This Document Contains Chapters 9 to 10 Chapter 09 Cognitive Development in Early Childhood True / False Questions 1. Preschool children show the symbolic function through deferred imitation, pretend play, and language. TRUE 2. Most children do not reliably grasp the relationships between pictures, maps, or scale models and the larger or smaller objects or spaces they represent until at least age 6. FALSE 3. In naturalistic observations of 2½- to 5-year-olds' everyday conversations with their parents, the children show a flexible type of causal reasoning. TRUE 4. Ordinality is essentially the concept of comparing quality of two similar objects. FALSE 5. Socioeconomic status (SES) and preschool experience affect how rapidly children advance in math. TRUE 6. A classic example of centration is the failure to understand conservation. TRUE 7. One fundamental deficit in children with autism is the failure to develop an adequate theory of mind. TRUE 8. Children get to know that the mind is continuously active early on in childhood. FALSE 9. Development of social competence and language development typically do not rely on the understanding of mental states or theory of mind. FALSE 10. Information-processing models depict the brain as made up of two storehouses: sensory memory and short-term memory. FALSE 11. Preschool children, like those in all age groups, do better on recognition than on recall, but both abilities improve with age. TRUE 12. Autobiographical memory primarily helps a child know what to expect and how to act. FALSE 13. The two most commonly used individual intelligence tests for preschoolers are the Otis-Lennon Intelligence Scale and the Denver Scale of Intelligence. FALSE 14. An IQ score is a measure of how well a child can do certain tasks at a certain time in comparison with others of the same age. TRUE 15. Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development is measured using the psychometric tests of intelligence. FALSE 16. Although language proceeds normally for most children, a minority of children show delays in their language acquisition. TRUE 17. Prereading skills can be divided into two types, oral language skills and specific phonological skills. TRUE 18. The Reggio Emilia approach is based on the belief that children's natural intelligence involves rational, spiritual, and empirical aspects. FALSE 19. The best-known early intervention preschool program for children of low-income families in the United States is Project Head Start. TRUE 20. Although some states do not require kindergarten, most 5-year-olds attend either a public or private kindergarten. TRUE Multiple Choice Questions 21. During early childhood, children enter the second stage of cognitive development that Piaget called the __________ stage. A. concrete operational B. formal operational C. preoperational D. sensorimotor 22. The preoperational stage of cognitive development marks a major qualitative leap in thinking because it ushers in the ability to A. understand another person's perspective. B. apply logical reasoning. C. use transductive reasoning. D. engage in symbolic thought. 23. In Piaget's theory, a symbol refers to a(n) A. mental representation. B. physical object. C. inanimate object. D. written word. 24. Tatiana's older sister, Jenny, wore a witch costume for Halloween. Even though Jenny looked like a witch, Tatiana understood that she really was her sister. This achievement of preoperational thought requires A. the use of symbols. B. the understanding of another person's perspectives. C. the use of transductive reasoning. D. the use of fast mapping. 25. Lenny, who is 4 years old, is playing outside in the snow when he suddenly asks his father for a cup of hot chocolate. According to Piaget, Lenny's ability to think about hot chocolate, even though there is none around, shows that he is capable of A. transductive reasoning. B. symbolic function. C. delayed gratification. D. formal operational thought. 26. Piaget's term for ability to use mental representations to which a child has attached meaning is defined as A. symbolic function. B. centration. C. transduction. D. egocentrism. 27. Which of the following scenarios illustrates the symbolic function? A. Two days after Kellie stole two cookies from her mother's cookie jar, the jar fell down and broke and Kellie held herself responsible for this. B. On Sunday morning, Betsy watched her father make pancakes. On Tuesday, she made pancakes with modeling clay. C. Carmen walked up to her mother and asked her to beat the chair that made her fall. D. Riding a bus with his mother, Darren suddenly announces, "I want some alphabet soup!" 28. Gannon and Cole ride their bikes around the driveway making sounds of a moving train. They tell their parents that they are train conductors. What kind of play are they engaging in here? A. Pretend play B. Constructive play C. Narrative play D. Formal play 29. In Piaget's terminology, a preoperational child's tendency to mentally link particular experiences, whether or not there is logically a causal relationship is called _____. A. transitivity B. centration C. irreversibility D. transduction 30. Sarah hit her brother, Adam, on Saturday evening. When Adam woke up with a fever the next morning, Sarah concluded that she made her brother sick by hitting him. This is an example of A. categorization. B. transduction. C. conservation. D. animism. 31. Three-year-old Austin is playing with his cars. He puts all the red cars in one area and the rest of the cars in another area. This is an example of A. categorization. B. conservation. C. transduction. D. theory of mind. 32. Many children can classify by two criteria, such as color and shape, by the age of A. 36 months. B. 28 months. C. 2 years. D. 4 years. 33. _____ is the tendency to attribute life to objects that are not alive. A. Symbolism B. Conservation C. Centration D. Animism 34. Renee pours out a glass of milk for her doll telling her mother that her doll is very thirsty. This act best illustrates the Piagetian concept of A. conservation. B. centration. C. transitivity. D. animism. 35. Four-year-old Karl tells his father, "I told the wind to blow, so it made my kite fly." This is an example of A. animism. B. irreversibility. C. conservation. D. centration. 36. Derek's parents are happy to be buying a new car, but he is not enthusiastic. He tells his parents that it is not fair that they are getting rid of their old car after what it has done for them. According to Derek, the car would be upset on being discarded. Derek is demonstrating _____ in his thinking. A. transitivity B. conservation C. animism D. irreversibility 37. Preoperational children tend to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect others, leading to illogical conclusions. Piaget called this tendency A. animism. B. classification. C. centration. D. seriation. 38. Around 9 to 11 months of age, children develop the concept of more or less and bigger and smaller. This concept is called A. conservation. B. centration. C. transduction. D. ordinality. 39. Ms. Wang is working with kindergarten children on a math problem. She asks them to decide who has more crayons - Jamie who has five crayons or Juan who has seven. Which of the following abilities is Ms. Wang specifically testing through this question? A. Ordinality B. Conservation C. Centration D. Animism 40. Ms. Wang has given her kindergarten class a worksheet with small addition sums. Which of the following elements of number sense is she specifically testing through this worksheet? A. Number patterns B. Number transformation C. Estimation D. Centration 41. In Piaget's terminology, to think simultaneously about several aspects of a situation is to _____. A. decenter B. conserve C. encode D. categorize 42. While reading aloud one day, Callie pointed to a word in the book and asked her father "what does this word mean?" Callie, however, did not realize that she needs to turn the book so that her father can see the word. This is an example of A. seriation. B. transductive reasoning. C. egocentrism. D. animism. 43. Piaget tested children's egocentrism by using the A. still-face paradigm. B. Strange Situation technique. C. violation of expectations technique. D. three-mountain task. 44. Piaget's term for awareness that two objects that are equal according to a certain measure remain equal in the face of perceptual alteration so long as nothing has been added to or taken away from either object is known as _____. A. decentration B. conservation C. irreversibility D. ordinality 45. Timothy does not understand that transforming the shape of a liquid does not change the amount of liquid. Which of the following limitations of preoperational thought is illustrated here? A. Transductive reasoning B. Animism C. Irreversibility D. Conservation 46. Piaget's term for a preoperational child's failure to understand that an operation can go in two or more directions is known as _____. A. irreversibility B. ordinality C. transitivity D. decentration 47. Ivan's mother takes some clay from a small box in his toys and makes a long cylindrical clay model of a rocket for him. Ivan loves the model but worries that the clay will not fit into the box anymore. The limitation of preoperational thought illustrated here is _____. A. decentration B. seriation C. irreversibility D. ordinality 48. _____ is the awareness and understanding of the mental processes of others. A. Egocentrism B. Mind-body dualism C. Theory of mind D. Conservation 49. Sheena knows that her mother will be upset when she comes into Sheena's room and sees the mess that she and her friends have made. This awareness implies that A. Sheena is unable to understand the principle of object permanence. B. Sheena is unable to distinguish between living and inanimate objects. C. Sheena is able to understand the mental processes of others. D. Sheena is able to understand that two contradictory realities can co-exist. 50. Studies conducted to understand the theory of mind in children between ages 3 and 5 have shown that A. theory of mind accompanies the decline of egocentrism and the development of empathy. B. children have abandoned all their false beliefs about the world by this stage. C. young children believe that the mind is continuously active. D. the understanding that other people can have false beliefs does not develop for most children until middle childhood. 51. Which of the following is true of false beliefs? A. False beliefs decline substantially by 3 years of age. B. False beliefs require the manipulation of one's views and the actual truth. C. False beliefs reduce as children develop egocentric thought. D. False beliefs arise because children believe their thoughts and actions to be completely private. 52. Children first understand the distinction between real and imagined events sometime between the ages of _____ years. A. 18 months and 3 B. 5 to 7 C. 12 months and 2 D. 7 to 8 53. At preschool, Ms. Thomas often feels as though she has spent the morning with twice the number of students than she actually has. It seems every student has invited his/her imaginary friend to spend the morning. Which of the following statements regarding imaginary companions is true? A. Imaginary play may offer developmental benefits for children. B. The preteens involved in imaginary play is real, and not intentional for children at this stage. C. The use of magical thinking in children is limited to those situations where children lack the knowledge needed to draw obvious explanations. D. Children with imaginary companions are less likely to engage in pretend play than those who do not have imaginary companions. 54. Compared to children who have no imaginary companions, children who do have imaginary companions A. are usually socially isolated. B. have fewer friends at preschool. C. use more elaborate narrative structures in a personal story. D. are typically unable to differentiate between preteens and reality. 55. Which of the following factors is associated with a heightened awareness of theory of mind? A. Low levels of infant social attention B. High levels of egocentrism C. High degree of bilingualism D. Low spoken language skills 56. _____ is the process by which information is prepared for long-term storage and later retrieval. A. Extinction B. Recall C. Encoding D. Recognition 57. Retention of information in memory for future use is known as _____. A. retrieval B. storage C. encoding D. recognition 58. Karen's mother asked her if she knew where her father had kept the gardening tools after the two of them did some gardening together on Sunday. This question from her mother is likely to initiate a process called _____ in Karen's memory. A. retrieval B. storage C. encoding D. decay 59. Which of the following memory systems is defined as a temporary storehouse for incoming sensory information that decays rapidly? A. Working memory B. Semantic memory C. Sensory memory D. Procedural memory 60. Information being encoded or retrieved is kept in a short-term storehouse which is referred to as A. working memory. B. echoic memory. C. sensory memory. D. iconic memory. 61. The growth of working memory permits the development of _____ functions that involve the conscious control of thoughts, emotions, and actions to accomplish goals or solve problems. A. glandular B. motor C. sensory D. executive 62. A central executive controls the A. executive operations in sensory memory. B. processing operations in working memory. C. disciplinary functions in long-term memory. D. development functions in procedural memory. 63. The central executive orders information encoded for transfer to _____, which is a storehouse of virtually unlimited capacity that holds information for extended periods of time. A. sensory memory B. haptic memory C. long-term memory D. iconic memory 64. _____ is the ability to identify something encountered previously, and _____ is the ability to reproduce knowledge from memory. A. Recall; recognition B. Reorganization; recognition C. Recognition; recall D. Reorganization; recollection 65. Which of the following types of childhood memory begins at about age 2 and produces scripts of repeated events? A. Autobiographical memory B. Episodic memory C. Generic memory D. Latent memory 66. Jeremy has memorized the route that his bus takes to school. He can describe it in detail to his father. This ability reflects the functioning of his A. latent memory. B. generic memory. C. sensory memory. D. episodic memory. 67. Molly, a five-year-old, was taken to the circus six months ago by her family. She still remembers meeting the clowns and watching the trapezium show at the circus. Which of the following types of childhood memory would store such a memory? A. Episodic memory B. Prospective memory C. Generic memory D. Sensory memory 68. Autobiographical memory A. is highly susceptible to decay. B. is fully functional by 2 years of age. C. is a type of episodic memory. D. is a type of memory for routine and repetitive events. 69. Studies of autobiographical memory indicate that A. it typically begins around 2 years of age. B. it is dependent on the development of language. C. social interaction has little to do with its development. D. all memories in the episodic memory are directly transferred to the autobiographical memory. 70. _____ is an individual intelligence test for ages 2 and above, used to measure knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory. A. Gardner Intelligence Scale for Children B. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale C. Apgar Scale D. Denver Test of Multiple Intelligences 71. _____ is an individual intelligence test for ages 2½ to 7 that yields verbal and performance scores as well as a combined score. A. Gardner Intelligence Scale for Children B. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale C. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence D. Denver Test of Multiple Intelligences 72. Vygotsky's term for the difference between what a child can do alone and what the child can do with help is known as A. zone of innate ability (ZIA). B. zone of proximal development (ZPD). C. zone of passive construction (ZPC). D. zone of cognitive assessment (ZCA). 73. Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development describes _____ as a temporary support to help a child master a task. A. encoding B. conserving C. stake holding D. scaffolding 74. Studies by Barbara Rogoff have shown that A. children who do not begin formal schooling at the normative age experience long-term deficits in language and social development. B. children who follow the dominant pattern of formal schooling prevalent in the West are at a disadvantage with regard to information transmission. C. children can learn valuable cultural information and practical skills from being a part of daily activities. D. children following the Western model of formal schooling validate its worth over other traditional forms of information transmission. 75. The day before yesterday, 5-year-old Josh heard his father say, "Water accumulates on the roof when it rains." It was the first time that he had ever heard the word "accumulates." Today, Josh told his mother, "My toys accumulate in my room." Josh is exhibiting A. egocentrism. B. telegraphic speech. C. fast mapping. D. dual-coding. 76. Jimena is a typical 3-year-old. Like most of her preschool playmates, she can correctly use A. complex, multi-clause sentences. B. plurals, past tense, and pronouns. C. twenty or more words in a sentence. D. compound sentences fluently. 77. At age ___, children's language first becomes more adult-like as they incorporate compound and complex sentences, employ all parts of speech, and use prepositions and articles. A. 3 to 4 B. 5 to 7 C. 8 to 9 D. 10 to 12 78. __________ refers to the practical knowledge needed to use language for communicative purposes. A. Pragmatics B. Syntactics C. Semantics D. Phonetics 79. _____ is closely associated with theory of mind as it requires children to adjust their speech based on the listener's perspective. A. Syntactics B. Private speech C. Pragmatics D. Telegraphic speech 80. Talking aloud to oneself with no intent to communicate with others is called _____. A. telegraphic speech B. private speech C. personal speech D. social speech 81. Vygotsky viewed private speech as A. a very rare occurrence among normal preschool-age children. B. as a sign of cognitive immaturity. C. a deficit in the process of language development. D. a mediator in the process of learning and problem-solving. 82. Language development is delayed in about ___ percentage of preschool aged children. A. 5 to 8 B. 9 C. 12 to 16 D. 3 83. Which of the following statements about delayed language development is true? A. Children who speak late despite having adequate levels of comprehension are likely to be afflicted by anxiety and social phobias. B. There is no evidence of delayed speech being linked to heredity. C. Children with delayed language development invariably lack linguistic input at home. D. Boys are more likely than girls to be late talkers. 84. _____ refers to preschoolers' development of skills, knowledge, and attitudes that underlie reading and writing. A. Transformational grammar B. Dual coding C. Theory of mind D. Emergent literacy 85. Which of the following represents a specific phonological skill? A. Linking letters with sounds B. Understanding narrative structure C. Vocabulary D. Syntax 86. Which of the following represents an oral language skill? A. Linking letters with sounds B. Decoding a printed word C. Vocabulary D. Word recognition 87. Which of the following is NOT an effective way to help preschool children become literate? A. Avoiding the use of new and unfamiliar words B. Focusing dinner-table talk on the day's activities C. Providing appropriate conversational challenges D. Reading to children 88. Preschools in China essentially emphasize _____ whereas preschools in the United States take a more progressive approach to early childhood education. A. social development B. emotional growth C. physical development D. academic preparation 89. A local preschool is trying to incorporate a more child-centered approach in its curriculum and teaching methodology. In order to meet this goal, the preschool should A. focus solely on the mastery of alphabet and number use. B. include more activities that help the bright children fulfill their potential. C. incorporate more activities that foster personality growth and interpersonal functioning. D. highlight the role of academic achievement as the ultimate purpose of its child-centered approach. 90. Which of the following is true of the Montessori method in early childhood education? A. In the Montessori method, learning is free and students are allowed to set the direction of classroom activities based on their preferences. B. The Montessori method was first implemented in the 1940s in a village in Italy. C. The Montessori method is more defined and structured when compared to the Reggio Emilia approach. D. Research on the Montessori method has not proven its benefits over other traditional approaches to preschool education. 91. Which of the following is true about the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education? A. In Reggio Emilia approach, learning is purposeful but less defined than with the Montessori curriculum. B. Reggio Emilia approach is a more formal model than the Montessori method. C. Reggio Emilia Approach stresses the importance of directing children to engage in standard educational activities. D. Reggio Emilia Approach was introduced by Maria Montessori in 1907. 92. The best-known early intervention preschool program for children of low-income families in the United States is A. the Montessori Preschool. B. the Perry Preschool Program. C. Project Head Start. D. Project Child Development. 93. Which of the following statements about Project Head Start is true? A. The goals of Project Head Start are primarily academic and fail to cover personal and social skills. B. The program is funded by donations from non-profit organizations across the United States. C. The program provides medical, dental, and mental health care, social services, and at least one hot meal a day. D. Research evidence does not support its effectiveness in improving school readiness. 94. The _____ is a national system for early care and education that makes access to preschool similar to kindergarten by using the public schools. A. Montessori preschool B. Perry Preschool Program C. Universal preschool D. Reggio Emilia approach 95. Compared to kindergartens in the past, contemporary kindergartens in the United States A. restrict the working hours to half a day mandatorily. B. provide no measurable benefits even as early as the first two years of school. C. operate more like first grade classes with worksheets and reading activities being predominant. D. allow children to spend a majority of their time on self-chosen activities. Essay Questions 96. Define symbolic function. Demonstrate how it can be linked to deferred imitation, pretend play, and language. Answer: "I want lemonade!" announces Isabelle, age 4, trudging indoors from the hot, dusty backyard. She has not seen anything that triggered this desire—no open freezer door, no television commercial. She no longer needs a sensory cue to think about something—she can remember lemonade and she purposefully seeks it out. This is an illustration of the symbolic function, the ability to use symbols, or mental representations. For example, language is a symbolic representational system. The word "key" is a symbol for the object that we use to open doors. Without symbols, people could not communicate verbally; make change, read maps, or treasure photos of distant loved ones. Preschool children show the symbolic function through deferred imitation, pretend play, and language. Deferred imitation, which becomes more common after 18 months, is based on having kept a mental representation of an observed action—as when 3-year-old Berta scolds her little sister, using the same words she heard her father say to the delivery boy who was late bringing the pizza. In pretend play, also called fantasy play, dramatic play, or imaginary play, children may make an object, such as a doll, represent, or symbolize, something else, such as a person. Language is also symbolic; words stand for objects and concepts in our world. 97. Morgan seems to remember things and events that made a strong impression on him. However, memory of childhood events is rarely deliberate. Explain the three types of memory during the period of early childhood. Answer: The three types of childhood memory that serve different functions have been identified as generic, episodic, and autobiographical. Generic memory, which begins at about age 2, produces a script, a general outline of a familiar, repeated event, such as riding the bus to preschool or having lunch at Grandma's house. It helps a child know what to expect and how to act. Episodic memory refers to awareness of having experienced a particular event that occurred at a specific time and place, like a particularly fun time at the park on a sunny day. Given a young child's limited memory capacity, episodic memories are temporary. Unless they recur several times, in which case they are transferred to generic memory, they last for a few weeks or months and then fade. Talking about events with parents often helps children remember them on a long-term basis, presumably by providing verbal labels for aspects of an event and giving it an orderly, comprehensible structure. Autobiographical memory, a type of episodic memory, refers to memories of distinctive experiences that form a person's life history. Not everything in episodic memory becomes part of autobiographical memory—only those memories that have a special, personal meaning to the child. Autobiographical memory generally emerges between ages 3 and 4. A suggested explanation for the relatively slow arrival of autobiographical memory is that children cannot store in memory events pertaining to their own lives until they develop a self-concept. Also critical is the emergence of language, which enables children to share memories and organize them into personal narratives. 98. Describe psychometric approaches to intelligence, such as the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale, the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, and Vygotsky's idea of the zone of proximal development. Answer: The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is used for children ages 2 and up and takes 45 to 60 minutes to complete. The child is asked to define words, string beads, build with blocks, identify the missing parts of a picture, trace mazes, and show an understanding of numbers. The child's score is supposed to measure fluid reasoning (the ability to solve abstract or novel problems), knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory. The 5th edition includes nonverbal methods of testing all five of these dimensions of cognition and permits comparisons of verbal and nonverbal performance. In addition to providing a full-scale intelligence quotient (IQ), the Stanford-Binet yields separate measures of verbal and nonverbal IQ plus composite scores spanning the five cognitive dimensions. The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Revised (WPPSI-III) is an individual test that takes 30 to 60 minutes. It has separate levels for ages 2½ to 4 and 4 to 7, and it yields separate verbal and performance scores as well as a combined score. The most current version includes subtests designed to measure both verbal and nonverbal fluid reasoning, receptive versus expressive vocabulary, and processing speed. The WPPSI-III has been validated for special populations, such as children with intellectual disabilities, developmental delays, language disorders, and autistic disorders. According to Vygotsky, children learn by internalizing the results of interactions with adults. This interactive learning is most effective in helping children cross the zone of proximal development (ZPD), the imaginary psychological space between what they are already able to do by themselves and what they could do with help. The ZPD can be assessed by dynamic tests that provide a better measure of children's intellectual potential than do traditional psychometric tests. Examiners help the child when necessary by asking questions, giving examples or demonstrations, and offering feedback, making the test itself a learning situation. 99. Describe typical achievements in language development during early childhood. Discuss vocabulary, grammar and syntax, pragmatics, social speech, and private speech. Answer: Young children's growing facility with language helps them express their unique view of the world. Between ages 3 and 6, children make rapid advances in vocabulary, grammar and syntax, and pragmatics and social speech. At 3 the average child knows and can use 900 to 1,000 words. By age 6, a child typically has an expressive (speaking) vocabulary of 2,600 words and understands more than 20,000. This rapid expansion of vocabulary may occur through fast mapping, which allows a child to pick up the approximate meaning of a new word after hearing it only once or twice in conversation. The ways in which children combine syllables into words, and words into sentences, grow increasingly sophisticated during early childhood. As children learn vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, they become more competent in pragmatics, the social context of language. This includes knowing how to ask for things, how to tell a story or joke, how to begin and continue a conversation, and how to adjust comments to the listener's perspective. Not all speech is directed toward others. Private speech, talking aloud to oneself with no intent to communicate with others, is normal and common in childhood. Speech intended to be understood by a listener is known as social speech. Although language proceeds normally for most children, a minority of children show delays in their language acquisition. 100. What are some of the benefits of early childhood education? Define "universal preschool" and discuss the goals of the universal preschool system. Answer: Going to preschool around age 3 is an important step that widens a child's physical, cognitive, and social environment. The transition to kindergarten, the beginning of real school at age 5 is another momentous step. The correlation between quality early childhood education and future academic success has been closely investigated. Studies have indicated that the gaps in academic achievement between low-SES and middle-class students in the United States can be documented before children enter school. These findings have prompted interest in and debate over the development of universal preschool, a national system for early care and education using the public schools. The goal of programs such as this is to improve school readiness and educational success by (1) providing access to high-quality child care and developmentally appropriate preschool, (2) building parent involvement, and (3) providing support services for parents that enhance family functioning. Preliminary findings from one such program have indicated enhanced academic skills through second grade by children who have attended preschool. Chapter 10 Psychosocial Development in Early Childhood True / False Questions 1. The self-concept is our total picture of our abilities and traits that determines how we feel about ourselves. TRUE 2. Self-definition typically changes between ages 5 and 7. TRUE 3. Culture helps shape the understanding of the self. TRUE 4. Children with noncontingent self-esteem attribute failure to their personality deficiencies, which they believe they are unable to change. FALSE 5. Children with contingent self-esteem try new strategies until they find one that works. FALSE 6. One reason young children are confused about their feelings is that they do not understand they can experience contrary emotional reactions at the same time. TRUE 7. By knowing a child's sex, one can predict whether that particular boy or girl will be faster, stronger, smarter, more obedient, or more assertive than another child. FALSE 8. Hormones that circulate in the mother's bloodstream during pregnancy affect the developing brain. TRUE 9. Studies of infants born with ambiguous genitalia have proven that the role of biological determinants of gender is insignificant. FALSE 10. The theory of sexual selection states that the selection of sexual partners is a response to the differing reproductive pressures early men and women confronted in the struggle for survival. TRUE 11. According to social cognitive theory, observation enables children to learn much about gender-typed behaviors before performing them. TRUE 12. Girls tend to be more strongly gender-socialized concerning play preferences than boys. FALSE 13. Crayon drawing is an example of functional play. FALSE 14. Constructive play is also called locomotor play. FALSE 15. Solitary play can be a sign of anxiety or social rejection. TRUE 16. The tendency of children to select same-sex playmates is known as gender segregation. TRUE 17. Reinforcing a child's positive behavior through praise is an example of using an internal reinforcement. FALSE 18. The primary goal of power assertion is to cause pain but not physical harm or injury. FALSE 19. Children who are intensely emotional and low in self-control tend to express anger aggressively. TRUE 20. Electronic media, including television, movies, and video games, have enormous power for modeling aggression. TRUE Multiple Choice Questions 21. _____ is defined as our total picture of our abilities and traits that determines how we feel about ourselves and who we think we are. A. Self-discrimination B. Self-concept C. Self-efficacy D. Self-actualization 22. Self-concept is essentially a _____ construction. A. cognitive B. biological C. normative D. physical 23. _____ is defined as a cluster of characteristics used to describe oneself. A. Self-definition B. Self-realization C. Self-control D. Self-actualization 24. Lucas is 4 years old. He is most likely to describe himself according to his A. deep-seated personality traits. B. specific abilities, such as being a fast runner or a good climber. C. global traits, such as being popular or outgoing. D. internal traits, such as being thoughtful or worried. 25. At age 4, children's self-descriptions are likely to be A. abstract and self-critical. B. balanced and comprehensive. C. unrealistically positive. D. combinations of positive and negative evaluations of self. 26. Which of the following is a typical aspect of self-definition for a child around the age of 7? A. Using concrete, observable behaviors to describe oneself B. Focusing solely on physical features in self-descriptions C. Being unrealistically positive in their descriptions of themselves D. Being self-critical while maintaining a positive overall self-concept 27. In _____ cultures, individuals are seen as separate from one another, and independence and self-reliance are highly valued. A. individualistic B. collectivistic C. normative D. prescriptive 28. In _____ cultures, individuals are seen as fundamentally interrelated, and group harmony and cohesiveness take precedence over individual concerns. A. individualistic B. collectivistic C. normative D. prescriptive 29. _____ is the judgment children make about their overall self-worth. A. Self-esteem B. Self-efficacy C. Self-realization D. Self-actualization 30. Which of the following is the evaluative part of self-concept? A. Self-esteem B. Self-control C. Self-regulation D. Self-actualization 31. Leo thinks he is the smartest student in his kindergarten class. Leo's judgment of his self-worth is called A. self-esteem. B. self-realization. C. self-control. D. self-actualization. 32. Tasha's judgment about her worth and level of competence is defined as her A. self-definition. B. self-control. C. real self. D. self-esteem. 33. Children with _____ self-esteem tend to attribute failure to their personality deficiencies, which they believe they are unable to change. A. stable B. reversible C. contingent D. global 34. Peter has high self-esteem that is often contingent on success. He recently did poorly on a spelling test. To which of the following reasons would he be least likely to attribute his poor grade? A. He is not good at spelling. B. He did not study adequately. C. The test was too difficult. D. His poor spelling abilities are impossible to change. 35. Children with _____ self-esteem tend to attribute failure or disappointment to factors outside themselves or to the need to try harder. A. noncontingent B. reversible C. perseverant D. disorganized 36. Mary has noncontingent self-esteem and she has just received a bad grade on her math test. To which of the following reasons would she most likely attribute her poor grade? A. She is not good at math. B. She did not study. C. The test was unusually difficult for her grade. D. She is not as intelligent as her classmates. 37. Children with "learned helplessness" usually A. try new strategies in the face of failure. B. repeat unsuccessful strategies. C. seek help for improving their skills. D. possess a strong sense of perseverance. 38. Dweck's research implies that praise in childhood should focus on _____, not _____. A. intelligence; perseverance B. externalities; internalities C. effort; ability D. aptitude; attitude 39. _____ essentially includes both minimizing certain emotions and maximizing others. A. Emotion mapping B. Emotion dysfunction C. Emotion synthesis D. Emotion regulation 40. Which of the following emotions involves a comparison of one's self or one's actions to social standards and develops only by the end of the third year of life? A. Fear B. Shame C. Joy D. Distress 41. _____ are directed toward the self and include guilt, shame, and pride. A. Basic emotions B. Innate emotions C. Social emotions D. Primary emotions 42. Social emotions typically develop by the end of the _____ of life. A. third year B. sixth year C. ninth year D. twelfth year 43. At what age are individual differences in understanding conflicting emotions first evident? A. 3 years of age B. 6 years of age C. 9 years of age D. 12 years of age 44. Thomas is quick to remind his sister that he can go hunting with his dad because he is a boy. A child's awareness of being male or female is termed as A. gender neutrality. B. gender identity. C. gender conflict. D. gender discrepancy. 45. Abigail has become aware that she is a female and that females are different from males. Abigail has acquired a A. gender identity. B. natural sexual selection. C. neutral gender schema. D. biological understanding. 46. Which of the following statements regarding gender differences in males and females is true? A. Females tend to do better at verbal analogies. B. Females tend to do better at mathematical word problems. C. Males tend to have superior memory for spatial configurations. D. Males tend to do better at tests of verbal fluency. 47. Behaviors, interests, attitudes, and skills considered appropriate for females and males in a given culture are A. denoted as gender roles. B. determined solely by the biological correlates of gender. C. designed such that they are flexible and ever-changing. D. collectively referred to as social conservation. 48. The socialization process whereby children learn culturally accepted gender roles is called A. gender determination. B. gender conservation. C. gender-typing. D. gender neutralization. 49. Sam is 30 months old. He is becoming aware that he is a boy and that boys play with trucks but not with dolls. This process by which Sam first acquires the features of his gender role is defined as A. social neutralization. B. gender constancy. C. gender-typing. D. gender conservation. 50. Gender stereotypes appear to reach a peak at age A. 2. B. 5. C. 9. D. 11. 51. Five-year-old Shawn is playing with his sister, Cheryl's doll. She tells him to put it down because "boys don't play with dolls!" This is an example of a(n) A. natural sexual selection. B. gender stereotype. C. unconscious conflict. D. secular trend. 52. Darwin highlighted the role of _____ in gender development. A. self-categorization B. gender schemas C. natural sexual selection D. identification with the same-sex parent 53. In psychoanalytic theory, the process by which a young child adopts characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors of the same-sex parent is called A. intellectualization. B. sublimation. C. regression. D. identification. 54. Five-year-old Lakeem has been imitating his father closely. Lakeem's father has a successful construction business and Lakeem proudly wears his father's company hat and tool belt everywhere. Freud would describe Lakeem's dress preferences a sign of his _____. A. identification with his same-sex parent B. regression to an older developmental stage C. fixation involving his mother D. sublimation of repressed conflicts 55. The _____ theory, associated with Lawrence Kohlberg, proposes that gender knowledge precedes gendered behavior. A. evolutionary B. psychoanalytic C. natural sexual selection D. cognitive-developmental 56. According to the cognitive-developmental theory, which of the following statements about gender identity is true? A. Before the age of 5, children do not usually know which gender they belong to. B. Gender constancy is the realization that one's sex will never change. C. Children usually acquire gender consistency before having a stable gender identity. D. Gender differences in behavior precede gender knowledge. 57. Jennifer knows that she is a girl and by watching what other girls do in her culture, she is learning how she is expected to behave. Which of the following theories holds that gender-typing is acquired in this way? A. Psychoanalytic theory B. Biological theory C. Evolutionary theory D. Gender-schema theory 58. In the _____ theory of gender-identity development, children socialize themselves in gender roles by developing a concept of what it means to be male or female in their culture. A. evolutionary B. gender-schema C. psychoanalytic D. biological 59. Research has found that peers begin to reinforce gender-typed behavior by the age of A. 5 years. B. 3 years. C. 8 years. D. 7 years. 60. _____ is the lowest cognitive level of play, involving large muscular movements such as rolling or playing with a ball. A. A formal game with rules B. Constructive play C. Pretend play D. Functional play 61. Rolling a ball is an example of A. a formal game with rules. B. constructive play. C. functional play. D. pretend play. 62. Which of the following is an example of constructive play? A. Helena and Carter have converted the space below the table into a clinic and are playing out the roles of a doctor and a patient. B. Tasha, Marlene, and Wendy are playing hopscotch just outside their porch. C. Karen and Drake are building a model of a house with a chimney from the discarded box of their new television set. D. Keith and his older brother are playing with a frisbee in their backyard. 63. Dakota is using blocks to make a house and a garage. Which of the following types of play is Dakota engaged in here? A. Dramatic play B. Functional play C. Parallel play D. Constructive play 64. Going from simplest to most complex, which of the following sequences of types of play is correct? A. Dramatic play, functional play, formal games with rules, constructive play B. Functional play, constructive play, dramatic play, formal games with rules C. Constructive play, dramatic play, functional play, formal games with rules D. Constructive play, functional play, dramatic play, formal games with rules 65. Dramatic play A. essentially involves playing with objects to construct something. B. primarily consists of repeated practice of large muscular movements and represents the simplest level of play. C. essentially rests on the symbolic function. D. involves organized games with known procedures and penalties. 66. Which statement about dramatic play during the preschool years is true? A. Dramatic play decreases during the preschool years. B. This type of play eliminates the need for children to rely on the symbolic function. C. Dramatic play offers rich opportunities to practice interpersonal and language skills. D. Dramatic play rarely lasts beyond the preschool years. 67. Formal games with rules A. are called object games as they involve the use of objects or materials to make something, such as a house of blocks or a crayon drawing. B. are restricted to locomotor play, which consists of repeated practice of large muscular movements. C. involve make-believe objects, actions, or roles combined by the symbolic function. D. are organized games with known procedures and penalties, such as hopscotch and marbles. 68. Antonio and Anton want to play soccer after school, but they need to find more friends who want to play with them. Soccer is considered to be an example of A. a formal game with rules. B. constructive play. C. functional play. D. pretend play. 69. _____ identified six types of play based on children's level of social involvement. A. Jean Piaget B. Diana Baumrind C. Mildred Parten D. Sandra Bem 70. Despite the fact that Brenna is in a crowded classroom, she chooses to play by herself and makes no attempt to join the others. She is engaged in _____ play. A. onlooker B. solitary independent C. parallel D. associative 71. At Jason's second birthday party, all the children were playing with toys in the backyard. Although the children were sitting near one another, each child played separately with his or her selected toys. Parten would describe this as an example of _____ play. A. dramatic B. parallel C. associative D. cooperative 72. During free play at preschool, Valerie spends her time playing with Seth and Tifara. Their favorite activity is building with blocks. As they share the blocks, they talk excitedly with one another about the various buildings they create. This scenario best describes the form of play called A. associative play. B. solitary independent play. C. unoccupied behavior. D. onlooker behavior. 73. When one speaks of methods of molding children's character and teaching them self-control and acceptable behavior, one is referring to the process called A. attachment. B. discipline. C. empathy. D. social promotion. 74. Examples of external rewards include all the following except A. pride. B. treats. C. praise from the parents. D. a hug. 75. An internal reward for a child's good behavior is a reward that is A. given by a parent. B. tangible, such as a toy or sticker. C. intangible such as praise or a smile. D. the child's sense of pleasure or accomplishment. 76. Punishment is sometimes necessary. Which of the following guidelines would NOT be effective for administering punishment? A. It must be consistent. B. It must be immediate. C. It must be corporal in nature. D. It must be clearly tied to the offense. 77. Punishing a child tends to be most effective when A. a considerable time elapses between a behavior and its punishment, so that the child will have time to reflect on her or his misbehavior. B. punishment is accompanied by a short, simple explanation of the wrongdoing. C. the person who punishes is not in good terms with the child, because children tend to ignore punishment from people with whom they have very good relationships. D. punishment is unrelated to the offense. 78. Julian is explaining to his young daughter why she must not play in their neighbor's garden. He tells her that the neighbors work hard to grow flowers and maintain their garden and if she damages their plants while playing, she will not be allowed to go outdoors alone. As a method of socialization, Julian is employing A. inductive technique. B. corporal punishment. C. power assertion. D. the withdrawal of love technique. 79. Madeline took Billy's toy boat away from him and made him cry. Madeline's parents had a talk with her about how bad Billy felt because of Madeline's actions. Consequently, Madeline felt sorry about what she had done and gave the boat back to Billy. Which of the following forms of discipline was used in this scenario? A. Power assertion B. Withdrawal of love C. Inductive techniques D. Corporal punishment 80. Roberto's parents often express their displeasure with his misbehavior by ignoring him when he is acting inappropriately and for a short time afterward. Which of the following forms of discipline is being used by Roberto's parents by ignoring him? A. Power assertion B. Withdrawal of love C. Corporal punishment D. Inductive reasoning technique 81. _____ identified the authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative styles. A. Piaget B. Parten C. Peron D. Baumrind 82. _____ parenting primarily emphasizes control and obedience. A. Authoritative B. Authoritarian C. Permissive D. Neglectful 83. _____ parents make few demands and allow children to monitor their own activities as much as possible. A. Permissive B. Authoritative C. Authoritarian D. Controlling 84. Permissive parenting is a A. parenting style emphasizing control and obedience. B. parenting style emphasizing self-expression and self-regulation. C. parenting style in which parents focus on their own needs rather than those of children. D. parenting style utilizing power-assertive techniques exclusively. 85. Authoritative parenting is a A. parenting style that solely emphasizes control and obedience. B. parenting style that places the greatest importance on parental values and rules. C. parenting style in which parents focus on their own needs rather than those of their children throughout the formative years. D. parenting style blending warmth and respect for a child's individuality and teaching social values. 86. Lana asks her mother if she can have a friend over on a school night to study. Her mother quickly reminds her that the rule is no visitors on school nights and that she is not going to allow Lana to break it. Lana's mother is demonstrating a(n) _____ parenting style in this scenario. A. uninvolved B. authoritarian C. permissive D. neglectful 87. The style of parenting wherein parents focus on their own needs rather than on those of the child is called the _____ parenting style. A. authoritative B. authoritarian C. indulgent D. neglectful 88. The motivation to help others without expectation of reward that often involves self-denial or self-sacrifice is known as _____. A. altruism B. egocentrism C. animism D. pragmatism 89. Aggressive behavior used as a means of achieving a goal is known as _____ aggression. A. instrumental B. hostile C. overt D. relational 90. Research suggests that boys tend to use greater _____ aggression, while girls tend use more _____ aggression. A. overt; relational B. covert; overt C. emotional; physical D. relational: overt 91. Aggression that is openly directed at its target is known as _____ aggression. A. subtle B. social C. overt D. relational 92. Aggression aimed at damaging or interfering with another person's relationships, reputation, or psychological well-being is known as _____ aggression. A. instrumental B. hostile C. overt D. relational Essay Questions 93. Define the terms self-concept, self-definition, and self-esteem. Answer: Self-concept is a sense of self. It is the descriptive and evaluative mental picture of one's abilities and traits. The self-concept is our total picture of our abilities and traits that determines how we feel about ourselves—who we think we are. It is a cognitive construction that includes representations of the self. It also has a social aspect that incorporates children's growing understanding of how others see them. Self-definition is a cluster of characteristics used to describe oneself. Children develop a sense of self-awareness in toddlerhood that develops along with gains in cognitive abilities. Children's self-definition typically changes between about ages 5 and 7, reflecting this development. Self-esteem is the judgment a person makes about his or her self-worth. Self-esteem is the evaluative part of the self-concept, the judgment children make about their overall self-worth. Self-esteem is based on children's growing cognitive ability to describe and define themselves. 94. A relationship exists between gender identity and self-concept. Describe this relationship, and include the following terms in your description: gender roles; gender-typing; and gender stereotypes. Answer: Gender identity, awareness of one's femaleness or maleness and all it implies, is an important aspect of the developing self-concept. Gender differences are psychological or behavioral differences between males and females. Measurable differences between baby boys and girls are few. Although some gender differences become more pronounced after age 3, boys and girls on average remain more alike than different. Extensive evidence from many studies supports this gender similarities hypothesis. Gender differences may be small to negligible, and some differences, such as in self-esteem, change with age. Among the larger physical gender differences are boys' higher activity level; superior motor performance, especially after puberty; and their moderately greater propensity for physical aggression. Gender roles are the behaviors, interests, attitudes, skills, and personality traits that a culture considers appropriate for males or females. Historically, in most cultures, women have been expected to devote most of their time to caring for the household and children, and men have been providers and protectors. Gender-typing, the acquisition of a gender role, takes place early in childhood. Gender stereotypes are overgeneralizations about male or female behavior. For example, "All females are passive and dependent; all males are aggressive and independent" are gender stereotypes. They appear to some degree in children as young as 2 or 3, increase during the preschool years, and reach a peak at age 5. 95. Describe the four levels of play, and give an example for each of the four levels. Answer: Smilansky (1968) identified four levels of play: functional play, constructive play, dramatic play, and formal games with rules. Although there is a general developmental progression to the types of play, this is not a stage theory. The simplest level, which begins during infancy, is functional play, sometimes called locomotor play. It consists of repeated practice of large muscular movements, such as rolling a ball. The second level, constructive play, also called object play, is the use of objects or materials to make something, such as a house of blocks or a crayon drawing. The third level, which Smilansky called dramatic play (also called pretend play, fantasy play, or imaginative play), involves make-believe objects, actions, or roles; it rests on the symbolic function, which emerges during the last part of the 2nd year. Although functional play and constructive play precede dramatic play in Smilanksy's hierarchy, these three types of play often occur at the same ages. Dramatic play peaks during the preschool years, increasing in frequency and complexity, and then declines as school-age children become more involved in formal games with rules—that is, organized games with known procedures and penalties, such as hopscotch and marbles. However, many children continue to engage in pretending well beyond the elementary school years. 96. Describe inductive reasoning, power assertion, and withdrawal of love. Answer: Inductive techniques include setting limits, demonstrating logical consequences of an action, explaining, discussing, negotiating, and getting ideas from the child about what is fair. Inductive reasoning tends to arouse empathy for the victim of wrongdoing as well as guilt on the part of the wrongdoer. Inductive techniques are usually the most effective method of getting children to accept parental standards. Two other broad categories of discipline are power assertion and temporary withdrawal of love. Power assertion is intended to stop or discourage undesirable behavior through physical or verbal enforcement of parental control; it includes demands, threats, withdrawal of privileges, spanking, and other types of punishment. Withdrawal of love may include ignoring, isolating, or showing dislike for a child. Neither of these is as effective as inductive reasoning in most circumstances, and both may be harmful. 97. Write a note on aggressive behavior in childhood. Answer: Instrumental aggression or aggression is used as an instrument to reach a goal—the most common type in early childhood. Between ages 2½ and 5, children commonly struggle over toys and control of space. Instrumental aggression surfaces mostly during social play; children who fight the most also tend to be the most sociable and competent. As children develop more self-control and become better able to express themselves verbally, they typically shift from showing aggression with blows to doing it with words. Aggression is an exception to the generalization that boys and girls are more similar than different. In all cultures studied, as among most mammals, boys are more physically aggressive than girls. This gender difference is apparent by age 2. However, girls may be more aggressive than they seem. Whereas boys engage in more overt (direct) aggression—physical or verbal aggression openly directed at its target—girls, especially as they grow older, are more likely to engage in relational (indirect or social) aggression. This more subtle kind of aggression consists of damaging or interfering with relationships, reputation, or psychological well-being, often through teasing, manipulation, ostracism, or bids for control. It may include spreading rumors, name-calling, put-downs, or excluding someone from a group. Among preschoolers, it tends to be direct and face-to-face. Children who are intensely emotional and low in self-control tend to express anger aggressively, and physical aggression has been estimated to be 50 to 60 percent heritable. Parental behaviors also influence aggressiveness. Aggressiveness may also be influenced by a combination of a stressful and unstimulating home atmosphere; harsh discipline; lack of maternal warmth and social support; family dysfunction; exposure to aggressive adults and neighborhood violence; poverty; and transient peer groups, which prevents stable friendships. Test Bank for Child M-Series: From Birth to Adolescence Gabriela Martorell 9780078035517
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