CH-6-7 Social Identity, Personality, and Gender – Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge : Exam Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 6 to 7 Chapter 6 – Social Identity, Personality, and Gender MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. John Locke’s theory of tabula rasa was not sufficient because it did not A. focus on the individual, only the group. B. take genetic contributions into account. C. address any society except Europe. D. consider that culture and environment are important. E. explain why language is so important to development. Answer: B 2. Which of the following statements is not correct? A. Enculturation begins before birth B. Humans must be enculturated to reach human potential C. Culture is biologically inherited D. Culture is socially constructed E. The first agents of a child’s enculturation are members of the household Answer: C 3. Enculturation begins with the development of self-awareness, which may be defined as A. the ability to assume social roles. B. the ability to identify oneself as an object, to react and appraise oneself. C. the process by which the self-adapts to a particular environment. D. the process by which an individual identifies right and wrong. E. the belief that one has lived a previous life. Answer: B 4. Which of the following statements about self-awareness is incorrect? A. Self-awareness occurs earlier in children as a function of the amount of social stimulation they receive. B. At 15 weeks of age, the home-reared infant in North America is in contact with its mother for about 20% of the time. C. At 15 weeks of age, infants in the Ju/’hoansi society of South Africa’s Kalahari Desert are in close contact with their mothers about 70% of the time. D. American children develop self-awareness earlier than do Ju/’hoansi children. E. Self-awareness comes in stages and not all at once. Answer: D 5. All of the following statements about the naming ceremony are true except: A. personal names create a sense of individual identity. B. through naming, the social groups acknowledges the child’s birthright. C. names express multiple aspects of the group identity as well. D. naming creates social identity. E. all cultures have some ceremony to mark the naming of a child. Answer: E 6. The _____ do not consider an infant truly “human” until they have given it a name. A. Icelanders B. Aymara Indians C. Hopi Indians D. Netsilik Inuit E. Iroquois Indians Answer: B 7. Navajo babies begin to learn the importance of community at the A. Baptism Ritual. B. Corn Goddess Ceremony. C. Sadhu Ritual. D. First Laugh Ceremony. E. Walkabout Ceremony. Answer: D 8. Which of the following includes definitions and explanations of objects, spatial orientation, and temporal orientation, as well as culturally defined values, ideals, and standards that provide an individual with a normative orientation? A. Vital self B. Tabula rasa C. Behavioral environment D. Patterns of affect E. Core values Answer: C 9. Which orientation includes standards that indicate what ranges of behavior are acceptable for males and females in a particular society? A. Spatial orientation B. Temporal orientation C. Normative orientation D. Object orientation E. Gender orientation Answer: C 10. Living in a tropical environment where one learns to orient oneself through a vertical landscape of tall trees and speckled light is part of A. gender orientation. B. spatial orientation. C. object orientation. D. normative orientation. E. temporal orientation. Answer: B 11. An individual’s personality is all of the following except: A. a product of enculturation. B. influenced by an individual’s genetic makeup. C. a kind of cognitive map functioning throughout an individual’s lifetime. D. an integrated, dynamic system of perceptual assemblages, which includes the self and its behavioral environment, that develops over time. E. is never part of the internalized awareness of the person. Answer: E 12. _____ is the distinctive way a person thinks, feels, and behaves. A. Normative orientation B. Individuality C. Self-awareness D. Personality E. Temperament Answer: D 13. In studying three societies in New Guinea, Margaret Mead found that the roles played by men and women were determined primarily by A. biological inheritance. B. culture. C. animism. D. psychology. E. society. Answer: B 14. In traditional Ju/’hoansi society, fathers and mothers alike show great indulgence to children. A result of this indulgence is that the children A. do not fear or respect men more than they do women. B. fear both parents equally. C. are spoiled and intolerant of other children. D. do not know how to show proper respect for their fathers. E. have to learn proper respect much later in life. Answer: A 15. Which anthropologist stated that the purpose of anthropology is to “make the world safe for human differences”? A. Nancy Scheper-Hughes B. Catherine Bateson C. Mary Douglas D. Margaret Mead E. Ruth Benedict Answer: E 16. Which of the following anthropologists argued that cultures are collective projections of a personality type? A. Franz Boas B. John Locke C. Ruth Benedict D. Margaret Mead E. Clifford Geertz Answer: C 17. Childrearing practices that encourage compliance in performing tasks and dependence upon the group rather than on the individual is called A. enculturation training. B. independence training. C. dependence training. D. transference training. E. community training. Answer: C 18. A study of childrearing among the Ju/’hoansi of Africa indicates that A. boys and girls are raised in a very similar manner and are both mild-mannered and self-reliant. B. because girls are out gathering most of the time, they are expected to be more aggressive and self-reliant than boys are. C. mothers spend the least amount of time with their children, and thus the children identify strongly with their fathers. D. boys do more work than girls. E. boys have less responsibility than girls and get to play more of the time. Answer: A 19. Dependence training is most often found associated with which type of society? A. Horticultural and pastoral societies B. Foraging and subsistence societies C. Industrial societies D. Chiefdom societies E. Class-stratified societies Answer: B 20. A society with extensive types of childcare, a desire to make the individual feel socially attached and generally free of stranger anxiety, and with high levels of sharing and social involvement would most likely have what type of training or children? A. Interdependence B. Independence C. Separation D. Modal E. Self-awareness Answer: A 21. Which of the following refers to the idea that character traits that occur with the most frequency in a cultural society are representative of the values that culture embraces? A. National cultural traits B. Modal personality C. National personality D. Social conformity models E. Community training Answer: B 22. Ideal “cultural personality” traits among Yanomamo men would include being A. irritated and whiny. B. loving and respectful. C. questioning and anxious. D. fierce and humorous. E. nurturing and affectionate. Answer: D 23. The personality typical of a society, as indicated by the central tendency of a defined frequency distribution, is called A. a core value. B. a nuclear personality. C. a pattern of affect. D. culture and personality. E. a modal personality. Answer: E 24. You are studying the modal personality of a particular group of people by giving them Rorschach tests. In American society, a response to the white background (the PG on which the inkblots are placed) has been associated with the psychological trait of negativism. You are puzzled because you are getting a lot of white responses, but the people don’t appear to be negative in other respects. Then you find out that their favorite color is white, and that they are treating the color of the PG not as a background but as a part of the design of the inkblot. This is an example of one of the problems faced by people trying to measure modal personality, which is that A. people do not give consistent responses to the same picture from one day to the next. B. not everyone in a society has the same personality. C. tests devised in one cultural setting may not be appropriate in another. D. language problems can create misinterpretations. E. not everyone has the same type of eyesight. Answer: C 25. Several years ago, the Italian tourism minister commented on the “typical characteristics” of Germans, causing a huge controversy as to whether or not a people could be labeled. This labeling and grouping is called A. modal personality. B. national character. C. stereotype. D. group personality. E. independence training. Answer: B 26. An alternative to the concept of national character is A. modal personality. B. core values. C. stereotyping. D. group personality. E. independence training. Answer: B 27. The core value to which European Americans subscribe is A. cooperation. B. dependence. C. generosity in sharing. D. rugged individualism. E. dominance. Answer: D 28. People who are born with reproductive organs, genitalia, and/or sex chromosomes that are not exclusively male or female are called A. androgynous. B. berdache. C. castrati. D. transgenders. E. intersexuals. Answer: E 29. In today’s Native American societies, the preferred term to describe an individual who falls between the categories of “man” and “woman” is known as A. berdache. B. gay. C. passive homosexual. D. two-spirit. E. effeminate. Answer: D 30. What does R.K. Williamson mean by the difference between the “blessed gift” and “the curse”? A. These are two different approaches to the formation of childhood personality B. This is the Native American view of menstruation and childbirth C. This is the responsibility to be a shaman upon reaching adulthood D. These are two different cultural perspectives of intersexuality E. They are two different perspectives of homosexual behavior Answer: D 31. People who cross over or occupy an intermediate position in the binary male-female gender construction are called A. transsexuals. B. intersexuals. C. transgenders. D. eunuchs. E. third genders. Answer: C 32. All of the following are associated with eunuchs except: A. castration is a widespread cultural practice to transform sexual status. B. there is evidence of castration in the archaeological record in Egypt. C. castration was always carried out as a public ritual in societies where it had meaning. D. in some societies eunuchs could rise to high status as priests and administrators. E. eunuchs were appointed military commanders in the Chinese army. Answer: C 33. Sadhu is a A. kind of mental illness. B. Hindu ascetic monk. C. Native American “two-spirit.” D. fierce Yanomamo warrior. E. psychosomatic disorder. Answer: B 34. Same-sex sexual acts are punished by the death penalty in all of the following countries except: A. Iran. B. South Africa. C. Sudan. D. Saudi Arabia. E. Iran. Answer: B 35. Biomedicine is the predominant medical system found in A. Hindu cultures. B. Islamic cultures. C. Christian cultures. D. Asia, Africa, and Latin America. E. Europe and the United States. Answer: E 36. All of the following statements about biomedicine are correct except: A. biomedicine uses the medical category of “psychosomatic” for some disorders. B. biomedicine is a growing approach in healthcare. C. biomedicine is a completely Western approach to medicine. D. this approach is fundamentally a dualistic mind-body approach to medicine. E. biomedicine has resulted in spectacular successes depending. Answer: C 37. An ethnic psychosis refers to A. a psychotic episode experienced by a person from an exotic culture. B. a progressive disease that strikes anthropologists when they spend more than 12 months in the field. C. a psychosis characterized by symptoms peculiar to a particular group. D. a universal form of mental illness. E. a biologically-based disease that resembles schizophrenia. Answer: C 38. What is the fear reaction of being bewitched found among Algonquian hunters? A. Amok B. Latah C. Berdache D. Sadhu E. Windigo Answer: E 39. Another name for an ethnic psychosis is a A. mental ethnic syndrome. B. culture psychosis. C. biomedicine. D. culture-bound syndrome. E. ethnic abnormality. Answer: D 40. In Western countries, a psychological disorder known as _____ occurs most frequently among young women in which a preoccupation with thinness produces a refusal to eat. This is an example of a culture-bound syndrome. A. pibloktoq B. amok C. anorexia nervosa D. bulimia E. windigo Answer: C TRUE/FALSE 1. The significance of the concept of tabula rasa is that it emphasizes the importance of culture rather than biological inheritance in determining an individual’s characteristics. Answer: True 2. American children are among the earliest to develop a concept of self because of the high level of social stimulation they receive. Answer: False 3. Names are a form of social identity. Answer: True 4. It is common in many cultures for an individual to receive more than one name during their life. Answer: True 5. Temporal orientation allows an individual to learn about the moral values, ideals, and principles that are culturally significant. Answer: False 6. Normally, personality is like a mask that one wears, sometimes uncomfortably, throughout life. It is always external to the individual. Answer: False 7. Both Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict were pioneers in the culture and personality movement in anthropology. Answer: True 8. Childrearing practices that foster compliance and reliance on the group are called dependency training. Answer: True 9. Independence training is particularly characteristic of rural agrarian societies, where self-reliance and personal achievement are important traits for survival. Answer: False 10. The more complex a society, the fewer types of personality that are tolerated. Answer: False 11. National character studies have focused on the modal characteristics of emerging Third World countries. Answer: False 12. Values highly promoted by a particular culture can be considered its core values. Answer: True 13. About 3% of all humans are intersexed. Answer: False 14. All cultures practice gender bending (creating more than two gender categories) as a way of dealing with different types of sexual categories. Answer: False 15. Eunuchs in India are known as hijras. Answer: True 16. The underlying structure of a mental illness may be the same, but it is expressed in a culturally-specific manner. Answer: True 17. Culture-bound syndrome is another name for an ethnic psychosis. Answer: True 18. The goal of the sadhus is to liberate themselves from the physical limitation of the mortal body. Answer: True 19. Biomedicine is a traditional form of healing that is not widely accepted in the U.S. Answer: False 20. Schizophrenia is one of the most common of all psychoses. Answer: True SHORT ANSWER 1. Define the idea of tabula rasa, and explain its significance for understanding human personality. Answer: Tabula rasa, Latin for "blank slate," is the philosophical notion that individuals are born without innate mental content and that their knowledge and personality are shaped by experience and perception of their surroundings. This idea suggests that human development and personality are largely influenced by environmental factors rather than predetermined traits. Understanding tabula rasa is crucial as it emphasizes the impact of nurture, education, and socialization in shaping individual differences and behaviors. 2. What are the agents of enculturation? Answer: The agents of enculturation are institutions and social forces that transmit cultural values, norms, and beliefs to individuals within a society. These include family, education systems, peer groups, religious institutions, media, and government. Each agent plays a role in shaping an individual's understanding of their cultural identity, behavioral expectations, and moral values through socialization processes. 3. What is the importance of self-awareness? Answer: Self-awareness is the ability to introspectively understand one's own thoughts, emotions, motivations, and behaviors. It is crucial for personal growth, decision-making, and interpersonal relationships. Self-awareness enables individuals to recognize their strengths and weaknesses, understand their impact on others, and adapt their behavior accordingly. It fosters empathy, emotional regulation, and a deeper understanding of one's identity and aspirations. 4. Explain teknonymy, and give an example. Answer: Teknonymy is a naming practice where individuals are identified or addressed by the names of their children. For example, in some cultures, a person might be referred to as "father of [child's name]" or "mother of [child's name]," emphasizing their role as a parent rather than their individual name. This practice reflects familial and societal values placed on parenthood and kinship ties. 5. Define the concept of behavioral environment. Answer: The behavioral environment refers to the physical, social, and cultural context in which behavior occurs. It encompasses the settings, situations, and stimuli that influence an individual's actions, choices, and interactions. This environment includes factors such as physical surroundings, social norms, peer influences, institutional policies, and cultural expectations that shape behavioral responses and outcomes. Understanding the behavioral environment is essential for comprehending human behavior across different contexts and settings. 6. Relate the development of gender among the Ju/’hoansi to economic conditions that affect childrearing. Answer: The Ju/’hoansi, a hunter-gatherer society, exhibit gender roles influenced by economic conditions. Women typically gather plant foods, while men hunt game, reflecting the division of labor based on environmental resources. Economic conditions affect childrearing by shaping responsibilities and skills taught to children. Girls learn gathering skills from an early age, fostering independence and resourcefulness, while boys acquire hunting skills, promoting leadership and cooperation. Gender roles among the Ju/’hoansi thus develop in response to economic tasks, impacting childrearing practices and socialization. 7. Explain and critique the idea of national character. Answer: National character refers to shared psychological traits, attitudes, and behaviors presumed to be characteristic of people from a particular nation. Critics argue: • Essentialism: Assumes homogeneity within diverse populations, overlooking individual variation. • Stereotyping: Risks perpetuating stereotypes and oversimplifying cultural complexities. • Context Dependency: Traits may vary across regions, generations, and social groups, challenging a unified national character. • Social Construction: National character may reflect historical narratives and political agendas rather than objective truths. While acknowledging cultural patterns, understanding national character requires caution to avoid reinforcing biases and cultural generalizations. 8. Who was Ruth Benedict, and what contributions did she make to anthropology? Answer: Ruth Benedict (1887-1948) was a pioneering anthropologist known for her work in cultural anthropology and contributions to understanding cultural diversity and patterns. Her notable contributions include: • Patterns of Culture (1934): Introduced cultural configurations and argued for cultural relativism. • Collaboration with Franz Boas: Studied Native American cultures and psychological anthropology. • Concept of Cultural Integration: Analyzed how cultural traits form coherent systems and shape individual behavior. • Teaching and Mentoring: Influenced future anthropologists, promoting cross-cultural understanding and empathy. Benedict's research and writings advanced anthropological methods and perspectives, emphasizing the diversity and complexity of human cultures. 9. Compare and contrast dependence and independence training. Answer: • Dependence Training: Emphasizes obedience, compliance, and interdependence within social groups. Found in collectivist cultures, it values harmony, duty, and respect for authority. • Independence Training: Promotes self-reliance, assertiveness, and autonomy. Common in individualistic cultures, it encourages personal achievement, initiative, and personal goals. Both training styles shape socialization practices, influencing values, relationships, and individual development across cultures. 10. How do group and modal personality relate to each other? Answer: Group and modal personality refer to: • Group Personality: Shared traits and behaviors within a cultural group, reflecting cultural norms and values. • Modal Personality: Most common traits and behaviors observed within a cultural group, representing cultural ideals and expectations. Relationship: • Group personality emerges from collective values and practices, shaping modal personality. • Modal personality exemplifies desired traits, influencing group norms and social behavior. • Together, they reflect cultural dynamics, social cohesion, and individual identity within diverse societies. Understanding their interplay provides insights into cultural diversity, social roles, and psychological adaptation across human societies. 11. Describe the statistics behind the concept of modal personality. Answer: The concept of modal personality refers to the most common or typical personality traits observed within a population. Statistics related to modal personality often involve identifying central tendencies and frequencies of traits through measures like means, modes, and standard deviations in personality assessments. These statistics help psychologists and sociologists understand prevailing personality characteristics within specific groups or cultures. 12. Describe the concept of core values, and give an example. Answer: Core values are fundamental beliefs and principles that guide an individual's behavior and decision-making. They represent deeply held convictions about what is important, desirable, or morally right. For example, honesty, respect for others, and environmental stewardship are core values that influence how individuals prioritize actions and interact with their communities. 13. What is a Native American view on intersexed individuals? Answer: Native American views on intersex individuals vary among tribes and cultures, often reflecting spiritual and cultural beliefs that honor diverse gender identities. Many Native American cultures historically recognized and respected Two-Spirit people, individuals who embody both masculine and feminine qualities and play unique roles within their communities. Traditionally, Two-Spirit individuals often held respected positions as mediators, healers, or spiritual leaders. 14. Why is it important to study complex categories involving intersexuality and trans gendering? Answer: Studying complex categories involving intersexuality and transgender identities is crucial for understanding human diversity and promoting social justice. It challenges traditional binary notions of gender and sex, emphasizing the fluidity and complexity of gender identities. Research in this field informs policies and practices that support inclusivity, healthcare access, and legal rights for intersex and transgender individuals, addressing systemic discrimination and promoting equitable treatment. 15. What is a eunuch, and what social roles have they played in human societies? Answer: A eunuch is a castrated male, typically employed to guard harems, serve as officials in imperial courts, or perform religious duties in various cultures throughout history. Eunuchs often held influential positions due to their perceived loyalty, lack of familial ties, and presumed trustworthiness. They played roles ranging from guardians of women's quarters in ancient civilizations to administrative roles in imperial China and ceremonial roles in certain religious contexts. 16. Use examples from the Hindu sadhus to illustrate the cultural context of normality and abnormality. Answer: Hindu sadhus, or holy men, illustrate cultural norms around spirituality and asceticism in India. Practices such as renunciation of worldly possessions, celibacy, and extreme austerity may be considered abnormal in Western contexts but are revered as paths to spiritual enlightenment in Hindu culture. Sadhus' behaviours, like nudity or living in cremation grounds, challenge Western norms but align with accepted spiritual practices in Hinduism, highlighting cultural relativism in defining normality and abnormality. 17. Define a culture-bound syndrome, and give an example of ethnic psychosis. Answer: A culture-bound syndrome is a mental or behavioral disorder specific to a particular culture or society, often shaped by cultural beliefs and norms. Ethnic psychosis, observed in certain African and Caribbean communities, involves symptoms such as auditory hallucinations, attributed locally to spiritual possession or ancestral communication. These experiences are understood within the cultural framework, influencing diagnosis and treatment approaches. 18. How can anthropologists help with a community’s mental health problems? Answer: Anthropologists contribute to addressing mental health issues by understanding cultural contexts, beliefs, and social structures influencing individuals' experiences. They collaborate with communities to develop culturally sensitive interventions, improve communication between healthcare providers and patients, and advocate for inclusive mental health policies. Anthropological research promotes empathy, reduces stigma, and enhances mental health services' effectiveness through culturally informed practices. 19. What is biomedicine? Answer: Biomedicine refers to the dominant Western approach to healthcare, emphasizing biological principles, scientific research, and evidence-based practices in diagnosing, treating, and preventing diseases. It relies on biomedical technologies, pharmaceuticals, and medical interventions grounded in scientific research and clinical trials, contrasting with traditional or alternative medical systems. 20. Why is the concept of normality different from culture to culture? Answer: The concept of normality varies across cultures due to diverse social norms, values, and belief systems shaping perceptions of acceptable behavior and attitudes. Cultures define normality based on historical, religious, and societal contexts, influencing expectations regarding health, gender roles, family structures, and mental well-being. Cultural relativism challenges universal definitions of normality, highlighting the importance of understanding behaviours and beliefs within their cultural frameworks. ESSAY 1. Why is personality important in the development of culture? Answer: Personality influences how individuals perceive and interact with their cultural environment, shaping behaviours, values, and social norms within a society. Individuals with different personality traits may contribute uniquely to cultural practices, innovation, and social cohesion. Cultural norms, in turn, shape personality development through socialization and expectations, reinforcing collective identities and shared values. Understanding personality within cultural contexts enhances insights into social dynamics, communication patterns, and the adaptation of cultural norms over time. 2. There are countless contrasting approaches to naming. Identify and discuss some of these approaches. Answer: Naming practices vary widely across cultures and can reflect social, religious, or familial values. Examples include: • Descriptive Names: Describing physical characteristics or circumstances (e.g., "Red Cloud" in Native American cultures). • Religious or Spiritual Names: Drawing from religious texts or deities (e.g., "Muhammad" in Islamic cultures). • Ancestral Names: Using family lineage or honorifics (e.g., "Jr." or "III" in Western cultures). • Achievement-based Names: Reflecting accomplishments or aspirations (e.g., "Victory" or "Hope" in various cultures). These naming approaches reflect cultural priorities, beliefs about identity, and social roles within communities. 3. Discuss the importance of childrearing practices for the development of gender-related personality characteristics. Provide examples. Answer: Childrearing practices shape gender-related personality characteristics by transmitting cultural expectations and norms associated with masculinity and femininity. Examples include: • Gender Role Socialization: Encouraging specific behaviours or traits deemed appropriate for boys or girls. • Toy and Activity Preferences: Providing toys or activities that reinforce traditional gender roles (e.g., dolls for girls, trucks for boys). • Parental Modelling: Demonstrating gender-specific behaviours or roles within the household. • Verbal Reinforcement: Praising or correcting behaviours based on gender norms (e.g., "Boys don't cry"). These practices influence self-concept, social behaviours, and career aspirations, contributing to the formation of gender identities and roles in cultural contexts. 4. No discussion of culture and personality would be complete without considering national character studies. What are national character studies? Describe why and how they came about. Discuss their shortcomings. Answer: National character studies attempt to identify common personality traits or behavioral tendencies among people within a specific nation or cultural group. They emerged largely in the early to mid-20th century as anthropologists and psychologists sought to understand cultural differences and similarities in personality across nations. These studies often rely on surveys, interviews, or observations to identify national stereotypes or behavioral patterns. Shortcomings: National character studies face criticism for oversimplifying cultural diversity, reinforcing stereotypes, and neglecting individual variability within nations. They may rely on ethnocentric perspectives or limited sampling, failing to account for regional, socioeconomic, or historical differences that shape personality and behavior. Critics argue that such studies can perpetuate cultural biases and undermine the complexity of human experience within diverse societies. 5. Contrast dependence with independence training. Identify societies where each would be expected and explain why. Have inconsistencies developed? If so, explain why? Answer: Dependence training and independence training represent contrasting childrearing practices that shape individual autonomy and social roles within societies: • Dependence Training: Emphasizes obedience, interdependence, and respect for authority. It is often expected in collectivist societies where group harmony and familial obligations are prioritized over individual desires. Examples include many East Asian cultures (e.g., China, Japan) where filial piety and hierarchical family structures reinforce respect for elders and conformity to societal norms. • Independence Training: Encourages self-reliance, critical thinking, and assertiveness. It is prevalent in individualistic societies where personal achievement and autonomy are valued. Examples include Western cultures (e.g., United States, Western Europe) where children are encouraged to express individual opinions, pursue personal goals, and make independent decisions. Inconsistencies can develop due to globalization, urbanization, and exposure to diverse cultural influences. For instance, urban areas in traditionally dependence-oriented societies may adopt aspects of independence training due to exposure to Western education systems or economic opportunities. Conversely, Western societies may incorporate elements of dependence training in familial or communal settings, reflecting cultural diversity and adaptation over time. 6. In order for self-awareness to emerge and function, basic orientations are necessary to structure the psychological field in which the self-acts. Identify and discuss these basic orientations. Give examples of each from your own cultural background. Answer: Basic orientations that structure the psychological field for self-awareness include: • Spatial Orientation: Understanding physical surroundings and spatial relationships. Example: In my cultural background, spatial orientation involves navigating urban environments or natural landscapes efficiently. • Temporal Orientation: Awareness of past, present, and future temporal dimensions. Example: Celebrating annual holidays or commemorating historical events reflects temporal orientation in my culture. • Social Orientation: Recognizing social roles, norms, and interpersonal relationships. Example: Engaging in family gatherings or observing etiquette in social interactions demonstrate social orientation in daily life. These orientations provide frameworks for interpreting experiences, shaping identity, and guiding behavior within cultural contexts. 7. Explain the relationship between self-awareness and enculturation. Answer: Self-awareness develops through enculturation, the process by which individuals learn and internalize cultural norms, values, and behaviours of their society. Enculturation provides the cultural context within which self-awareness emerges, influencing self-concept, identity formation, and social interactions. Cultural beliefs about selfhood, roles, and relationships shape individuals' understanding of themselves and their place within the community. Self-awareness, in turn, informs how individuals navigate and adapt to cultural expectations, contributing to social cohesion and collective identity. 8. Name what you believe to be three core values predominant in U.S. society. Then discuss how these affect daily life and behavior in individuals and groups. Answer: Three core values predominant in U.S. society include: • Individualism: Emphasizes personal freedom, autonomy, and self-reliance. This value influences behavior such as career choices driven by personal ambition, advocacy for individual rights, and competitive attitudes in academic or professional settings. • Equality: Values equal opportunity, justice, and fairness for all individuals regardless of background. It promotes behaviours such as activism for civil rights, inclusive policies in education and employment, and advocacy for marginalized groups. • Materialism: Values material wealth, success, and consumerism. It affects behavior such as prioritizing financial stability, pursuing material goods as status symbols, and engaging in consumer-driven lifestyles. These core values shape cultural norms, social interactions, and institutional practices in the U.S., influencing societal expectations, policy-making, and individual aspirations. 9. The author of the original study “The Blessed Curse” wrote, “From a very early age I was presented with two different and conflicting views of myself.” What did the author mean by this? Explain. Answer: The author likely meant that they were exposed to contrasting societal or cultural expectations regarding their identity or behavior. This could involve conflicting messages about gender roles, cultural norms, or personal aspirations that created internal conflict or confusion. For instance, the author might have experienced pressure to conform to traditional norms while also feeling drawn to alternative or non-conforming identities. Such conflicting views could shape personal identity development, influencing self-perception, behaviours, and social interactions throughout their life. 10. Discuss the biological basis for intersexuality. Answer: Intersexuality refers to variations in sex characteristics that do not fit typical definitions of male or female. Biological factors contributing to intersex conditions include: • Chromosomal Variations: Such as Turner syndrome (45,X) or Klinefelter syndrome (47,XXY). • Hormonal Factors: Abnormalities in hormone production or sensitivity, influencing genital development. • Anatomical Differences: Ambiguous genitalia or variations in internal reproductive structures. These biological variations challenge binary notions of sex and highlight the complexity of human sexual development. 11. Explain why the Native American and Euro-American views on intersexuality are so diametrically opposed. Answer: Native American views on intersexuality often embrace a Two-Spirit tradition, recognizing individuals who embody both masculine and feminine qualities as spiritually gifted. This contrasts with Euro-American views, which historically pathologized intersex traits and sought to medically "normalize" individuals to fit binary gender norms. These differing perspectives stem from distinct cultural beliefs about gender diversity, spirituality, and societal roles, reflecting broader cultural attitudes towards non-conformity and individual identity. 12. Discuss cross-cultural gender models, explaining how various cultures view genders differently. Give specific examples to illustrate your thoughts. Answer: Cross-cultural gender models vary widely, reflecting diverse cultural understandings of gender roles, identities, and expressions: • Two-Spirit Tradition (Native American): Recognizes Two-Spirit individuals who embody both masculine and feminine qualities, holding respected roles as mediators or spiritual leaders. • Hijra Community (South Asia): Third-gender category encompassing eunuchs, intersex, and transgender individuals who historically served in ceremonial and domestic roles. • Fa'afafine (Samoa): Biological males who embody feminine traits and roles within Samoan society, occupying unique cultural and social positions. • Sworn Virgins (Albania): Biological females who adopt male social roles and responsibilities due to familial or societal expectations. These examples illustrate cultural diversity in defining and accommodating gender diversity, challenging Western binary concepts and highlighting the importance of cultural context in shaping gender identities and social roles. These responses delve into complex intersections of biology, culture, and identity, demonstrating how diverse perspectives on intersexuality and gender diversity reflect broader cultural values and social practices across different societies. 13. Explain the statement, “Insanity is a socially and culturally constructed mental illness.” Answer: The statement suggests that definitions of insanity and mental illness are shaped by social and cultural factors rather than solely by objective medical criteria. Mental health diagnoses, treatments, and societal responses to mental illness vary across cultures and historical periods, reflecting cultural norms, beliefs, and values. For example, behavior considered abnormal in one culture may be accepted or even revered in another. This cultural construction influences perceptions of what constitutes mental health and illness, impacting diagnosis, treatment, and social integration of individuals with mental health conditions. 14. How does a culture itself induce certain kinds of psychological conflicts that have important consequences for the entire society? Answer: Culture shapes psychological conflicts by imposing norms, expectations, and values that may conflict with individual desires or identities. For instance, cultural pressures to conform to gender roles or societal expectations of success can induce psychological stress and identity crises. These conflicts can have broader consequences, affecting societal cohesion, mental health outcomes, and social dynamics. Cultural ideals of perfectionism, achievement, or conformity may contribute to anxiety, depression, or other mental health issues among individuals striving to meet societal standards. 15. Using examples from the chapter, how do cultures change their attitudes toward mental illnesses through time? Answer: Cultures evolve their attitudes toward mental illnesses through various historical and social shifts: • From Stigmatization to Acceptance: Historical attitudes often stigmatized mental illness, viewing it as a moral failing or supernatural affliction. Over time, advocacy, education, and scientific advancements have promoted understanding and acceptance of mental health conditions. • Medicalization and Professionalization: The rise of psychiatry and psychology in Western cultures led to medical explanations and treatments for mental illness, shifting perceptions from moral judgments to medical diagnoses. • Cultural Relativism: Globalization has encouraged recognition of diverse cultural perspectives on mental health, challenging Western-centric views and promoting culturally sensitive approaches to diagnosis and treatment. • Advocacy and Policy Changes: Mental health advocacy movements have influenced public attitudes and policy reforms, promoting human rights, community support, and integration of mental health care into broader healthcare systems. These changes illustrate cultural dynamics in shaping perceptions of mental illness, emphasizing the role of education, advocacy, and cultural sensitivity in promoting mental health awareness and support. Chapter 7 – Patterns of Subsistence MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. The process organisms undergo to achieve a beneficial adjustment to a particular environment, which not only leads to biological changes in the organisms but also impacts their environment, is called A. accommodation. B. acculturation. C. adaptation. D. assimilation. E. incorporation. Answer: C 2. Among the Tembisa of Papua New Guinea, there is a relationship between the physical and social environments that involves ritual slaughter in order to re-establish harmony. What animal is slaughtered to reduce pressure on the local environments? A. Dogs B. Sheep C. Pigs D. Goats E. Cows Answer: C 3. According to “Surviving in the Andes,” Aymara Indians adapted to high altitude by having approximately _____ % of greater pulmonary diffusing capacity through their expanded heart and lungs. A. 10 B. 15 C. 20 D. 30 E. 40 Answer: D 4. The Aymara Indians, who live in the mountains of Bolivia, have become biologically adapted to their environment by being A. short legged and barrel chested and surviving on lower oxygen content. B. long legged and extremely thin in comparison to the rest of the nation. C. short legged and very narrow chested and surviving on higher oxygen content. D. excellent climbers with an extraordinary sense of balance. E. long legged and stocky chested because of enlarged heart and lungs. Answer: A 5. A system composed of both the natural environment and all living organisms within it is called a(n) A. biodome. B. ecological diversity system. C. ecoscape. D. ecodome. E. ecosystem. Answer: E 6. The Comanche and the Cheyenne were quite different culturally until they moved out onto the Great Plains and made use of the horse to hunt the buffalo and raid settled peoples. They then became more similar in cultural adaptations, a process called A. pre-adaptation. B. transformed evolution. C. convergent evolution. D. parallel evolution. E. ecological evolution. Answer: C 7. The development of similar cultural adaptations to similar environmental conditions by people whose ancestral cultures were already rather alike is called A. convergent evolution. B. parallel evolution. C. constant evolution. D. adaptation. E. diffusion. Answer: B 8. What principle of evolution is best illustrated in the example of the changes that occurred to the Cheyenne when they moved out onto the Great Plains from the Great Lakes region? A. They gave up a hunting and gathering lifestyle in order to begin producing food B. They gave up growing crops in order to pursue hunting and gathering C. They became settled and developed a very complex form of political organization D. They left subsistence farming, began to work for the railroad companies, and become dependent on industrial society E. They left behind their culture to converge into that of the dominant U.S. society Answer: B 9. Which of the following statements about Easter Island and the Rapanui is not correct? A. The Rapanui first settled the island about 800 years ago. B. When the Rapanui arrived, 75% of the land was densely forested. C. The Rapanui raised pigs and also fished for subsistence. D. A large rat population on the island contributed to the ultimate destruction of the Rapanui. E. When the Dutch arrived to the Island in 1722, there were no more than 3,000 Rapanui remaining. Answer: C 10. In anthropology, geographic regions where a number of societies have similar ways of life are known as A. culture cores. B. parallel life styles. C. convergent evolution. D. culture areas. E. social areas. Answer: D 11. The concept that states humans are moving forward to a better, more advanced stage in their cultural development is called A. advancement. B. evolution. C. progress. D. success. E. convergence. Answer: C 12. The oldest and most universal mode of subsistence is A. food foraging. B. subsistence farming. C. hunting. D. pastoralism. E. fishing. Answer: A 13. Today, food-foraging societies A. are found only in the world’s most marginal areas. B. make up the majority of the world’s population. C. have not existed for 1,000 years. D. have their pick of the best environments. E. represent a primitive, undeveloped way of life. Answer: A 14. All of the following statements except one correctly describe food-foraging societies. Which is it? A. They are egalitarian. B. They are small nomadic groups living within a fixed territory. C. They are primitive because they did not progress to a higher level. D. They are not very aggressive or warlike. E. They live in marginal areas of the world today. Answer: C 15. The average number of people in a food-foraging group is A. 750-1,000. B. 500-750. C. 250-500. D. 100-250. E. less than 100. Answer: E 16. The number of people that can be supported by the available resources at a given level of technology is called the A. ecosystem. B. carrying capacity. C. culture core. D. population density. E. culture area. Answer: B 17. To say that food-foraging societies are egalitarian means that A. there are no status differences. B. the only status differences are age and sex. C. everyone is equal except women. D. men are usually subordinate to women. E. children are the center of community life and adults have no distinctions in status. Answer: B 18. Food-foraging societies are egalitarian because A. humans, in their natural state, like to share. B. it is unnatural for some people to be richer than others. C. their mobility and type of technology limits the accumulation of surplus possessions. D. they are constantly threatened by starvation. E. their king told them to be that way. Answer: C 19. Among food foragers, social equality is marked in all of the following except: A. strict division of labor. B. rarity of warfare. C. communal property. D. social egalitarianism. E. distribution of resources. Answer: A 20. The transition from food foraging to food production first took place about _____ years ago in _____. A. 15,000; Nile River region B. 5,000; Tigris Euphrates area C. 10,000; Southwest Asia D. 7,000; the Highlands of Mesoamerica E. 3,000; Yangtze River Valley Answer: C 21. Which of the following is most likely to require cooperative hunting skills? A. Bow hunting B. Net hunting C. Spear hunting D. Rifle hunting E. Dart hunting Answer: B 22. The cultivation of crops using hand tools such as digging sticks or hoes is a type of farming called A. agriculture. B. slash-and-burn. C. horticulture. D. low-tech farming. E. pastoralism. Answer: C 23. The extensive form of horticulture in which the natural vegetation is cut, the slash is subsequently burned, and crops then planted among the ashes is known as slash-and-burn cultivation. It is also called A. intensive agriculture. B. complex farming. C. simple agronomy. D. swidden farming. E. extensive cultivation. Answer: D 24. In what country do we find the Mekranoti? A. Paraguay B. Brazil C. Venezuela D. Colombia E. Thailand Answer: B 25. Three years after planting their gardens, the Mekranoti are left with only A. manioc. B. sweet potatoes. C. pineapple, D. tobacco. E. bananas. Answer: E 26. In the Americas, the crop complex that was most adaptive and typical was A. wheat, barley, flax, rye, and millet. B. rice, yam, and taro. C. maize, beans, and squash. D. manioc, wheat, and cotton. E. rhubarb, rice, and turnips. Answer: C 27. One of the most significant characteristics of the food-producing way of life was the development of A. permanent settlements. B. mobile populations. C. skillful hunters. D. lower population. E. increased egalitarianism. Answer: A 28. Someone who uses irrigation, fertilizers, and the plow to produce food on large plots of land is known as a/an A. horticulturalist. B. agriculturalist. C. pastoralist. D. forager. E. industrialist. Answer: B 29. What was the primary goal of the Cusichaca Trust research and applied work in the Patacancha Valley of Peru? A. Alteration of dietary intake to improve nutrition B. Development of new seeds more adapted to the climate C. Development of new markets throughout the valley D. Revival of ancient farming techniques E. Introduction of domestic animals to revive pastoralism Answer: D 30. Pastoralists are like food foragers in that A. both have some members of the group who remain behind to protect the camp. B. both now live in areas that are marginal, where land is not suitable for farming. C. both count on flexibility to get the game they hunt. D. both engage in occasional horticulture. E. women are the ones who primarily contribute to daily food intake. Answer: B 31. Food producers who specialize in animal husbandry, and who consider their way of life to be ideal and central to defining their identities, are called A. food foragers. B. horticulturalists. C. agriculturalists. D. pastoralists. E. industrialists. Answer: D 32. The Bakhtiari are a A. pastoral group who raise goats and sheep. B. pastoral group who raise pigs and cows. C. foraging group with an extensive home range. D. horticultural group that raises manioc and bananas. E. horticultural group that raises taro, yams, and wheat. Answer: A 33. What is a primary labor activity of Bakhtiari women and girls? A. Spinning wool into yarn B. Herding sheep through difficult mountain passes C. Tilling soil to raise yams and sweet potatoes D. Gathering roots and berries E. Hunting elephants Answer: A 34. Which of the following statements about the Bakhtiari khans is not correct? A. They are tribal leaders within this pastoral group. B. They give away all of their possessions to gain prominence. C. They spend most of lives in the mountains. D. Many of them are well educated. E. Some are elected and some inherit their positions. Answer: B 35. All of the following statements about peasants are true except: A. they are associated with urban areas. B. they are often caught in a web of poverty. C. they exist within societies of intensive agriculture. D. they are exploited by more powerful groups. E. they are large-scale producers of crops. Answer: E 36. Mass food production is a characteristic of which type of food production? A. Swidden B. Slash and burn C. Industrial D. Horticultural E. Pastoralism Answer: C 37. Agribusiness is associated with all of the following except: A. reduction of labor costs. B. driving down wages. C. maximizing employee benefits. D. maximizing profits. E. expanding markets. Answer: C 38. A society in which human labor, hand tools, and animal power are largely replaced by machines, with an economy primarily based in big factories, is called a(n) A. foraging society. B. horticultural society. C. pastoral society. D. agricultural society. E. industrial society. Answer: E 39. Which innovation is considered the beginning of the industrial revolution? A. Rifle B. Hoe C. Airplane D. Steam engine E. Wheel Answer: D 40. Which part of the U.S. chicken is a primary export to China? A. Legs B. Breasts C. Wings D. Feet E. Necks Answer: D TRUE/FALSE 1. If a group is well adapted to its environment, it will never change as long as conditions remain the same. Answer: False 2. An anthropologist would probably find it difficult to define what “progress” is. Answer: True 3. The process of adaptation establishes a continually changing balance between the needs of the population and the potential of its environment. Answer: True 4. All broad-chested individuals are adapted to the low oxygen levels of high altitude. Answer: False 5. The development of similar cultural adaptations to similar environmental conditions by people whose ancestry was otherwise distinct is called parallel evolution. Answer: False 6. Archaeologists have not been able to identify the first settlers of Easter Island. Answer: False 7. A culture area is a geographic region in which a number of different societies follow a similar (not necessarily identical) pattern of life. Answer: True 8. People started shifting to food-producing ways of life about 10,000 years ago. Answer: True 9. About 3 million people live by food foraging in the world today. Answer: False 10. To say differing sex roles among food foragers are compatible with the biological differences between men and women supports the assertion that they are biologically determined. Answer: False 11. Frequent nursing of children over as many as 4 or 5 years acts to stimulate ovulation among food foragers such as Bushman. As a consequence, women give birth to more offspring at shorter intervals. Answer: False 12. Among foragers, most groups have home ranges within which all resources are open to any members of the group. Answer: True 13. According to the original study, the Mekranoti Kayapo had to work hard to get enough produce from their gardens. Answer: False 14. Unlike agriculturalists, horticulturalists always produce a small surplus. Answer: False 15. Anthropologists have sometimes found that older framing techniques are more adaptive than newer ones. Answer: True 16. Plows are a particular tool associated with agricultural societies. Answer: True 17. The Bakhtiari are pastoralist nomads who shepherd their herds throughout the Iran-Iraq border area. Answer: True 18. Peasants typically have too little land to break the cycle of poverty. Answer: True 19. An economy dominated by machines and based on big factories is an industrial society. Answer: True 20. The largest poultry broiler processing plant in the U.S. is located in Detroit, Michigan. Answer: False SHORT ANSWER 1. What is cultural evolution? Answer: Cultural evolution refers to the process by which human societies adapt, change, and develop over time through the transmission of ideas, beliefs, practices, and technologies. Similar to biological evolution, cultural evolution involves the accumulation of cultural traits and their modification through social learning, innovation, and interaction. It encompasses changes in social structures, technologies, languages, and belief systems within a society or across different societies. 2. Compare and contrast convergent and parallel evolution, and provide an example of each. Answer: • Convergent Evolution: Convergent evolution occurs when different species independently evolve similar traits or characteristics in response to similar environmental pressures, despite not being closely related. An example is the wings of bats (mammals) and birds (birds), both adapted for flight. • Parallel Evolution: Parallel evolution involves related species evolving similar traits due to shared ancestry and similar environmental pressures. For instance, the marsupial mammals in Australia (e.g., kangaroos) and placental mammals in other continents (e.g., deer) have evolved similar adaptations for grazing and locomotion. 3. How do the Tsembaga balance the needs of the population with the needs of the environment? Answer: The Tsembaga, a tribe in Papua New Guinea, practice sustainable agriculture known as swidden (slash-and-burn) farming. They rotate their agricultural plots, allowing the land to regenerate while using fallow periods to maintain soil fertility. This practice balances population needs by ensuring sufficient food production while minimizing environmental degradation through sustainable land use and natural resource management. 4. Define “culture area,” using the Plains as an example. Answer: A culture area refers to a geographic region where distinct cultural groups share similar cultural traits, such as language, subsistence practices, and social organization. The Plains culture area in North America is characterized by nomadic hunter-gatherer societies historically dependent on bison for food, clothing, and shelter. Tribes like the Lakota, Cheyenne, and Blackfoot shared cultural similarities in ceremonial practices, social structure, and reliance on natural resources specific to the Plains environment. 5. What were the sources of environmental destruction on Easter Island? How could this have been prevented? Answer: Environmental destruction on Easter Island was primarily caused by deforestation, which resulted from human activities such as clearing land for agriculture, building canoes, and transporting and erecting the famous moai statues. This deforestation led to soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, and collapse of the island's ecosystem. Prevention could have involved sustainable land management practices such as reforestation, crop rotation, and limits on tree cutting, coupled with cultural practices that respect natural resources and prioritize long-term environmental sustainability. 6. How does Ju/’hoansi food sharing help us understand the concepts of adaptation and ecosystem? Answer: Ju/’hoansi food sharing illustrates adaptation by ensuring survival through cooperation and mitigating risks of food scarcity, while ecosystem understanding is enhanced as they utilize resources sustainably within their environment. 7. Compare the relative contribution of males and females to the diet of food foragers. Answer: In food-foraging societies like the Ju/’hoansi, males typically contribute more to protein-rich foods through hunting, while females provide a substantial portion of the diet through gathering plant foods, creating a balanced diet. 8. What does it mean for a society to be called “egalitarian”? Answer: An egalitarian society is characterized by a lack of formalized hierarchy or significant social stratification, where individuals have relatively equal access to resources, opportunities, and decision-making power. 9. What is the average birth interval for the Ju/’hoansi? Why is it so low? Answer: The average birth interval for the Ju/’hoansi is about 4 years. This relatively low interval helps maintain a sustainable population size within their environment by spacing births adequately to ensure maternal and child health. 10. Describe the planting sequence of a Mekranoti garden. Answer: The planting sequence of a Mekranoti garden typically involves clearing the land, planting staple crops like cassava and maize, followed by secondary crops like beans and fruits, and finally incorporating medicinal plants and trees to enhance soil fertility and biodiversity. 11. What type of subsistence do we find among the Mekranoti? Discuss. Answer: Among the Mekranoti, a Tupi-speaking indigenous group in Brazil, subsistence revolves around a combination of horticulture, fishing, hunting, and gathering. They practice swidden agriculture, also known as slash-and-burn farming, where they clear small plots of land, burn the vegetation, and plant crops like manioc, maize, and bananas. Fishing and hunting provide protein sources, supplemented by gathering wild fruits, nuts, and other forest resources. This subsistence strategy allows the Mekranoti to utilize diverse ecological resources while maintaining sustainable practices within their Amazon rainforest environment. 12. What is horticulture, and how is it different from agriculture? Answer: Horticulture is a form of small-scale farming that involves cultivating gardens or small plots of land using simple tools and techniques. It typically includes growing fruits, vegetables, and other plants for subsistence rather than commercial purposes. Horticulturalists often practice shifting cultivation, where they rotate planting areas to allow soil fertility to recover. Difference from Agriculture: • Scale: Horticulture is smaller in scale and often involves manual labor and simple tools, while agriculture tends to be larger scale, mechanized, and more intensive. • Intensity: Agriculture involves continuous cultivation of the same land, whereas horticulture often includes fallow periods to allow land regeneration. • Commercialization: Agriculture is often oriented toward commercial production and surplus, while horticulture is primarily for subsistence or local trade. 13. What are the primary characteristics of crop-producing societies? Answer: Crop-producing societies primarily rely on agriculture or horticulture to sustain their food supply. Key characteristics include: • Sedentary Lifestyle: Settlements are established near arable land for continuous cultivation. • Reliance on Domesticated Plants: Crops such as grains, fruits, and vegetables are cultivated for food. • Surplus Production: Agriculture allows for surplus food production, supporting population growth and specialized labor. • Impact on Environment: Intensive farming practices can lead to environmental modifications and resource management challenges. 14. Who is Ann Kendall, and what is the significance of her research? Answer: Ann Kendall is an anthropologist known for her research on the indigenous peoples of South America, particularly the Tupi-speaking groups in Brazil. Her work focuses on ethnobotany, documenting indigenous knowledge of plants, their uses, and cultural significance. Kendall's research is significant for understanding traditional ecological knowledge, sustainable resource management, and the cultural importance of plants in indigenous societies. 15. Compare and contrast mixed farming with pastoralism. Answer: • Mixed Farming: • Definition: Mixed farming involves the combination of crop cultivation (agriculture) and livestock raising (animal husbandry). • Characteristics: Farmers grow crops like grains, vegetables, and fruits alongside raising animals such as cows, sheep, or chickens. • Advantages: Diversifies income sources, utilizes land for multiple purposes, and improves soil fertility through crop-livestock integration. • Examples: Common in temperate regions where both crops and livestock can be managed. • Pastoralism: • Definition: Pastoralism revolves around raising and managing herds of animals (livestock) for food, clothing, and trade. • Characteristics: Nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle, movement of herds to seasonal grazing areas, reliance on animal products like milk, meat, and hides. • Advantages: Adaptability to arid or semi-arid environments, utilization of marginal lands unsuitable for crops, cultural and economic significance. • Examples: Practiced by pastoralist societies in Africa, Central Asia, and parts of the Middle East. Comparison: • Both mixed farming and pastoralism involve animal husbandry. • Mixed farming integrates crop cultivation with livestock, while pastoralism focuses solely on raising and herding animals. • Both contribute to food security and livelihoods, albeit in different ecological contexts. • Both have cultural significance and adaptability to specific environmental conditions. Contrast: • Mixed farming is more sedentary and integrates crop and livestock management in a fixed location. • Pastoralism is often nomadic or semi-nomadic, involving seasonal movements of herds to find grazing areas. • Mixed farming relies on both plant and animal products, while pastoralism primarily relies on animal products for sustenance and trade. These explanations provide insights into different subsistence strategies, agricultural practices, and the cultural significance of food production methods across various societies. 16. Use the Bakhtiari to describe the key features of pastoralism. Answer: The Bakhtiari illustrate key features of pastoralism through their nomadic lifestyle centered around herding livestock, typically sheep and goats, across seasonal grazing lands. 17. Who are the khans among the Bakhtiari? Answer: Among the Bakhtiari, khans are influential leaders who traditionally oversee aspects of tribal governance, mediation of disputes, and management of resources. 18. What is the role of peasants in an urban society? Answer: Peasants in an urban society often fulfill roles in manual labor, service industries, and low-skilled jobs, contributing to the urban workforce's economic productivity. 19. What does it mean to be an agribusiness? Answer: Being an agribusiness involves commercial agricultural practices that integrate farming with modern technologies, aiming for efficiency, large-scale production, and profit maximization. 20. What happens with a typical 6-lb. chicken butchered by a Mexican immigrant working for minimum wage in a Mississippi poultry plant? Answer: A typical 6-lb. chicken butchered by a Mexican immigrant working for minimum wage in a Mississippi poultry plant undergoes processing into various cuts or processed meat products, contributing to the industrial-scale production of poultry for consumer markets. ESSAY 1. Explain the role of adaptation in cultural survival. Answer: Adaptation plays a crucial role in cultural survival by enabling societies to adjust to changing environmental, social, and economic conditions. It involves the modification of behaviours, practices, technologies, and beliefs to better fit the challenges and opportunities presented by their surroundings. Cultures that successfully adapt can maintain stability, sustain resources, and enhance resilience against external pressures such as climate change, globalization, or political upheavals. Adaptation allows cultures to evolve over time while preserving core values and identities, ensuring their continued existence and relevance in dynamic environments. 2. Discuss the differences between cultural evolution and progress, giving at least three specific examples. Answer: • Cultural Evolution: Cultural evolution refers to changes in cultural practices, beliefs, and technologies over time through processes such as innovation, diffusion, and adaptation. Examples include: • Technological Advancement: The evolution from stone tools to modern machinery. • Social Organization: Shifts from hunter-gatherer societies to complex urban civilizations. • Religious Practices: Evolution of religious beliefs and rituals across different historical periods and societies. • Cultural Progress: Cultural progress implies a linear or value-laden advancement toward desirable outcomes, often defined by subjective criteria such as moral, technological, or social development. Examples include: • Industrialization: The transition from agrarian economies to industrialized societies is often seen as progress due to increased production and economic development. • Democratic Governance: Progress in governance systems from authoritarian rule to participatory democracies. • Human Rights: Progress in the recognition and protection of human rights globally, such as gender equality or minority rights. Differences: Cultural evolution is neutral and descriptive, focusing on changes in cultural traits over time, whereas cultural progress implies improvement toward specific goals or ideals. Evolution can lead to diverse outcomes, not necessarily considered progress by all societies or perspectives. Progress is often subjective and influenced by cultural values, historical contexts, and ideological frameworks. 3. What does it mean for a culture to be adaptive? Answer: A culture that is adaptive demonstrates the ability to respond effectively to environmental, social, and economic changes. Key characteristics include: • Flexibility: Willingness to modify practices, beliefs, and technologies in response to new challenges or opportunities. • Innovation: Development and adoption of new ideas, technologies, or social structures to address emerging needs. • Resilience: Capacity to withstand disruptions or shocks while maintaining core values and identity. • Sustainability: Balancing resource use with environmental conservation to ensure long-term viability. Adaptive cultures are dynamic, continuously evolving to meet internal and external demands while preserving cultural heritage and community cohesion. 4. Discuss why cultural evolution is sometimes confused with progress. Answer: Cultural evolution is occasionally mistaken for progress due to several factors: • Eurocentrism: Historically, Western societies have viewed their technological advancements, social institutions, and scientific achievements as indicators of progress, influencing global perspectives. • Teleological Bias: The belief that history moves toward a predetermined end or goal, often equating technological or societal advancements with progress. • Value Judgments: Certain cultural traits or practices are deemed more desirable or advanced based on subjective criteria, influencing perceptions of cultural evolution as progress. • Ignorance of Diversity: Failure to recognize diverse cultural values, priorities, and definitions of progress leads to oversimplified or ethnocentric interpretations of cultural evolution. Cultural evolution encompasses diverse pathways and outcomes shaped by local contexts, historical contingencies, and adaptive strategies, challenging linear notions of progress and highlighting the complexity of cultural change. 5. How does Ju/’hoansi social organization relate to the subsistence pattern of hunting and gathering? How is Ju/’hoansi society likely to change as the foraging way of life is eroded? Answer: Ju/’hoansi social organization is closely intertwined with their subsistence pattern of hunting and gathering. Their society is characterized by egalitarianism, communal sharing, and division of labor based on gender and age. As foraging resources become scarcer due to modern influences like encroachment of settlements and conservation efforts, Ju/’hoansi society faces challenges. They may experience shifts towards more settled lifestyles, increased reliance on external aid, and changes in traditional social structures and knowledge systems. These changes can impact their cultural identity, social cohesion, and resilience to environmental changes. 6. The Mekranoti Kayapo employ what has come to be known as slash-and-burn agriculture. Describe the benefits of this style of farming in the tropics. What would be the consequences of a U.S.-style of agriculture in the tropics? Answer: The Mekranoti Kayapo practice slash-and-burn agriculture, which involves clearing land by cutting vegetation and burning it before planting crops. In the tropics, this method provides several benefits such as nutrient cycling, pest control through natural processes, and maintenance of soil fertility. However, if a U.S.-style agriculture, characterized by large-scale monoculture and heavy chemical inputs, were adopted in the tropics, it could lead to soil degradation, loss of biodiversity, water pollution from agrochemical runoff, and increased vulnerability to pests and diseases. 7. A stable society does not necessarily mean a static one. Providing examples, explain why this statement is true. Answer: A stable society refers to one that maintains social order, cultural continuity, and functional institutions over time. However, stability does not imply stagnation; societies can remain stable while undergoing dynamic changes in demographics, technology, economy, and social norms. For example, modern societies like Japan have maintained stability while adapting to rapid technological advancements and demographic shifts. Similarly, indigenous communities may preserve their cultural traditions while integrating aspects of modern life, demonstrating resilience and adaptive capacity without compromising their stability. 8. Compare and contrast the food-foraging society with that of the food-producing society. Answer: Food-foraging societies, like the Ju/’hoansi, rely primarily on hunting and gathering for sustenance. They often exhibit egalitarian social structures, gendered division of labor, and intimate knowledge of local ecosystems. In contrast, food-producing societies practice agriculture and animal husbandry, enabling them to support larger populations through surplus food production. These societies tend to develop more complex social hierarchies, specialized economic roles, and transformative impacts on landscapes through cultivation and domestication. 9. To fit into an ecosystem, humans must have the potential to adjust to or become a part of it. Provide examples of human groups that have successfully adapted to their ecosystem. Answer: Humans have successfully adapted to various ecosystems by developing specialized knowledge, technologies, and social systems suited to local environments. For instance, the Inuit of the Arctic have adapted to extreme cold climates by developing igloo shelters, efficient hunting techniques for marine mammals, and clothing made from animal skins. Similarly, the Maasai of East Africa have thrived in semi-arid savannas by practicing nomadic pastoralism, utilizing drought-resistant livestock breeds, and traditional land management practices to sustain their way of life amidst environmental fluctuations. 10. Discuss how the Neolithic Revolution changed human society. Answer: The Neolithic Revolution, around 10,000 years ago, marked a pivotal shift from hunting and gathering to settled agricultural lifestyles. Key changes include: • Transition to Agriculture: Cultivation of crops (e.g., wheat, rice) and domestication of animals (e.g., cattle, sheep). • Sedentary Lifestyle: Establishment of permanent settlements, leading to the development of villages, towns, and eventually cities. • Social Complexity: Emergence of social hierarchies, division of labor, and specialized occupations (e.g., farmers, artisans). • Technological Advancements: Invention of pottery, tools, and irrigation systems to support agriculture. • Population Growth: Increased food production supported larger populations, facilitating cultural exchange, trade, and the development of complex societies. The Neolithic Revolution laid the foundation for modern civilization by transforming human societies' social, economic, and cultural practices. 11. Explain how the new subsistence strategies that have developed over the past few centuries have impacted culture, both positively and negatively. Answer: Over the past few centuries, new subsistence strategies such as industrial agriculture, industrial fishing, and globalized food systems have profoundly impacted culture: • Positive Impacts: • Food Security: Increased food production has alleviated hunger and improved nutrition for many populations. • Technological Innovation: Advancements in agricultural technologies have boosted productivity and efficiency. • Economic Development: Agriculture as a business has driven economic growth and employment opportunities. • Cultural Exchange: Global food trade has facilitated cultural exchange and diversity through culinary traditions. • Negative Impacts: • Environmental Degradation: Intensive farming practices have led to soil depletion, water pollution, and loss of biodiversity. • Loss of Traditional Knowledge: Industrialization has marginalized traditional farming practices and indigenous knowledge systems. • Social Inequality: Concentration of agricultural production in large-scale farms has marginalized small-scale farmers and rural communities. • Health Concerns: Industrial food production has contributed to dietary health issues, including obesity and non-communicable diseases. These impacts highlight the complex interplay between subsistence strategies, cultural values, and socioeconomic outcomes in contemporary societies. 12. Critique the Western notion of “progress” from an anthropological viewpoint. Answer: From an anthropological viewpoint, the Western notion of progress is critiqued for its ethnocentric bias and assumptions of superiority: • Cultural Relativity: Progress often reflects Western values and norms, neglecting diverse cultural understandings of development and well-being. • Historical Context: Progress assumes a linear trajectory of advancement, overlooking cyclical patterns of change and adaptation in non-Western societies. • Colonial Legacies: Western notions of progress have justified colonialism, exploitation of natural resources, and cultural assimilation of indigenous peoples. • Environmental Impact: Pursuit of economic growth and technological advancement has contributed to environmental degradation and climate change, challenging sustainable development goals. Anthropological critiques emphasize the importance of cultural diversity, local perspectives, and holistic approaches to understanding societal change beyond Western-centric frameworks of progress. 13. Describe the connection between water and mobility to a food-foraging society. Answer: In food-foraging societies, water plays a crucial role in mobility patterns and settlement patterns: • Mobility: Access to water sources determines seasonal movements of foraging groups to areas with abundant food and water. • Settlement: Permanent or semi-permanent settlements are established near reliable water sources, facilitating community cohesion and resource utilization. • Subsistence: Water availability influences plant growth, wildlife habitats, and fishing opportunities critical for food procurement. • Social Dynamics: Water sources serve as meeting points for social interaction, trade, and cultural practices integral to foraging societies' survival strategies. The connection between water and mobility underscores its significance in shaping social organization, economic activities, and environmental adaptations in traditional societies. 14. Explain the differences between horticultural societies and those which use agriculture to sustain their society. Answer: • Horticultural Societies: • Subsistence: Relies on small-scale cultivation of gardens or plots using hand tools and traditional techniques. • Labor: Involves family or community labor with less specialization and division of labor compared to agricultural societies. • Land Use: Practices shifting cultivation (slash-and-burn), rotating fields to maintain soil fertility, and using fallow periods. • Scale: Typically sustains smaller populations with lower surplus production and less reliance on external trade. • Examples: Indigenous groups in Amazon rainforests, Papua New Guinea, and Southeast Asia. • Agricultural Societies: • Subsistence: Relies on intensive cultivation of crops and domesticated animals using mechanized tools and modern techniques. • Labor: Involves specialized labor, including farmers, agricultural engineers, and agribusiness managers. • Land Use: Practices continuous cultivation, monocropping, and irrigation systems to maximize yield and productivity. • Scale: Supports larger populations with surplus production for trade, economic specialization, and urbanization. • Examples: Industrialized nations and regions with advanced agricultural practices (e.g., United States, China, European Union). Differences: • Technological Intensity: Agriculture utilizes advanced technologies and scientific methods compared to horticulture. • Productivity: Agriculture produces higher yields per unit of land, supporting larger populations and economic development. • Environmental Impact: Agriculture may have greater environmental footprint (e.g., deforestation, soil degradation) compared to horticulture's sustainable practices. Understanding these differences provides insights into how varying subsistence strategies shape cultural practices, economic systems, and environmental sustainability across different societies. 15. Using Ann Kendall’s applied work in Peru as an example, discuss what we can learn from our ancestors in terms of adaptation. Answer: Ann Kendall's work in Peru illustrates valuable lessons on adaptation from our ancestors. By studying indigenous agricultural practices and ecological knowledge, Kendall shows how ancient societies successfully adapted to diverse environmental conditions over generations. For example, techniques such as terracing in mountainous regions and crop diversification helped manage water resources and soil fertility sustainably. These insights underscore the importance of traditional ecological knowledge in addressing contemporary challenges like climate change and food security. By learning from our ancestors, we can integrate sustainable practices and adaptive strategies into modern agricultural and environmental management. 16. What challenges are associated with industrial food production? Answer: Industrial food production presents several challenges. Firstly, it often relies on monoculture farming, where large areas are dedicated to a single crop, leading to soil degradation and loss of biodiversity. Secondly, intensive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides can pollute water sources and harm ecosystems. Thirdly, industrial livestock farming contributes to environmental degradation through deforestation for pasture and methane emissions from livestock. Moreover, the concentration of food production in large-scale facilities increases vulnerability to disease outbreaks, affecting food safety and public health. Addressing these challenges requires sustainable practices that prioritize environmental stewardship, biodiversity conservation, and equitable access to nutritious food. 17. Compare rural peasants to those who work today for agribusiness. What challenges do they share and how are they distinct? Answer: Rural peasants and workers in agribusiness share some challenges while also having distinct experiences. Both groups face economic uncertainties, labor exploitation, and environmental impacts associated with agricultural practices. However, rural peasants often work on smaller-scale farms, relying on traditional knowledge and family labor, facing challenges like land access and rural poverty. In contrast, agribusiness workers are employed in large-scale operations, characterized by mechanization, wage labor, and corporate control over production. They may experience issues such as job insecurity, occupational health risks from chemical exposure, and limited bargaining power. While both groups contribute to global food production, their distinct contexts shape their socio-economic conditions and opportunities for livelihood improvement. Test Bank for Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge William A. Haviland, Harald E. L. Prins, Bunny McBride, Walrath 9781305633797