answer: True 20. Art often plays a role in indigenous rights efforts. Answer: True SHORT ANSWER 1. What is art? Answer: Art encompasses creative expression that communicates ideas, emotions, or aesthetics through various media such as visual arts, music, literature, and performance. 2. What different approaches do anthropologists use in order to study art? Answer: Anthropologists study art through cultural interpretation, examining its social functions, symbolic meanings, cultural contexts, and the role of artists within societies. 3. What types of symbolic expression are used in visual art? Name and discuss two types, and give examples of each. Answer: • Iconography: Symbols or images that represent specific meanings or concepts within a culture. Example: Christian art depicting the cross as a symbol of faith. • Stylization: Abstract or exaggerated forms that convey cultural ideas or emotions. Example: African masks that stylize human features to represent ancestral spirits. 4. Why have the basic working-class American tattoo designs (such as “Mother” or “Donna” inscribed alongside a heart), been relegated to the bottom rung of today’s tattoo hierarchy? Answer: Basic tattoo designs like "Mother" or "Donna" inscribed alongside a heart have been perceived as cliché or unoriginal in contemporary tattoo culture. They are often associated with traditional or amateur tattooing styles, contrasting with modern tattoo trends that emphasize artistic innovation, intricate designs, and personalized symbolism. 5. What does it mean to say that “tattoos are read” for meaning? Answer: "Tattoos are read" refers to the practice of interpreting tattoos as symbols that convey personal, cultural, or social meanings. Each tattoo can carry symbolic significance related to identity, beliefs, affiliations, or life experiences, and these meanings are decoded or interpreted by others based on cultural norms and personal associations. 6. What effects has shamanism had on rock art throughout southern Africa? Answer: Shamanism has influenced rock art in southern Africa by depicting spiritual journeys, trance experiences, and symbolic representations of shamanic practices. These artworks often feature trance-induced visions, spirit animals, healing rituals, and connections to the spirit world, reflecting shamanic beliefs and practices among indigenous communities. 7. What are the three stages of trance? Explain each. Answer: • Induction: The initial phase where a trance state is induced through rhythmic dancing, chanting, or sensory deprivation. • Crisis: The climax of trance where the individual experiences altered states of consciousness, visions, or spiritual encounters. • Return: The final stage where the individual returns to normal consciousness, often with insights, healing, or renewed spiritual strength. 8. Distinguish between the entoptic phenomena and the iconic images of trance. Answer: • Entoptic Phenomena: Visual experiences perceived within the eye itself, such as geometric patterns, dots, or lines, often seen during trance states induced by rhythmic stimulation or sensory deprivation. • Iconic Images: Symbolic representations or visions experienced during trance, including depictions of spirit beings, ancestral figures, or mythical creatures, which convey spiritual insights or messages. 9. What is peyote art, and where is it found? Answer: Peyote art refers to artistic expressions inspired by the ceremonial use of peyote, a hallucinogenic cactus, among Native American tribes in the southwestern United States and Mexico. It includes intricate beadwork, paintings, and sculptures that reflect spiritual visions, cosmological beliefs, and cultural heritage associated with peyote ceremonies. 10. What are the major types of verbal arts studied by anthropologists? Answer: Major types of verbal arts studied by anthropologists include: • Oral Literature: Folktales, myths, legends, and epic narratives passed down orally within cultures. • Ritual Speech: Verbal performances during rituals, ceremonies, or rites of passage. • Poetry and Song: Traditional songs, chants, and poetic forms that express cultural values, history, or emotions. 11. Distinguish the anthropological use of the term “myth” from its popular meaning. Answer: In anthropology, "myth" refers to sacred narratives or stories that explain fundamental beliefs, practices, and origins within a culture. These narratives often involve supernatural beings, creation stories, or heroic deeds and are integral to religious or spiritual traditions. In popular usage, "myth" can refer to falsehoods or misconceptions, whereas in anthropology, it denotes culturally significant narratives that encode and transmit cultural knowledge and values. 12. What is a motif? Explain this by giving an example. Answer: A motif is a recurring thematic element, symbol, or pattern in literature, art, or culture that carries symbolic meaning. For example, in art, the motif of the lotus flower often symbolizes purity and enlightenment in Buddhist iconography. Similarly, in literature, the motif of the hero's journey recurs across cultures, symbolizing personal growth and transformation. 13. Why are anthropologists interested in the distribution of tales? What does this reveal? Answer: Anthropologists study the distribution of tales across cultures to trace cultural diffusion, migration patterns, and shared cultural heritage. This reveals connections between societies, influences on storytelling traditions, and the preservation of cultural values and identity through narrative transmission. 14. As one organizing factor in music, whether regular of irregular, rhythm may be more important than tonality. Explain why this is so. Answer: Rhythm in music provides a foundational structure that organizes musical patterns, coordinates group performances, and engages listeners physically and emotionally. It dictates tempo, syncopation, and meter, driving musical dynamics and creating cohesion even in the absence of tonal harmony. Rhythm's universality across cultures underscores its primal appeal and its role in facilitating social bonding and expressive communication through music. 15. Why is art important to human society? Name and discuss at least four functions of art. Answer: • Expression: Art allows individuals and cultures to express emotions, beliefs, and experiences creatively, fostering personal and collective identity. • Communication: Art communicates complex ideas, narratives, and cultural values visually and symbolically, transcending language barriers. • Cultural Preservation: Art preserves cultural heritage, traditions, and historical narratives, ensuring continuity and identity across generations. • Social Cohesion: Art promotes social cohesion by fostering shared experiences, rituals, and aesthetic appreciation within communities, reinforcing bonds and collective identities. 16. Give an illustration of the social function of music. Answer: Music serves as a social bond in various contexts, such as communal rituals, celebrations, and everyday interactions. For example, traditional folk music performed during religious ceremonies not only invokes spiritual connections but also unites participants in shared cultural practices and reinforces community solidarity. In contemporary settings, music concerts and festivals bring diverse groups together, fostering a sense of belonging, collective enjoyment, and cultural exchange among participants. 17. What is ethnomusicology? Answer: Ethnomusicology is the study of music in its cultural context, focusing on how music is created, performed, experienced, and understood within societies and across cultures. It examines the role of music in social life, cultural identity, rituals, beliefs, and communication. 18. Briefly explain the social and cultural significance of the bagpipes as a musical art form that creates identity. Answer: The bagpipes hold significant social and cultural importance, particularly in Scottish and Celtic cultures. They symbolize heritage, national identity, and cultural pride, often played at ceremonial events such as weddings, funerals, and military processions. The distinctive sound and visual appearance of bagpipes evoke emotional responses and reinforce cultural continuity among Scottish and Celtic communities worldwide. 19. How have the Australian aborigines used art to preserve their culture? Answer: Australian Aboriginal art, including rock paintings, bark paintings, and contemporary art forms, serves as a means of preserving cultural heritage and transmitting ancestral knowledge. Artistic depictions of Dreamtime stories, sacred sites, and ancestral beings communicate spiritual beliefs, land ownership, and social structures across generations. By creating and maintaining art, Aboriginal communities assert cultural identity, resist colonization, and promote cultural revitalization. 20. What is the haka, and how is it used? Answer: The haka is a traditional Maori dance from New Zealand, characterized by vigorous movements, rhythmic chanting, and gestures. It serves multiple cultural purposes: • War Dance: Historically performed by Maori warriors to intimidate opponents and psych up before battle. • Ceremonial Dance: Used in cultural ceremonies, such as welcoming guests, honoring dignitaries, or celebrating significant events like weddings and funerals. • Expression of Identity: The haka expresses Maori identity, pride, and unity, reinforcing cultural heritage and ancestral connections within Maori communities and on global stages, such as sports events like rugby. ESSAY 1. Why is art important to human society? Answer: Art holds significant importance in human society for several reasons: • Expression: Art allows individuals and cultures to express emotions, beliefs, and experiences creatively. • Communication: Art communicates complex ideas, narratives, and cultural values visually and symbolically, transcending language barriers. • Cultural Identity: Art preserves cultural heritage, traditions, and historical narratives, ensuring continuity and identity across generations. • Social Cohesion: Art promotes social cohesion by fostering shared experiences, rituals, and aesthetic appreciation within communities, reinforcing bonds and collective identities. • Innovation and Critique: Art challenges norms, stimulates critical thinking, and fosters innovation in social, political, and cultural spheres. 2. Many famous biographies or novels about artists in the West stress the individual creativity of the artist (for example, James Joyce’s Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man). Artists are portrayed as people who have the vision to rise above and beyond the social and cultural conditions into which they were born, sometimes even crossing the boundaries of normality as typically defined by society. How is this vision different from the concept of the artist held by many non-Western societies? Answer: In many non-Western societies, the concept of the artist often emphasizes communal creativity rather than individualistic innovation. Artists may be seen as conduits of cultural tradition, preserving and transmitting collective knowledge and values through their craft. Their role is deeply intertwined with community rituals, spiritual practices, and social cohesion, rather than as solitary geniuses challenging societal norms. Artistic expression in non-Western cultures often serves communal purposes, reinforcing cultural identity, maintaining social harmony, and embodying spiritual beliefs. 3. Laura Bohannan, in a classic essay called “Shakespeare in the Bush,” describes the problems she had in conveying an appreciation of Hamlet to the Tiv of Nigeria. She eventually realized that, far from being universalistic and transcendent, even great art is to some extent culture-bound. Is there any possibility of coming up with aesthetic standards that are applicable cross-culturally? Would some works of art be recognizable as better than others to people outside of their cultures of origin? Answer: While aesthetic standards are influenced by cultural contexts, some aspects of art, such as craftsmanship, emotional resonance, and aesthetic appeal, can be appreciated cross-culturally. However, the interpretation and appreciation of art often depend on cultural frameworks, values, and experiences unique to each society. Some works of art may indeed be recognized as exceptional or powerful across different cultures due to their universal themes, artistic skill, or emotional impact. Yet, the criteria for judging art's quality and significance can vary widely, reflecting diverse cultural perspectives on beauty, meaning, and artistic merit. 4. Art and religion are often intertwined, sometimes identical. Give some examples of how spiritual and artistic enterprises are related, and discuss the issues involved in understanding and explaining them. Answer: Art and religion intersect in numerous ways, reflecting shared concerns with meaning, transcendence, and the human experience: • Sacred Art: Religious traditions produce art that serves spiritual purposes, such as religious icons, temple sculptures, or ritual objects, which embody divine presence and facilitate worship. • Ritual Performance: Ceremonial music, dance, and visual arts play integral roles in religious rituals, invoking spiritual states, commemorating sacred events, and fostering communal bonds. • Symbolism and Mythology: Artistic expressions often convey religious symbols, myths, and narratives, conveying spiritual truths, moral teachings, and cosmological beliefs within cultural contexts. • Art as Devotion: Artists may create works as acts of devotion or spiritual practice, reflecting personal faith, religious doctrines, or mystical experiences. Understanding the relationship between art and religion involves navigating complex cultural, symbolic, and philosophical dimensions, considering how artistic expressions shape and are shaped by religious beliefs, practices, and societal norms. 5. Art in all its forms has countless functions beyond providing aesthetic pleasure. Discuss some of the functions of art. Answer: Art serves numerous functions beyond aesthetic pleasure: • Expression of Identity: Art allows individuals and communities to express their cultural, social, and personal identities. • Communication: It serves as a medium for conveying ideas, emotions, and narratives across time and space. • Social Commentary: Art can critique societal norms, politics, and issues, prompting reflection and change. • Healing and Therapy: It can facilitate emotional healing, provide catharsis, and support mental well-being. • Education and Preservation: Art preserves cultural heritage, traditions, and historical events, educating future generations. 6. Art can and does play a role in indigenous rights efforts. Explain art’s role in indigenous people’s efforts to gain their rights. Answer: Art plays a crucial role in indigenous rights efforts by: • Preserving Cultural Heritage: Indigenous art embodies traditional knowledge, practices, and spiritual beliefs, reinforcing cultural identity. • Advocacy and Awareness: It raises awareness about indigenous issues, challenges stereotypes, and asserts political and cultural rights. • Empowerment: Art serves as a tool for self-representation, reclaiming narratives, and resisting cultural assimilation and exploitation. 7. Explain how class and status have come to define the once working-class art form of tattooing. Answer: Class and status have redefined tattooing from a once working-class art form to one embraced by diverse socio-economic groups: • Social Mobility: Tattooing has shifted from a marker of working-class identity to a mainstream symbol of personal expression and aesthetic preference. • Cultural Appropriation: As tattooing gained popularity, its cultural significance evolved, reflecting broader societal trends and values beyond its historical associations. 8. Anthropological interest in art goes beyond the appreciation of beauty in its many various forms. Explain why anthropologists are interested in art and how that interest has contributed to the understanding of cultures. Give two specific examples to illustrate your points. Answer: Anthropologists are interested in art because it: • Reveals Cultural Values: Artifacts and artistic practices provide insights into societal norms, beliefs, and values. • Expresses Social Dynamics: Art reflects power dynamics, social hierarchies, and intergroup relations within communities. Examples: 1. Chauvet Cave Paintings: Studied by anthropologists, these prehistoric artworks offer insights into early human cognition, spiritual beliefs, and social structures. 2. Masks in African Cultures: Anthropologists have analyzed masks used in rituals and ceremonies across African cultures, revealing complex symbolic meanings, community roles, and spiritual practices. These examples illustrate how art serves as a profound cultural and social indicator, enhancing anthropological understanding of diverse societies. 9. Anthropological interest in tales centers in part on the fact that their distribution provides evidence of cultural contacts or cultural isolation. Using examples from your text, as well as some of your own, explain. Answer: Tales, including myths, legends, and folktales, serve as cultural markers that reveal patterns of contact and isolation among societies. For instance, the spread of Cinderella stories across various cultures—from European versions to Chinese and Native American variants—illustrates cultural diffusion and adaptation through trade, migration, or colonial encounters. Conversely, unique tales like the Hawaiian legend of Pele, the goddess of volcanoes, highlight cultural isolation and the preservation of indigenous beliefs within specific island communities. By analyzing tale distribution, anthropologists trace historical interactions, linguistic influences, and shared mythological motifs that shape cultural identities and relationships across diverse societies. 10. What is the role of symbolism in art? Answer: Symbolism in art serves several essential roles: • Conveying Meaning: Symbols represent abstract ideas, emotions, or concepts that transcend literal representation, allowing artists to communicate complex themes and narratives. • Cultural Expression: Symbols reflect cultural values, beliefs, and traditions, providing visual cues that convey societal norms, rituals, and historical events. • Personal Expression: Artists use symbols to express personal experiences, emotions, and perspectives, imbuing their work with individual meaning and interpretation. • Aesthetic Appeal: Symbols enhance visual appeal and composition, creating visual interest and inviting viewers to engage intellectually and emotionally with the artwork. 11. Provide examples from any part of the world that support the notion that there is a link between art and cultural survival. Answer: Examples of art contributing to cultural survival include: • Maori Carving: Traditional carving and tattooing practices among the Maori of New Zealand preserve ancestral stories, spiritual beliefs, and tribal identities despite colonization. • Navajo Weaving: Navajo rug weaving not only sustains cultural traditions but also provides economic livelihoods, reinforcing Navajo identity and craftsmanship. • Chinese Opera: Peking Opera and other regional operatic forms in China preserve historical narratives, moral teachings, and linguistic traditions, fostering cultural pride and continuity. • Aboriginal Dot Painting: Indigenous Australian artists use dot painting to depict Dreamtime stories, land ownership, and spiritual connections, revitalizing Aboriginal culture and asserting cultural sovereignty. 12. Explain the function of music as a verbal and musical cultural art form. Answer: Music serves multiple cultural functions: • Communication: Music conveys emotions, stories, and cultural knowledge verbally and musically, facilitating social interaction and transmitting oral traditions. • Social Cohesion: Music fosters communal bonding, solidarity, and identity within cultural groups, reinforcing shared values and rituals. • Expression of Identity: Musical genres, instruments, and styles reflect cultural diversity, historical influences, and regional identities, preserving cultural heritage and promoting cultural pride. • Spiritual and Ritualistic Purposes: Music accompanies religious ceremonies, rites of passage, and cultural celebrations, invoking spiritual experiences and reinforcing collective beliefs and practices. 13. What are the functions of art? Name, discuss, and give examples for at least five functions. Be creative as you develop this discussion and think of examples from your own life. Answer: • Expression: Art allows individuals to express emotions, ideas, and experiences creatively. Example: Personal artwork reflecting feelings of joy or sadness. • Communication: Art communicates complex concepts and cultural narratives visually and symbolically. Example: Political cartoons conveying social commentary. • Cultural Preservation: Art preserves cultural heritage, traditions, and historical events. Example: Museums displaying artifacts from ancient civilizations. • Social Commentary: Art critiques social issues, challenges norms, and promotes dialogue. Example: Street art addressing environmental concerns. • Therapeutic Function: Art promotes mental well-being, healing, and self-discovery. Example: Art therapy sessions aiding in emotional expression and recovery. 14. Explain the relationship of art to globalization and cultural survival. Answer: In a globalized world, art plays a dual role in both preserving cultural identity and adapting to new influences: • Cultural Survival: Indigenous art forms, such as traditional music and crafts, resist cultural homogenization and affirm cultural distinctiveness. • Global Influence: Artistic expressions, like contemporary visual art and digital media, transcend geographical boundaries, fostering cross-cultural exchange and hybrid artistic styles. • Cultural Revitalization: Global platforms promote diverse art forms, revitalizing endangered traditions and amplifying marginalized voices. • Challenges: Globalization also poses challenges, such as cultural appropriation and commercialization, impacting authenticity and ownership of artistic traditions. 15. In the United States, numerous examples exist of marginalized social and ethnic groups attempting to gain a larger audience and more compassion for their plight through song. Perhaps no better example exists than African Americans, who were brought to the New World as slaves. Discuss the influence their experience has had on this country’s music. Answer: African American music, rooted in the experiences of slavery, segregation, and resilience, has profoundly shaped American culture: • Blues and Jazz: Emerging from the hardships of slavery and Jim Crow era, blues and jazz express themes of sorrow, resilience, and hope, influencing genres worldwide. • Gospel Music: Rooted in African American religious traditions, gospel music celebrates faith, community, and spiritual empowerment, fostering social solidarity and cultural resilience. • Hip-Hop and Rap: Born from urban African American communities, hip-hop confronts social injustices, racial inequality, and political disenfranchisement, serving as a voice for marginalized youth. • Cultural Legacy: African American musical innovations, from spirituals to rock 'n' roll, have reshaped global music trends, promoting diversity, creativity, and cultural dialogue. Chapter 15 – Processes of Cultural Change MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. All of the following statements about cultural change are correct except: A. all cultures are capable of adapting to changing conditions. B. not all change is positive or adaptive. C. all cultures are equally well equipped for making adjustments in a timely way. D. sometimes the pace of culture change increases dramatically. E. elements of a culture may persist for long periods of time. Answer: C 2. The chance discovery of some new principle that can be applied in a variety of ways is called a(n) A. primary innovation. B. primary syncretism. C. applied anthropology. D. cultural adaptation. E. secondary innovation. Answer: A 3. One of the first and most prominent anthropologists to focus on these worldwide transformations was A. Franz Boas. B. Eric Wolf. C. Laura Nader. D. William Jankowiak. E. John Swetnam. Answer: B 4. Anthropologist Eric Wolf did all of the following except: A. worked tirelessly on behalf of applied anthropology. B. did extensive research on peasants. C. focused intently on promoting ethics in anthropological research. D. studied the transformative impact of capitalism on traditional societies. E. explored how ideas and power are connected through the medium of culture. Answer: A 5. The deliberate use of basic ideas in some practical application, such as making use of the knowledge of how electricity works to develop the telephone, is called a(n) A. diffusion principle. B. primary innovation. C. modernization. D. integrative mechanism. E. secondary innovation. Answer: E 6. According to the North American anthropologist Ralph Linton, about 90% of any culture’s content comes from A. primary innovation. B. diffusion. C. invention. D. syncretism. E. revolution. Answer: B 7. Which of the following statements about diffusion is incorrect? A. Usually, cultures borrow selections that are most compatible with their existing culture. B. The extent of cultural borrowing varies enormously. C. Diffusion occurs consistently over time. D. Cultures often adapt borrowed elements. E. Cultures may undergo rapid change as a result of diffusion. Answer: C 8. In 1493, Christopher Columbus introduced Europe to the American plant A. potatoes. B. wheat. C. coffee. D. maize. E. tobacco. Answer: D 9. Which system was adopted widely as a result of the French military expansion under Napoleon? A. Monarchy B. Democracy C. Metric D. Decimal E. Dewey decimal Answer: C 10. In Biblical times, chariots and carts were widespread in the Middle East, but by the 6th century, the old Roman roads had deteriorated so much that wheeled vehicles were replaced by camels. This illustrates that the processes of change is sometimes due to A. primary innovation. B. secondary innovation. C. diffusion. D. cultural loss. E. revitalization. Answer: D 11. According to Stephen Jay Gould, “Wheels, like wings, fins, and brains, are exquisite devices for certain purposes, not signs of intrinsic superiority.” Which of the following statements about the use of the wheel in the Middle East is correct? A. Wheels were never appropriate vehicles in the Middle East and were never used there; camels have been used as beasts of burden since before Biblical times. B. Wheels have always been used in the Middle East, as they are the most appropriate vehicle for traveling across deserts and were first invented there. C. Wheels were once widespread in the Middle East, but by the 6th century A.D., had been replaced by camels because the Roman roads had deteriorated and the camel was more suitable to the uneven terrain. D. Camels were once widespread throughout the Middle East during Biblical times, but as civilization advanced, were replaced by vehicles that made use of the wheel. E. Wheels were never introduced to the Middle East until the modern era. However, they were the first to use trains and other forms of rapid transportation. Answer: C 12. When two societies with different cultures come into prolonged, first-hand contact, and one or both of these societies experience major processes of change, it is called A. diffusion. B. acculturation. C. innovation. D. syncretism. E. juxtaposition. Answer: B 13. Acculturation differs from other types of processes of change because it always involves an element of A. improvement. B. progress. C. coercion. D. innovation. E. religious change. Answer: C 14. As a result of prolonged first-hand contact between societies A and B, which of the following is least likely to occur? A. The cultures of A and B might fuse, becoming a single culture with elements of both. B. Society A might retain its distinctive culture, but lose its autonomy and come to survive as a subculture, such as a caste or ethnic group. C. Society A might be wiped out by society B, with only a few scattered refugees living as members of the dominant society. D. Societies A and B would each retain their distinctive cultures living side by side in peace, harmony, and prosperity. E. Society B might be entirely destroyed by society A. Answer: D 15. The violent eradication of an ethnic group’s collective cultural identity is called A. genocide. B. ethnocide. C. homicide. D. extinction. E. acculturation. Answer: B 16. Ethnocide is represented by each of the following except: A. systematic killing of men, women, and children among Native American populations during the Anglo-European settling of New England. B. decimation of the Kung population as the result of disease. C. movement of hunting and gathering peoples from their jungle environment to land that they are expected to farm. D. resettlement of groups that were formerly enemies to the same reservation. E. development of new and more devastating weapons as a result of innovation. Answer: E 17. Which of the following statements about the Yanomami is incorrect? A. The Yanomami were repeatedly assaulted by miners and cattle ranchers wanting their natural resources. B. The various invaders into Yanomami territory introduced sexually transmitted diseases and alcoholism. C. Prior to the arrival of missionaries and foreign traders, the Yanomami did not have to deal with cultural change. D. The Brazilian state sent in military units to protect the miners as they torched large swathes of forestland. E. In the late 1960s, a measles epidemic killed hundreds of Yanomami. Answer: C 18. One byproduct of colonial dealings with indigenous peoples has been the growth of _____ and the use of anthropological techniques and knowledge for certain “practical” ends. A. applied anthropology B. ethnography C. ethnology D. quantitative anthropology E. qualitative anthropology Answer: A 19. In acculturation, subordinate groups will often incorporate new cultural elements into their own culture, creating a blend of old and new. A reinterpretation of new cultural elements to fit them with already existing traditions is called A. innovation. B. syncretism. C. assimilation. D. acculturation. E. modernization. Answer: B 20. The British introduced cricket to “civilize” the Trobriand Islanders. What happened? A. The Trobrianders were so upset at losing their traditional customs that they rebelled against the British rulers. B. The Trobrianders gave up competitive sport altogether. C. The Trobrianders accepted the game and played it the way the British played it. D. The Trobrianders changed the game so that it became more like the traditional Trobriand contest involving display of prestige. E. The Trobrianders preferred baseball to cricket. Answer: D 21. What is the adaptation process by which a people resist assimilation by modifying traditional culture in order to preserve their ethnic identity? A. Acculturation B. Syncretism C. Diffusion D. Accommodation E. Modernization Answer: D 22. Traditions play an important role in all aspects of cultural change; however, among those listed below, they are most significant in A. diffusion. B. syncretism. C. accommodation. D. assimilation. E. modernization. Answer: C 23. In the 1960s, the children of many middle- and upper-class families, trying to come to terms with the disparity between the ideologies expressed by their parents (e.g., the importance of peace, equality, and individual freedom) and the reality of war, poverty, and individual constraints, tried to establish a more satisfying way of life. Many ran away from home to live in communes where they tried to abolish individual property and fulfill ideals of universal love. This is an example of A. revitalization. B. modernization. C. diffusion. D. innovation. E. syncretism. Answer: A 24. A spiritual movement in reaction to disruptive contact with Western capitalism is also called a(n) A. material cult. B. syncretic movement. C. modernization movement. D. cargo cult. E. animate. Answer: D 25. All of the following statements about cargo cults are correct except: A. the cult promised resurrection of dead ancestors. B. cargo cult believers tended to be rich natives and colonizers. C. many cargo cults occurred in Melanesia. D. the cult was based on the premise that Western riches would come to the natives. E. cargo cult doctrine said that the rich white man would magically disappear through natural catastrophe. Answer: B 26. Which of the following is not a goal of the contemporary Qullasuyu revitalization movement in Bolivia? A. Protecting indigenous cultural sites B. Restoring indigenous customs C. Overthrowing the national Bolivian government D. Reclaiming pre-colonial sacred rituals E. Recognizing the continuity among humans, animals, and plants Answer: C 27. Which of the following is not a phase typically associated with revitalization movements? A. Normal state in which stress is low and the culture satisfies basic needs B. Normal means of satisfying basic needs no longer functions C. Emergence of a prophet or leader to guide a following D. Mass emigration of the followers to other nations in order to spread the religion E. State of cultural upheaval leading to domination and exploitation by outside force Answer: D 28. Which of the following is a primary difference between an insurgency and a revolution? A. Revolutions involve large-scale violence, while many insurgencies are peaceful B. Revolutions occur when there is an outside invasion, and insurgencies are internal events C. Insurgencies have limited objectives, while revolutionary movements are broader D. Revolutions are successful insurgency movements E. Insurgencies do not have single leaders; revolutions have charismatic leaders Answer: C 29. An organized armed resistance or violent uprising to an established government or authority is called a(n) A. coup. B. revolution. C. insurgency. D. mutiny. E. insurrection. Answer: C 30. The term “modernization” A. is a relativistic rather than ethnocentric concept. B. refers to the process of cultural and socioeconomic change whereby societies acquire the characteristics of industrialized societies. C. refers to a global and all-encompassing process whereby modern cities development new types of subsistence. D. can be used to show that all societies go through the same stages of evolutionary development, culminating in the urban-industrial state. E. is not used by anthropologists. Answer: B 31. As modernization occurs, all of the following changes are likely to follow except: A. increase in literacy. B. decrease in the role of religion. C. kinship plays a less significant role. D. movement from commercial farming to subsistence production. E. social mobility increases. Answer: D 32. About 5,000 years ago, which of the following began occurring? A. Cargo cults B. Revolutions C. Religion D. Diffusion E. Modernization Answer: B 33. The development of a bureaucracy, expansion of educational opportunities, reduction in the spheres of social behavior in which religion and kinship play a role, and achievement replacing ascription as the basis for defining roles are all associated with A. modernization. B. revitalization. C. acculturation. D. revolution. E. syncretism. Answer: A 34. Major changes in Skolt Lapp society occurred because A. men switched from reindeer herding to other sources of income. B. the number of reindeer declined because of climate change. C. snowmobiles were introduced to herd reindeer. D. society became hierarchical instead of egalitarian. E. women began to go to the university and get jobs outside the home. Answer: C 35. Which strategy did the Jivaroan-speaking Shuar of Ecuador not use to preserve their culture? A. They adopted Christianity B. They turned large tracts of woodland into pasture for cattle C. They organized a corporate body that held land in common D. They required their schools to use the Shuar language E. They sought legal title to their indigenous lands Answer: A 36. The most present threat to the Shuar people in the 1960s that precipitated cultural changes was A. disease. B. imminent land loss. C. gold mining. D. drop in corn prices. E. beginning of oil drilling on their lands. Answer: B 37. The burden of modernization in developing countries falls mostly on A. non-governmental agencies. B. men. C. women. D. entrepreneurs. E. foreign governments. Answer: C 38. Whose work on river management and resettlement policies in West Africa has opened the ability of applied anthropologists to contribute to decision-making regarding international development projects? A. Carol Jenkins B. Margaret Mead C. Darrell Posey D. Rich Markins E. Michael Horowitz Answer: E 39. _____ founded the Institute for Development Anthropology and has made pioneering contributions to applied anthropology. A. Eric Wolf B. Michael Horowitz C. Carol Jenkins D. John Ury E. Tim Ingold Answer: B 40. More than 30 diseases new to human medicine have emerged in the past three decades. Researchers like Carol Jenkins, who worked in Papua New Guinea, believe that many of these emerged as a result of environmental destruction. Which of the following is not one of these “new” diseases? A. Tuberculosis B. Legionnaire’s disease C. Lyme disease D. HIV/AIDS E. Dengue fever Answer: A TRUE/FALSE 1. All cultures are capable of adapting to changing conditions. Answer: True 2. Eric Wolf helped expose counterinsurgency use of anthropological research in Southeast Asia. Answer: True 3. Progress is a term that is often used by anthropologists who are involved in applied research working to improve the lives of indigenous peoples. Answer: False 4. Diffusion can occur without acculturation. Answer: True 5. Maize originated in Mexico. Today, more maize is grown each year worldwide than any other grain. Answer: True 6. Paper, the compass, and gunpowder were all initially invented in Europe. Answer: False 7. Diffusion is typically forced onto cultures. Answer: False 8. A typical policy associated with ethnocide is to outlaw a cultural group’s language. Answer: True 9. Brazil’s indigenous peoples have shown that they are unable to resist and adapt to demands imposed upon them from outside. Answer: False 10. Cultural absorption of an ethnic minority is called accommodation. Answer: False 11. Applied anthropology began in the 1960s as a way of improving life in developing countries. Answer: False 12. Cargo cults occur primarily during moments of high social stress. Answer: True 13. In Bolivia, the revitalization movement Qullasuyu promises material riches to indigenous Andean farmers. Answer: False 14. A revitalization movement that attempts to overthrow an existing social structure with its accompanying ideology is called revolutionary. Answer: True 15. In China today, there is a shortage of women as marriage partners because of the one-child policy. Answer: True 16. All modernizing societies undergo, in a fixed sequence, the stages of technological development, agricultural development, industrialization, and urbanization. Answer: False 17. With the process of modernization, literacy and social mobility increase. Answer: True 18. To achieve self-determination, the Shuar abandoned their cooperative lifestyle and acquired individual titles to land. Answer: False 19. The only problem with Horowitz’s Senegal River Basin Monitoring Activity (SRBMA) model is that it is only applicable to the Senegal River Basin. Answer: False 20. Carol Jenkins’ work in Papua New Guinea suggests that modernization may help eradicate most diseases. Answer: False SHORT ANSWER 1. In what ways is “progress” a relative concept, especially for indigenous societies? Answer: "Progress" often implies advancement towards modernization and development, but its definition varies significantly across cultures. Indigenous societies may view progress differently: • Cultural Values: Indigenous cultures prioritize communal well-being, spiritual harmony, and environmental stewardship over industrial or technological advancement. • Sustainable Practices: Traditional knowledge sustains ecological balance and biodiversity, challenging Western notions of progress that prioritize economic growth at the expense of natural resources. • Colonial Impact: Historical experiences of colonization often disrupted indigenous societies, imposing Western ideals of progress while eroding traditional lifeways and autonomy. • Cultural Resilience: Indigenous perspectives redefine progress to include cultural revitalization, sovereignty, and self-determination in a globalized world. 2. Distinguish between a primary and secondary innovation. Give examples. Answer: • Primary Innovation: Involves the creation of a new idea, practice, or object. Example: Invention of the wheel by ancient Mesopotamians. • Secondary Innovation: Refers to the modification or adaptation of existing ideas, practices, or objects. Example: Adoption of the wheel in different cultural contexts for chariots, carts, or pottery wheels. 3. Who is Eric Wolf, and what were some of his major contributions to anthropology? Answer: Eric Wolf was a prominent anthropologist known for: • World Systems Theory: He pioneered this framework to analyze global inequalities, emphasizing historical capitalism's impact on societies worldwide. • Peasant Studies: Wolf studied rural societies, challenging stereotypes and highlighting peasants' roles in shaping historical and modern economies. • Critical Anthropology: His work critiqued Eurocentrism and colonialism, advocating for a holistic understanding of cultures and power dynamics. 4. Use the example of the wheel in the Middle East to explain the significance of cultural loss. Answer: The adoption of the wheel in ancient Mesopotamia illustrates: • Technological Advancement: The wheel revolutionized transport, agriculture, and industry, enhancing productivity and trade. • Cultural Loss: If a culture fails to preserve or adapt beneficial innovations like the wheel, it risks losing competitive advantages and historical legacies to more adaptable societies. • Impact of Diffusion: Diffusion of the wheel spread its benefits globally, but societies that didn't adopt it faced economic and technological disparities, highlighting the consequences of cultural stagnation or resistance to change. 5. What aspects of American Indian culture diffused to Euro-American society? Use maize as a primary example. Answer: Maize diffusion illustrates cultural exchange: • Agricultural Innovation: Native Americans cultivated maize, introducing it to European settlers, transforming agricultural practices and diets. • Cultural Exchange: Maize cultivation techniques, culinary traditions, and medicinal uses integrated into Euro-American societies, influencing cuisine and agriculture. • Ecological Impact: Maize cultivation enhanced food security, demonstrating Native American ecological knowledge and sustainable farming practices diffused globally. 6. What are the various results that can occur with acculturation? Answer: Acculturation outcomes include: • Cultural Adaptation: Adoption of new cultural traits, norms, and practices from dominant groups. • Cultural Loss: Erosion of traditional beliefs, languages, and customs due to assimilation pressures. • Hybridization: Fusion of cultural elements, creating new identities and practices. • Resistance: Preservation of indigenous traditions amidst external cultural influences. • Identity Negotiation: Individuals and groups navigate cultural transitions, forming complex identities and community dynamics. 7. How does the metric system represent diffusion? Answer: The metric system exemplifies diffusion: • Global Standardization: Originating in France, the metric system diffused globally through scientific communities, international trade, and educational institutions. • Cultural Adaptation: Nations adopt metric measurements for consistency in science, industry, and commerce, promoting global communication and cooperation. • Resistance and Adaptation: Some countries retain traditional systems, demonstrating cultural resistance to metric adoption despite its widespread use. 8. Define syncretism, using as an example the Trobrianders’ use of British cricket. Answer: Syncretism refers to: • Cultural Fusion: Integration of diverse beliefs, practices, or cultural elements into a cohesive system. • Example: The Trobriand Islanders' adoption of British cricket blended with local customs, transforming the sport into a ritualized game linked to traditional beliefs and social hierarchies, illustrating cultural syncretism and adaptation. 9. Discuss why applied anthropology arose as a subdiscipline of anthropology. Answer: Applied anthropology emerged to: • Address Practical Issues: Solve real-world problems through anthropological knowledge and methods in diverse fields such as development, healthcare, and policy. • Community Engagement: Collaborate with communities to empower marginalized groups, promote cultural understanding, and improve quality of life. • Ethical Responsibility: Apply anthropological insights ethically, respecting cultural diversity, human rights, and social justice. • Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Bridge academic research with practical applications, integrating social sciences to inform policy, development, and advocacy efforts. 10. What are some possible reactions to repressive change? Answer: Reactions to repressive change include: • Resistance: Protests, social movements, and activism challenging oppressive policies or regimes. • Adaptation: Survival strategies, cultural resilience, and innovative responses to navigate restrictive conditions. • Accommodation: Compliance with new norms or authorities to mitigate risks or preserve community stability. • Migration: Displacement, seeking refuge, or seeking opportunities in safer or more supportive environments. • Subversion: Underground movements, clandestine networks, or covert actions to oppose repressive regimes or policies. 11. What role does tradition play in accommodation and assimilation? Answer: Tradition plays a dual role in accommodation and assimilation: • Accommodation: Traditional practices may be adapted to coexist with new cultural influences, allowing for cultural continuity while integrating new elements. • Assimilation: Tradition can also be a barrier to assimilation if it resists change or adaptation to new cultural norms, potentially leading to cultural conflict or preservation efforts. 12. Under what circumstances would you expect a cargo cult to emerge? Answer: Cargo cults typically emerge under circumstances of colonial contact or disruption, where indigenous populations experience dramatic changes in their socio-economic and spiritual landscapes. They arise in response to promises or expectations of material wealth, often linked to interactions with foreign traders, missionaries, or colonial administrators. 13. Describe how Bolivia’s Qullasuyu movement conforms to the typology of revitalization movements. Answer: The Qullasuyu movement in Bolivia fits the typology of revitalization movements by seeking to revive and assert indigenous cultural identity and rights. It aims to reclaim ancestral lands, promote indigenous languages and traditions, and challenge socio-political marginalization within the national context. 14. Distinguish between a revolution and a rebellion or insurgency. Answer: • Revolution: A revolution involves fundamental and often rapid socio-political change, seeking to overthrow existing power structures and replace them with new ones. • Rebellion or Insurgency: These terms refer to armed resistance or uprisings against established authority, often seeking specific political or social objectives without necessarily aiming for a complete overhaul of the system. 15. What are the major causes and consequences of revolution? Answer: Major causes of revolution include socio-economic inequality, political oppression, and ideological grievances. Consequences can include regime change, socio-economic restructuring, and geopolitical realignments, often accompanied by periods of instability, violence, and socio-cultural transformation. 16. What are the five subprocesses of modernization, according to your textbook? Name and describe each. Answer: The five subprocesses of modernization are: 1. Industrialization: Growth of industrial sectors and urbanization. 2. Urbanization: Migration from rural areas to cities. 3. Bureaucratization: Expansion of administrative institutions. 4. Secularization: Decline in religious influence in public life. 5. Mass education: Spread of formal education systems. These subprocesses collectively contribute to societal transformation and economic development. 17. Using the Sámi as an example, explain how indigenous peoples have made accommodation to some forms of modernization. Answer: The Sámi people have accommodated modernization by: • Political Engagement: Advocating for indigenous rights and self-determination within modern political systems. • Cultural Preservation: Maintaining and revitalizing traditional languages, arts, and practices. • Economic Adaptation: Participating in modern economies while advocating for sustainable resource management and environmental stewardship. 18. Discuss the importance that anthropology has in the search for the emergence of new diseases. Answer: Anthropology plays a vital role in understanding the emergence of new diseases by: • Cultural Context: Investigating how cultural practices and beliefs influence disease transmission and prevention. • Community Engagement: Collaborating with local communities to study health behaviors and responses to outbreaks. • Policy Recommendations: Informing public health policies and interventions based on cultural insights and social practices related to health and disease. 19. Describe the work of Michael Horowitz and the importance of applied anthropology in development projects today. Answer: Michael Horowitz's work highlights the importance of applied anthropology in development projects by: • Community Participation: Engaging local communities in project planning and implementation. • Cultural Sensitivity: Incorporating local knowledge and practices into development strategies. • Sustainability: Promoting initiatives that respect cultural diversity and empower marginalized groups. 20. Name three consequences of globalization in the “underdeveloped” world. Answer: Three consequences of globalization in the "underdeveloped" world include: • Economic Dependency: Increased reliance on global markets and multinational corporations. • Cultural Homogenization: Loss of traditional cultural practices and languages. • Environmental Degradation: Exploitation of natural resources and ecological impacts due to industrialization and global demand. ESSAY 1. How are cultures an adaptive system? Explain this concept. Answer: Cultures are adaptive systems because they continuously evolve and adjust to environmental, social, and economic challenges: • Dynamic Responses: Cultures adapt through innovations, rituals, and social norms that respond to changing circumstances. • Environmental Adaptation: Practices like agriculture or hunting techniques evolve to suit local ecosystems, ensuring sustainability. • Social Organization: Institutions and roles adjust to maintain cohesion and meet community needs. • Cultural Transmission: Knowledge and traditions are passed down, integrating new practices while preserving core values. • Resilience: Cultures resist threats and absorb influences, demonstrating flexibility and resilience over time. 2. In what ways is “progress” a relative concept for anthropologists? Answer: Anthropologists view progress relative to cultural contexts and values: • Cultural Diversity: Progress varies across societies based on ideals of development, sustainability, or spiritual fulfillment. • Ethnocentrism: Judgments of progress reflect biases towards one's own cultural standards, overlooking diverse goals and achievements. • Historical Context: Progression may challenge or complement traditional knowledge, shaping responses to globalization and social change. • Adaptive Strategies: Cultures navigate progress through innovation, adaptation, and resilience, impacting global perspectives on development. 3. Choose a major form of primary innovation (such as a wheel or steam engine) and trace secondary innovations that evolved from it. What does this reveal about human creativity and tool-making? Answer: The wheel: • Primary Innovation: Invented for transportation and pottery in ancient Mesopotamia. • Secondary Innovations: • Chariots: Military and transport vehicles in ancient civilizations. • Water Wheels: Used for irrigation and industrial machinery. • Gears: Mechanisms in machinery, clocks, and modern vehicles. • Human Creativity: Innovations build on previous knowledge, adapting tools for diverse uses and technological advancements. • Tool-Making: Evolution of tools reflects problem-solving, efficiency, and cultural adaptation, revealing human ingenuity in technological development. 4. Discuss and evaluate each of the mechanisms involved in cultural change. Answer: Mechanisms of cultural change include: • Innovation: Creation or adoption of new ideas, technologies, or practices. • Diffusion: Spread of cultural traits through trade, migration, or communication. • Acculturation: Cultural exchange between societies, influencing beliefs and behaviors. • Accommodation: Adaptation to external pressures while maintaining cultural identity. • Revitalization: Efforts to revive or reform cultural traditions in response to social or environmental challenges. • Globalization: Integration of cultures through interconnected economies, media, and technology. • Colonialism: Imposition of dominant culture on indigenous societies, impacting languages, customs, and social structures. 5. What is cultural loss? What role has cultural loss played between your generation and that of your parents and grandparents? Provide examples and discuss. Answer: Cultural loss: • Definition: Erosion or disappearance of cultural practices, languages, or traditions due to social change, globalization, or assimilation. • Generational Impact: Example: Decline of indigenous languages among younger generations due to educational policies favoring dominant languages. • Technological Change: Example: Shift from traditional crafts to mass-produced goods, impacting artisanal skills and cultural identity. • Environmental Change: Example: Loss of traditional ecological knowledge and practices as ecosystems degrade or urbanize. • Social Change: Example: Shift from extended family structures to nuclear families, altering intergenerational transmission of cultural values. 6. Discuss the types and causes of repressive change. Answer: Repressive change: • Types: Political repression, cultural suppression, economic exploitation, or religious persecution. • Causes: Authoritarian regimes, colonialism, social inequalities, or ideological conflicts. • Impact: Restricts freedoms, undermines cultural autonomy, and stifles social progress. • Resistance: Examples: Protests, movements for human rights, and international advocacy challenging repressive policies. • Long-term Effects: Cultural resilience, preservation of identity, and struggles for justice shape responses to repressive change. 7. In what ways can the rising tide of Islamic fundamentalism in the Middle East and other areas of the world be seen as revitalization movements? Are there other terms from the chapter that could apply to this phenomenon? What might anthropologists contribute to our understanding of such movements? Answer: Islamic fundamentalism as revitalization: • Revitalization Movements: Seek to restore religious principles, social norms, or political ideologies amidst perceived cultural decline or Western influence. • Other Terms: Cultural revival, religious resurgence, or socio-political reform reflect goals of Islamic fundamentalism. • Anthropological Contributions: Analyze historical contexts, cultural interpretations, and global impacts on identity, social cohesion, and political change. • Comparative Perspectives: Study diverse revitalization movements, addressing complex interactions of religion, politics, and globalization in cultural dynamics. 8. Besides the criminal act that it represents, why is ethnocide a deep concern for anthropologists and the worldwide community? Answer: Ethnocide concerns: • Cultural Erasure: Systematic destruction of indigenous cultures, languages, or traditions undermines cultural diversity and human rights. • Loss of Knowledge: Indigenous knowledge of ecosystems, medicine, and sustainable practices diminishes, impacting global biodiversity and ecological sustainability. • Social Justice: Ethnocide perpetuates inequalities, marginalizes communities, and violates rights to cultural autonomy and self-determination. • Legal and Ethical Implications: Advocacy for cultural preservation, indigenous rights, and international protections against cultural genocide promote cultural resilience and human dignity. 9. Reactions of indigenous peoples to changes forced upon them vary considerably. Describe how various groups have reacted to forced change. Answer: Indigenous peoples have reacted variably to forced changes: • Resistance and Revitalization Movements: Some groups actively resist assimilation and colonization, striving to preserve cultural practices and land rights. • Accommodation and Adaptation: Others negotiate with external forces, adopting certain aspects of new cultures while maintaining core traditions. • Adoption and Syncretism: In some cases, indigenous groups adopt new technologies or practices while integrating them into existing cultural frameworks. • Assimilation and Cultural Loss: Unfortunately, some groups have faced cultural erosion or extinction due to forced assimilation policies. 10. Cargo cults are sometimes seen as a somewhat isolated phenomenon that occurred in Melanesia following WWI. However, there are particular circumstances that caused these to emerge. What types of structural stress contributed to the development of this cultural phenomenon? Could you imagine something like this occurring in the U.S. today? Why or why not? Answer: Cargo cults emerged in Melanesia due to structural stresses such as: • Colonial Disruption: Contact with Western powers disrupted traditional economies and social structures. • Promise of Material Wealth: Interactions with military personnel and traders during World War II introduced modern goods and technologies, sparking expectations. • Cultural Dislocation: Rapid societal changes and disruptions created conditions where traditional beliefs and practices were challenged. It's unlikely for a similar phenomenon to occur in the U.S. today due to: • Different Cultural Context: The U.S. already has established consumerism and economic systems. • Information Accessibility: Greater access to information and education reduces susceptibility to magical thinking about material wealth. • Legal and Social Structures: Existing governance and legal systems mitigate against radical socio-religious movements centered on material promises. 11. Armed uprising is evident throughout our world today. Choose two conflicts currently occurring, describe them, and then argue whether they are a revolution or rebellion. Answer: Two current conflicts are: • Yemen Civil War: This conflict involves various factions, including Houthi rebels against the Yemeni government and its Saudi-led coalition allies. It's considered a rebellion due to its localized aims against central government authority. • Syrian Civil War: Originating from protests against President Bashar al-Assad's regime, it has evolved into a complex conflict involving multiple factions, including ISIS and Kurdish forces. It can be seen as both a rebellion against Assad's regime and a revolution seeking broader political and social change. 12. How has revolution marked our world today? Consider some of the best-known examples of revolution and the impact each has had on the global world today. Answer: Revolution has marked our world by: • Political Transformations: Examples include the American Revolution, French Revolution, and Russian Revolution, which led to significant changes in governance and societal structures. • Ideological Impact: Revolutions have inspired movements for independence, democracy, and socialism globally. • Geopolitical Realignment: Revolutions have reshaped alliances and power dynamics, influencing international relations and global politics. 13. Discuss the process of modernization and its effect on societies. Be specific. Answer: Modernization involves socio-economic changes characterized by: • Industrialization: Shift from agrarian economies to industrial production. • Urbanization: Growth of cities and migration from rural areas. • Secularization: Decline in religious influence in public and private life. • Technological Advancements: Adoption of new technologies and infrastructures. • Education: Expansion of formal education systems enhancing literacy and skill development. Effects include economic growth, social mobility, cultural changes, and challenges to traditional values. 14. Why has it been suggested that it would be impossible for most peoples of the world to achieve something resembling a middle-class standard of living comparable to that of many people in the Western world in the near future? Answer: Achieving a middle-class standard of living for most global populations faces challenges due to: • Global Economic Disparities: Structural inequalities in access to resources, education, and economic opportunities. • Environmental Constraints: Limits on natural resources and environmental sustainability. • Political Stability: Political factors such as corruption, conflict, and governance issues affecting development. 15. What is the impact of globalization on processes of change? Answer: Globalization impacts processes of change by: • Economic Integration: Facilitating trade, investment, and financial flows. • Cultural Exchange: Spreading ideas, values, and lifestyles globally. • Technological Connectivity: Enhancing communication and access to information. • Political Interdependence: Influencing governance, policies, and international relations. These dynamics accelerate socio-economic transformations while also generating challenges and opportunities across global societies. Test Bank for Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge William A. Haviland, Harald E. L. Prins, Bunny McBride, Walrath 9781305633797
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