CH-1-5 Introducing Archaeology – In the Beginning: An Introduction to Archaeology : Exam Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 1 to 5 Chapter One Test Questions Introducing Archaeology SAMPLE QUESTIONS Multiple Choice 1) Kathleen Deagan's excavations at the site of Fort Mose have enabled archaeologists to learn more about __________. A. Indians of the Pacific northwest B. the prehistory of Zambia C. the first free black community in North America D. the Aztec rulers of Mexico Answer: C 2) Archaeology is unique among all the sciences in its ability __________. A. to understand human diversity B. to understand how humans have changed over time C. to study the history of the earth over time D. to study human history over immensely long periods of time Answer: D 3) Explaining why human cultures in all parts of the world reached their various stages of cultural evolution in known as __________. A. the cultural process B. stewardship C. the archaeological record D. social anthropology Answer: A 4) Ensuring the conservation and survival of the finite archaeological record of artifacts and sites for posterity is known as __________. A. protectionism B. cultural resource management C. conservationism D. pseudoarchaeology Answer: B 5) Italian tombaroli __________. A. build tombs B. study archaeology C. rob Etruscan tombs D. destroyed the Slack Farm site Answer: C 6) Which of the following men argues that people from other worlds lived on earth long before present civilizations? A. Erich von Daniken B. John Lloyd Stephens C. Martin Bemal D. William Rathje Answer: A 7) The work of an ethnographer may be described as __________. A. the study of human biological evolution B. the description of the culture, technology, and economic life of different cultures C. the analysis of human language D. the study of modern human biological variation Answer: B 8) One major goal of archaeology is __________. A. conserving and managing the world’s archaeological sites for the future B. reconstructing past technology so as to discover the smartest people in the world’s past C. to redefine multilinear cultural evolution D. the analysis of ecosystems in light of climate change Answer: A 9) Classical archaeologists study __________. A. New World hunters and gatherers B. ancient Greek and Roman civilizations C. early human evolution D. prehistoric civilizations such as the Maya Answer: B 10) Underwater archaeology __________. A. is a kind of "pseudo-archaeology" B. uses very primitive techniques C. has the same objectives as archaeology in general–except the data are found underwater D. is focused almost entirely on finding spectacular gold artifacts Answer: C 11) Archaeologists build theories and apply scientific techniques and theoretical concepts in studying __________. A. anthropology B. human history C. material remains of human culture D. human biology and history Answer: C 12) __________ is/are the fundamental responsibility of all archaeologists. A. Ethical considerations B. CRM (cultural resource management) C. Studying the intangibles of the human mind D. Stewardship Answer: D 13) One aspect of human life that archaeologists tend to emphasize more than historians is __________. A. the day to day life of common people B. royalty and the ruling classes C. the literate classes D. the political decisions made by ancient rulers Answer: A 14) According to Martin Bernal, Egyptian civilization __________. A. owes much to black African inspiration B. is an indigenous development C. developed after contact with the Maya D. was started by visitors from outer space Answer: A 15) The study of archaeological sites from periods for which written records exist is __________. A. industrial archaeology B. cultural history C. anthropolgy D. historical archaeology Answer: D Short Answer 16) What are the major subfields of anthropology? Answer: The major subfields of anthropology are cultural anthropology, physical (biological) anthropology, archaeology, and linguistic anthropology. 17) Give a brief definition of anthropology. Answer: Anthropology is the study of human beings, their cultures, societies, and behaviors, both past and present, through systematic exploration, analysis, and interpretation of diverse aspects of human life. 18) Give a brief definition of archaeology. Answer: Archaeology is the study of past human societies through the excavation, analysis, and interpretation of material remains such as artifacts, architecture, and environmental data. 19) What is the distinction between historic and prehistoric archaeology? Answer: The distinction between historic and prehistoric archaeology is that historic archaeology focuses on societies with written records, while prehistoric archaeology studies societies without written records. Essay 20) Describe and discuss the four major goals of archaeology. Answer: The four major goals of archaeology are: to reconstruct past human lifeways and behaviors through material remains; to understand cultural evolution and change over time; to interpret and explain the significance of artifacts within their cultural contexts; and to contribute to broader understandings of human societies and their interactions with the environment. Achieving these goals involves meticulous excavation, analysis of artifacts, and integration of findings with anthropological theories. 21) Discuss the two major crises facing archaeologists today. Answer: Two major crises facing archaeologists today are: 1. Looting and Illegal Trade: Archaeological sites are increasingly targeted by looters who sell artifacts on the black market, leading to irreparable loss of cultural heritage and disturbance of contextual information crucial for scholarly understanding. 2. Climate Change and Environmental Impact: Rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and human-induced environmental changes threaten archaeological sites and their preservation. These factors accelerate erosion, degradation of artifacts, and loss of valuable archaeological data. 22) Why is cultural resource management (CRM) so important today, in American archaeology? Answer: Cultural Resource Management (CRM) is crucial in American archaeology because it ensures the preservation and responsible management of archaeological sites and cultural resources in compliance with legal regulations. It balances the needs of development projects with the preservation of cultural heritage, preventing the destruction or disturbance of significant archaeological sites. CRM also facilitates public outreach and education, fostering appreciation and understanding of the past among communities. Chapter Two Test Questions The Beginnings of Scientific Archaeology: Sixth Century B.C. to the 1950s SAMPLE QUESTIONS Multiple Choice 1) Pompeii and Herculaneum are __________. A. prehistoric caves with paintings of bison B. sites where early Neanderthals were discovered C. Bronze Age ceremonial centers in northern Europe D. Roman towns preserved by volcanic ash Answer: D 2) Stonehenge is located in __________. A. Mexico B. Rome C. southern England D. the United States Answer: C 3) James Ussher's chronology allowed approximately how many years for all of human history? A. six thousand B. one thousand C. one million D. four hundred thousand Answer: A 4) Scholars in the eighteenth century viewed prehistory in terms of __________. A. classical art B. human progress over time C. evolution D. the Christian bible Answer: B 5) Advances in the development of western science coincided with the __________. A. Industrial Revolution B. American Revolution C. Roman Empire D. Renaissance Answer: A 6) William Smith theorized that rocks were formed by __________. A. evolution B. the ocean C. continuous natural processes D. volcanic eruptions Answer: C 7) Which of the following people wrote Theory of the Earth? A. James Hutton B. William Smith C. Thomas Huxley D. Charles Darwin Answer: A 8) Which of the following people sailed around the world on the H.M.S. Beagle? A. Alfred Wallace B. Captain James Cook C. William Smith D. Charles Darwin Answer: D 9) Which of the following people wrote On the Origin of Species? A. Alfred Wallace B. Charles Darwin C. Thomas Huxley D. Lewis Henry Morgan Answer: B 10) On the Origin of Species describes __________. A. the voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle B. the formation of rocks C. evolution and natural selection D. the voyages of Captain Cook Answer: C 11) Which of the following people excavated in the Somme River gravels near Abbeville, France? A. Jacques Boucher de Perthes B. Lewis Henry Morgan C. Herbert Spencer D. Alfred Wallace Answer: A 12) The excavations in the Somme River gravels provided evidence pertaining to __________. A. the theory of natural selection B. classical art C. Neanderthal physical appearance D. the antiquity of humankind Answer: D 13) The first Neanderthal cranium was found in __________. A. France B. Germany C. Britain D. the United States Answer: B 14) Sociologist Herbert Spencer emphasized the importance of __________. A. progress B. evolution C. the antiquity of humankind D. biological change Answer: A 15) Edward B. Taylor and Lewis Henry Morgan both emphasized the importance of __________. A. changes in human physical form B. human progress C. diffusion D. describing cultural traits Answer: B 16) The notion of Unilinear Evolution was espoused by __________. A. William Smith B. W. W. Taylor C. J. Steward D. Victorian anthropologists Answer: D 17) According to Sir Grafton Elliot Smith __________. A. all civilizations diffused from the Nile Valley in Egypt B. civilizations developed independently in different areas of the world C. all civilizations had their origins in China D. all civilizations had their origins in Peru Answer: A 18) Both Franz Boas and V. Gordon Childe emphasized the importance of __________. A. cultural ecology B. theoretical interpretations C. absolute dating schemes D. primary data collection Answer: D 19) V. Gordon Childe formulated a comprehensive prehistory of the __________. A. Old World B. New World C. Great Plains D. Nile Valley Answer: A 20) Early New World archaeology concentrated on __________. A. the direct historical approach B. historical schemes C. stone tools D. well preserved sites such as Pompeii Answer: A 21) Which of the following people excavated Pecos Pueblo? A. V. Gordon Childe B. A.V. Kidder C. Franz Boaz D. Lewis Henry Morgan Answer: B 22) W.C. McKern was instrumental in the development of __________. A. the Midwestern Taxonomic Method B. Old World archaeology C. theories of cultural diffusion D. radiocarbon dating techniques Answer: A 23) A.E. Douglass studied __________. A. Old World archaeology B. pottery classification schemes C. stone tools D. tree rings Answer: D 24) Willard Libby invented __________. A. the Midwestern Taxonomic Method B. radiocarbon dating C. tree ring dating D. spectral analysis of wood samples Answer: B 25) Julian Steward proposed the concept of __________. A. multilinear cultural evolution B. unilinear cultural evolution C. culture history D. cultural diffusion Answer: A 26) Cultural ecology is the study of __________. A. the environment B. culture and animals C. the environment and culture change D. human cultures as isolated systems Answer: C 27) W.W. Taylor wrote __________. A. On the Origin of Species B. A Study of Archaeology C. Theory of the Earth D. In the Beginning Answer: B 28) Which of the following people proposed detailed, multilevel studies of individual sites and their features? A. V. Gordon Childe B. Lewis Henry Morgan C. Julian Steward D. W.W. Taylor Answer: D 29) A Study of Archaeology criticized __________. A. American archaeologists' preoccupation with chronology B. Old World archaeologists' preoccupation with classification C. cultural ecology D. unilineal evolution Answer: A 30) According to the theory of uniformitarianism __________. A. evolution occurs gradually B. the earth formed by divine process C. the earth formed by the long term operation of natural processes D. the earth formed over a period of about 6,000 years Answer: C 31) Which is the lowest unit in archaeological classification? A. phases B. culture area C. component D. tradition Answer: C 32) The Three-Age System was developed to deal with materials found in __________. A. Greece B. Africa C. North America D. Scandinavia Answer: D 33) The concept of the Neolithic Revolution was espoused by __________. A. V. G. Childe B. W. W. Taylor C. W. C. McKern D. J. Steward Answer: A 34) The concept of a "cultural core" was espoused by __________. A. V. G. Childe B. J. Steward C. W. C. McKern D. W. W. Taylor Answer: B Short Answer 35) What are Edward Taylor's three stages of human development? Answer: Edward Taylor proposed three stages of human cultural development: savagery, barbarism, and civilization. 36) Explain diffusion. Answer: Diffusion in anthropology refers to the spread of cultural traits, ideas, or technological innovations from one society to another through contact, migration, trade, or other forms of interaction. 37) Describe uniformitarianism. Answer: Uniformitarianism is the principle in geology and archaeology that the same natural laws and processes that operate in the present have also operated in the past. It assumes that geological and environmental changes happen gradually over long periods of time, without sudden catastrophic events, and that the same principles can be used to interpret past events as those observed in the present. 38) Why were V. Gordon Childe's ideas less influential in the New World? Answer: V. Gordon Childe's ideas were less influential in the New World primarily because his theories and interpretations focused heavily on Old World archaeology and the development of European civilizations. They often did not adequately address the diverse and complex histories of Indigenous cultures in the Americas, leading to limited applicability and relevance in American archaeology. 39) Explain V. Gordon Childe's two major stages of human culture. Answer: V. Gordon Childe proposed two major stages of human culture: 1. Neolithic Revolution: This stage marked the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture and settled farming communities. It involved the domestication of plants and animals, leading to more complex social structures and permanent settlements. 2. Urban Revolution: This stage saw the development of cities and complex societies characterized by division of labor, specialized occupations, social stratification, and centralized political authority. It reflected advancements in technology, trade networks, and cultural exchange. 40) Explain the direct historical approach. Answer: The direct historical approach in archaeology involves using written historical records and documents to interpret and understand archaeological findings. It relies on combining archaeological evidence with known historical events and contexts to reconstruct past societies and cultures more accurately. 41) Define multilinear evolution as proposed by Julian Steward. Answer: Multilinear evolution, as proposed by Julian Steward, suggests that cultures evolve along multiple paths, influenced by their environments and specific historical trajectories. It contrasts with the idea of a single universal progression of cultures and societies. Steward emphasized that different cultures could achieve similar levels of complexity through various adaptive strategies suited to their particular environments and circumstances. 42) How did A.E. Douglass influence archaeology? Answer: A.E. Douglass significantly influenced archaeology by developing dendrochronology, or tree-ring dating, as a precise method for dating archaeological sites and historical structures. His work provided a crucial tool for establishing chronologies in archaeology and helped refine the understanding of cultural sequences and historical timelines based on the analysis of tree-ring patterns. Essay 43) Discuss Lewis Henry Morgan's stages of human development. Answer: Lewis Henry Morgan's stages of human development categorized societies into three stages: savagery, barbarism, and civilization. Savagery represented hunting and gathering societies; barbarism included agricultural societies; civilization marked advanced societies with cities and writing. His work influenced early anthropology, though it oversimplified cultural diversity and progression. 44) What is unilineal cultural evolution? Contrast it with multilineal cultural evolution. Answer: Unilineal cultural evolution is the theory that all societies pass through a single sequence of stages from simple to complex, culminating in civilization. It implies a linear progression and often reflects Eurocentric biases. Multilineal cultural evolution, in contrast, acknowledges diverse paths of cultural development. It recognizes that different societies can achieve complexity through varied adaptive strategies influenced by their environments and histories. This approach respects cultural diversity and avoids imposing a singular developmental trajectory. 45) Compare and contrast the development of archaeology in the New and Old Worlds in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Answer: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, archaeology in the Old World (Europe, Middle East, and Asia) was characterized by the excavation of ancient civilizations like Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece, fueled by colonial interests and discoveries of monumental structures. This period saw the emergence of methods like stratigraphy and the decipherment of ancient scripts. In contrast, archaeology in the New World (the Americas) focused on Indigenous cultures, initially viewed through the lens of evolutionary theories and later incorporating cultural relativism. It involved extensive surveying and excavation of mound sites and cliff dwellings, revealing complex societies such as the Maya and Inca. Both regions experienced a shift from treasure hunting to scientific excavation and interpretation, influenced by developments in geology, biology, and anthropology. However, interpretations in the Old World often centered on ancient civilizations, whereas New World archaeology grappled with the complexities of Indigenous histories and cultural continuity. 46) What is the Midwestern Taxonomic Method? Explain its significance. Answer: The Midwestern Taxonomic Method, developed by William Duncan Strong, was a systematic approach to classifying and analysing archaeological artifacts and sites in the Midwestern United States. It involved categorizing artifacts based on typology, formulating chronological sequences, and correlating these with environmental data. Its significance lies in its methodical application, which helped establish a clearer understanding of cultural chronologies and technological changes among prehistoric Native American societies in the Midwest. This method contributed to more accurate interpretations of cultural evolution and adaptation over time, providing a foundational framework for subsequent archaeological studies in the region. 47) Discuss the importance of the discovery of radiocarbon dating for archaeology. Answer: The discovery of radiocarbon dating revolutionized archaeology by providing a precise method to determine the age of organic materials up to around 50,000 years old. This technique allowed archaeologists to establish chronologies with unprecedented accuracy, dating artifacts, sites, and fossils directly rather than relying on relative dating methods. Radiocarbon dating enabled the refinement of cultural sequences, correlations with historical events, and insights into human migration patterns and environmental changes over millennia, significantly enhancing the understanding of past civilizations and their development. 48) Discuss the importance of W.W. Taylor's approach in the context of the history of American archaeology. Answer: W.W. Taylor's approach, known as "Taylor Matrix Analysis," was important in American archaeology for its systematic method of organizing and analysing data from archaeological sites. By categorizing artifacts into matrices based on their spatial and temporal associations, Taylor provided a framework for understanding site formation processes and cultural contexts. His approach emphasized rigorous data collection and meticulous documentation, setting a standard for archaeological fieldwork practices in the United States. Taylor's methods contributed to more precise interpretations of site stratigraphy, artifact distributions, and cultural patterns, laying the groundwork for advancements in chronology building and cultural sequence development in American archaeology. 49) Compare and contrast the approaches to archaeology of V. Gordon Childe and W.W. Taylor. Answer: V. Gordon Childe and W.W. Taylor approached archaeology from distinct perspectives: V. Gordon Childe: • Approach: Childe focused on interpreting the rise and fall of civilizations through comparative analysis, emphasizing economic and social factors. • Methodology: He used broad cultural syntheses to trace cultural evolution and technological developments across different regions. • Legacy: Childe's work laid the groundwork for understanding urbanization and state formation in ancient societies. W.W. Taylor: • Approach: Taylor emphasized meticulous fieldwork and systematic data collection, advocating for stratigraphic excavation and artifact analysis. • Methodology: He developed the Taylor Matrix Analysis for precise artifact documentation and interpretation within specific archaeological contexts. • Legacy: Taylor's methods became foundational for American archaeology, enhancing accuracy in chronology building and site interpretation. Comparison: • Both scholars were concerned with understanding cultural change, but Childe focused on broad historical processes while Taylor prioritized detailed empirical studies. • They both sought to interpret past societies, but Childe used comparative analysis to trace overarching cultural developments, whereas Taylor's methods focused on local and regional archaeological contexts. • Both made enduring contributions: Childe through theories of cultural evolution, and Taylor through methodological advancements in archaeological practice. Contrast: • Childe's approach was more theoretical and interpretive, while Taylor's was more practical and methodological. • Childe's studies often focused on ancient civilizations in the Old World, whereas Taylor's influence was more pronounced in American archaeology. • Childe's work addressed broad patterns of cultural evolution, while Taylor's methods provided tools for precise site analysis and chronological reconstruction. In summary, V. Gordon Childe and W.W. Taylor each made significant impacts on archaeology through their distinct approaches, contributing theoretical insights and methodological advancements that shaped the discipline in different ways. Chapter Three Test Questions The Many-Voiced Past: Archaeological Thought from the 1950s to Now SAMPLE QUESTIONS Multiple Choice 1) When did statistical methods begin to change archaeology? A. in the 1950s B. in the 1970s C. in the mid-1980s D. only within the last few years Answer: A 2) The search for universal laws that govern cultural change is a goal of __________. A. cognitive archaeology B. the “new” archaeology C. post-processual archaeology D. antiquarianism Answer: B 3) Which of the following people advocated the use of the scientific method in archaeology? A. Albert Spaulding B. V. G. Childe C. Lewis Binford D. Richard Lee Answer: C 4) The ideas of Lewis Binford emphasized __________. A. the importance of the scientific method in archaeology B. the role of the individual in prehistory C. the importance of chronology D. the use of humanistic methods in archaeology Answer: A 5) Which approach is not of processual archaeology in nature? A. systems-ecological approach B. meaning is more important than materialism C. cultural ecology D. deductive-nomological approach Answer: B 6) When it is stated that many perspectives on ancient society have been neglected, archaeologists are referring to __________. A. cultural ecology B. processual archaeology C. passive archaeology D. post processual archaeology Answer: D 7) The emphasis on systems theory, the scientific method, and new approaches to ecology constitute __________. A. post processual archaeology B. middle-range theory C. general systems theory D. processual archaeology Answer: D 8) What is the notion that human cultures accept or reject new traits on the basis of whether they are advantageous to the society as a whole? A. unilinear theory B. cultural selection C. cultural ecology D. Social Darwinism Answer: B 9) Which process explains the mechanism by which new ideas or culture traits spread from one person to another or from one group to another, often over long distances? A. invention B. ecology C. diffusion D. migration Answer: C 10) Post processual archaeologists believe that __________. A. people actively shape their culture B. people are passive actors within their culture C. archaeologists should focus more on material culture D. archaeologists should be more concerned with dating techniques Answer: A Short Answer 11) Briefly define the “new” archaeology. Answer: The "new" archaeology, also known as processual archaeology, emerged in the 1960s and 1970s. It emphasized the application of scientific methods, quantitative analysis, and rigorous hypothesis testing to study cultural evolution and human behavior in the past. This approach aimed to make archaeology more objective and systematic, moving away from purely descriptive methods towards a more explanatory and scientific framework. 12) Briefly define systems theory. Answer: Systems theory is an interdisciplinary approach that studies complex systems by examining their components, interactions, and behaviours as integrated wholes. It emphasizes understanding how components within a system interact and how the system as a whole responds to external influences and changes over time. 13) Briefly define post-processual archaeology. Answer: Post-processual archaeology emerged in the 1980s as a critical reaction to processual archaeology. It emphasizes the subjective aspects of archaeological interpretation, including the role of individuals, ideology, and power relations in shaping the past. Post-processual archaeologists advocate for more nuanced understandings of past societies, considering diverse perspectives and questioning the objectivity of scientific methods. Essay 14) Discuss systems theory in the context of archaeology. Answer: Systems theory in archaeology examines past human societies as complex systems with interconnected components (e.g., environment, technology, social organization). It emphasizes studying interactions and feedback mechanisms to understand cultural change and resilience. This approach helps archaeologists analyse how societies adapt to environmental challenges, how cultural practices evolve, and how different aspects of society influence one another over time. Systems theory encourages a holistic view of past cultures, integrating multiple disciplines to enhance interpretations of archaeological data. 15) Discuss Binford's view of the archaeological record and how an artifact reveals the past. Answer: Lewis Binford viewed the archaeological record as a reflection of past human behavior and culture. He emphasized that artifacts are not mere objects but clues that can be analysed systematically to reconstruct past societies. Binford advocated for a scientific approach to archaeology, using methods like ethnoarchaeology and middle-range theory to infer past behaviours and cultural practices from material remains. He believed artifacts provide insights into technological advancements, social organization, and environmental interactions, helping archaeologists construct more accurate interpretations of the past. 16) Describe and give an example of migration and diffusion. Answer: Migration: Migration in archaeology refers to the movement of human populations from one geographical region to another. An example is the migration of Homo sapiens out of Africa around 60,000 years ago, spreading across Asia, Europe, and eventually reaching the Americas, as evidenced by archaeological and genetic studies. Diffusion: Diffusion is the spread of cultural traits, ideas, or technologies from one society to another through contact and interaction. An example is the spread of agriculture from the Middle East to Europe during the Neolithic period, evidenced by the adoption of domesticated plants and animals in archaeological records across different regions. 17) Discuss which tenets of the “new” archaeology have become an accepted part of archaeological practice. Answer: Several tenets of the "new" archaeology, or processual archaeology, have become widely accepted in archaeological practice: 1. Scientific Method: Emphasis on systematic data collection, hypothesis testing, and quantitative analysis. 2. Cultural Ecology: Studying how human societies adapt to their environments. 3. Middle-Range Theory: Formulating hypotheses connecting archaeological data to broader cultural patterns. 4. Systematic Survey and Excavation: Meticulous recording and analysis of archaeological contexts. 5. Interdisciplinary Approach: Integration of multiple scientific disciplines to understand past human behavior and societies. These principles have shaped modern archaeological methodologies and interpretations globally. 18) Discuss the ways in which the “new” archaeology has failed. What are some current responses to these failures? Answer: The "new" archaeology, or processual archaeology, has been critiqued for: 1. Overemphasis on scientific objectivity: Ignoring the subjective and interpretive aspects of archaeological research. 2. Neglecting social and political contexts: Failing to address power dynamics and indigenous perspectives. 3. Environmental determinism: Oversimplifying human-environment interactions. Current responses include: 1. Post-processual archaeology: Emphasizing interpretive approaches and acknowledging diverse voices. 2. Collaborative archaeology: Involving descendant communities in research and interpretation. 3. Critical reflexivity: Questioning biases and assumptions within archaeological practice. These approaches aim to address the limitations of processual archaeology and promote more inclusive and ethical archaeological research. 19) Compare and contrast the “new” archaeology and “newer” approaches such as post processual archaeology. Answer: New Archaeology (Processual Archaeology): • Emphasizes scientific methods, quantitative analysis, and objective research. • Focuses on understanding cultural processes through empirical data. • Seeks universal patterns and laws governing cultural change. • Views culture as adaptive to environmental and technological factors. Post processual Archaeology (Newer Approaches): • Critiques scientific objectivity and emphasizes subjective interpretations. • Highlights the role of ideology, power, and individual agency in shaping the past. • Emphasizes multiple voices and perspectives, including those of marginalized groups. • Questions the universality of cultural evolution and rejects deterministic explanations. Comparison: • Both approach archaeology critically but differ in their views on objectivity and interpretation. • Both seek to understand human behavior and culture but through different lenses of analysis. • Both have influenced modern archaeological practice and theory significantly. Contrast: • New archaeology prioritizes scientific methods and empirical data, while post processual archaeology values interpretive and subjective approaches. • New archaeology seeks general laws and patterns in cultural evolution, whereas post processual archaeology emphasizes cultural diversity and particular historical contexts. • New archaeology tends to be more deterministic, while post processual archaeology emphasizes agency and contingency in cultural change. Chapter Four Test Questions Matrix and Preservation SAMPLE QUESTIONS Multiple Choice 1) The preservation of different artifacts __________. A. varies from site to site B. is the same at every site C. does not matter to an archaeologist D. is constant through time Answer: A 2) When human behavior has affected the archaeological record, it is called __________. A. noncultural processes B. cultural transformation C. biological decay D. accidental destruction Answer: B 3) People in prehistoric times practiced __________. A. recycling and discarding B. discarding C. retrofitting D. reuse Answer: A 4) The earthquake that destroyed the Roman port at Kourion in A.D. 365 provides an example of __________. A. a cultural transformation B. noncultural processes C. biological decay D. artifact variation Answer: B 5) Boqueirao da Pedra Furada is a controversial site, which some archaeologists claim provides evidence for __________. A. human occupation of the New World at 12,000 B.P. B. human occupation of the New World as early as 40,000 B.P. C. human activity in the Old World at 1 million years B.P. D. human occupation of the Old World at 25,000 B.P. Answer: B 6) Site formation processes at each individual site must be considered __________. A. in their own separate contexts B. in a broad framework C. a result of human behavior D. a result of natural processes Answer: A 7) The study of site formation processes involves __________. A. geoarchaeology and ethnoarchaeology B. ethnic archaeology C. uncontrolled experiments D. mud flow patterns over time Answer: A 8) The Mayan trading centre of Cozumel provides an example of the difficulties involved in interpreting __________. A. discarded materials B. recycled materials C. ceremonial artifacts D. deliberately destroyed materials Answer: A 9) Ceremonial objects __________. A. usually decay over time B. may be curated over generations C. are normally discarded immediately after use D. are usually destroyed immediately after use Answer: B 10) Settlements may be __________. A. used for only a short period of time, and then abandoned B. used for many years, but never repaired C. abandoned and rebuilt many times over a period of hundreds of years D. considered permanent if used for over five years continuously Answer: C 11) Treasuring ancient objects __________. A. can distort the archaeological record B. has never been recorded in ancient times C. is practiced only in western, industrialized cultures D. does not affect the archaeological record Answer: A 12) Inorganic artifacts include __________. A. stone tools and animal bones B. animal bones and wooden stakes C. pottery and stone tools D. copper bells and animal bones Answer: C 13) An example of an inorganic artifact is a __________. A. burnt clump of seeds B. chopper C. basket D. wood beam Answer: B 14) Generally, inorganic objects survive in the archaeological record __________. A. for a long time B. in poor condition C. for a very short time only D. only under very special preservational conditions Answer: A 15) Organic artifacts __________. A. are the same as inorganic artifacts B. rarely survive in the archaeological record C. survive in the archaeological record very well D. are usually made of stone Answer: B 16) Wood and other plant remains generally preserve well __________. A. only in the countryside B. in peat-bogs C. only in the northern hemisphere D. in the tropics Answer: B 17) The term "matrix" is used to refer to __________. A. the material an object is made of B. the date of an object C. the depth at which an object is found D. the physical substance which surrounds archaeological objects Answer: D 18) The Somerset Levels are well-known for the preservation of __________. A. wooden trackways that are 6,000 years old B. people such as the Tollund man C. two women frozen in ice D. frozen mammoths Answer: A 19) Tollund man was found __________. A. in a Danish peat-bog B. at the site of Ozette C. frozen in ice D. in the Somerset Levels Answer: A 20) The Ozette site contained __________. A. many corpses B. remains of four cedarwood longhouses C. the last of the Makah Tribe D. frozen mammoths Answer: B 21) Good conditions for organic preservation include __________. A. peat bogs B. humid environments C. upper tundra layer of the Arctic D. wet soils Answer: A 22) An example of an arid environment is __________. A. the American Northeast B. the Nile Valley and Chinchorro, Chile C. Chinchorro, Chile D. the American Southeast Answer: B 23) The tomb of Tutankhamen was excavated by __________. A. Howard Carter B. Richard Daugherty C. Michael Schiffer D. C. Melvin Aikens Answer: A 24) The corpse found on the Similaun glacier in the European Alps in 1991 was preserved because of __________. A. heat, and dry conditions B. dry winds and extreme cold C. extremely wet, boggy conditions D. a volcanic eruption Answer: B 25) Human bodies discovered by Reinhard and Zarate in Peru were preserved because they were __________. A. covered by a landslide B. frozen C. buried in a bog D. mummified Answer: D 26) The Chinchorro Mummies of Chile are evidence of __________. A. very strange funerary practices B. the creative artistic abilities of these mountain people C. purposeful mummification practices about 7,000 years ago D. a failure in mummification technique Answer: C 27) The women found buried at Utqiagvik were killed by __________. A. a volcanic eruption B. a mass of ice chunks that buried their house C. lead poisoning D. atherosclerosis Answer: B 28) Preservation at Ceren, San Salvador, allows archaeologists to learn about __________. A. the Mayan priesthood B. life in a large Mayan city C. everyday life in a humble Mayan village D. Mayan ceremonial practices Answer: C Short Answer 29) Choose one of the following sites and describe the preservational conditions. Choices: Hogup, Ozette, Utqiagvik, Ceren. Answer: Ozette is known for its exceptional preservational conditions due to waterlogged conditions in mudslide deposits. This environment helped preserve organic materials such as wood, textiles, and basketry remarkably well, offering insights into the daily life and material culture of the Makah people in prehistoric Washington State. 30) Why are Arctic environments good for preservation? Answer: Arctic environments are good for preservation because the cold temperatures and permafrost inhibit microbial activity, preventing decay of organic materials such as wood, bone, and textiles. Additionally, dry conditions in some Arctic regions can further enhance preservation by reducing moisture levels that contribute to decomposition. 31) Choose one of the Arctic sites discussed in the text and describe the preservation conditions. Answer: One of the Arctic sites known for exceptional preservation conditions is Utqiagvik (formerly known as Barrow), located in northern Alaska. The permafrost and cold temperatures at Utqiagvik have preserved organic materials remarkably well, including wooden artifacts, bone tools, and even human remains. These conditions prevent decomposition and retain delicate details, providing valuable insights into the material culture and lifeways of Indigenous Arctic peoples over thousands of years. 32) Define and give an example of recycling in the archaeological record. Answer: Recycling in the archaeological record refers to the reuse or repurposing of materials or artifacts by ancient societies. An example is the melting down of bronze objects to create new items during the Bronze Age, where old weapons or tools were recycled into new ones, preserving valuable metal resources. 33) What is an heirloom? Give an example. Answer: An heirloom is a valuable object that has been passed down through generations within a family or community, often holding sentimental or cultural significance. An example is a ceremonial mask among Indigenous cultures, used in rituals and ceremonies for generations, symbolizing ancestral connections and cultural heritage. 34) What is meant by the phrase "site formation processes?" Answer: Site formation processes refer to the natural and cultural processes that contribute to the creation, preservation, and alteration of archaeological sites over time. These processes include human activities such as construction and abandonment, as well as natural factors like erosion, sedimentation, and climate changes, all of which shape how artifacts and features are preserved and interpreted by archaeologists. 35) Discuss an example of a cultural transformation. Answer: An example of a cultural transformation is the transition from hunting and gathering societies to agricultural societies during the Neolithic Revolution. This transformation involved fundamental changes in human subsistence strategies, settlement patterns, social organization, and technological innovations such as the domestication of plants and animals. It marked a significant shift in human societies from nomadic lifestyles to settled agricultural communities, profoundly impacting cultural practices, economic systems, and social structures worldwide. Essay 36) Discuss at least three different examples of physical, chemical, and biological agents of artifact/site destruction, and how they affect archaeological sites and remains. Answer: 1. Physical Agents (e.g., Erosion): Physical agents like wind and water erosion can gradually wear away exposed archaeological surfaces, leading to the loss of artifacts and features. This process can disrupt stratigraphy and compromise the integrity of archaeological contexts. 2. Chemical Agents (e.g., Acidic soils): Chemical agents such as acidic soils or acidic groundwater can corrode and deteriorate organic materials like bone, wood, and textiles. This chemical reaction can dissolve artifacts over time, particularly in environments where pH levels are not conducive to preservation. 3. Biological Agents (e.g., Bioturbation): Biological agents like burrowing animals (bioturbation) can disturb archaeological deposits by digging through sediments, mixing artifacts, and altering their original context. This activity can obscure cultural layers and compromise the spatial integrity of archaeological sites. 37) How does the matrix in which archaeological remains occur affect what an archaeologist knows about these remains? Discuss in the context of two cases. Answer: The matrix, or the surrounding context in which archaeological remains are found, significantly influences interpretations: 1. Waterlogged Sites (e.g., Ozette, Washington): Waterlogged conditions preserved organic materials like wood and textiles exceptionally well at Ozette, providing detailed insights into ancient Makah life that would have decayed in drier environments. 2. Desert Sites (e.g., Egypt): The dry desert climate in Egypt preserved mummies and delicate artifacts due to low humidity, enabling detailed studies of ancient Egyptian culture and burial practices that would not survive in more humid climates. 38) Discuss how the excavation of Ozette was important to both archaeologists and the Makah Tribe. Answer: The excavation of Ozette was significant for both archaeologists and the Makah Tribe: 1. Archaeologists: It provided a rare opportunity to study an exceptionally well-preserved prehistoric Native American village, offering detailed insights into the material culture and daily life of the Makah people. 2. Makah Tribe: The excavation allowed the Makah Tribe to reconnect with and reclaim their cultural heritage, as artifacts and structures uncovered provided tangible links to their ancestors' traditions and practices, fostering cultural revitalization and pride. 3. Collaboration: The excavation also exemplified successful collaboration between archaeologists and Indigenous communities, promoting mutual respect, understanding, and shared stewardship of cultural resources. 39) Discuss the nature of archaeological data and the two kinds of processes which influence it. Answer: Archaeological data encompasses both material remains and contextual information, shaped by two key processes: 1. Formation Processes: These are the natural and cultural actions that create and modify archaeological deposits over time, including deposition, erosion, and post-depositional disturbances like bioturbation. 2. Transformation Processes: These involve the interpretation and analysis of archaeological data, influenced by theoretical perspectives, methodological approaches, and subjective biases of archaeologists. These processes ultimately shape how we interpret and understand the past based on available evidence. 40) Why are site formation processes important? Discuss in terms of human and natural agents. Answer: Site formation processes are crucial because they determine how archaeological materials are preserved and interpreted: 1. Human Agents: Human activities such as construction, occupation, and abandonment directly influence site formation, affecting artifact deposition and spatial organization. 2. Natural Agents: Natural processes like erosion, sedimentation, and climate fluctuations also play pivotal roles, impacting the integrity and preservation of archaeological deposits over time. Understanding these processes helps archaeologists reconstruct past human behaviors and environmental conditions accurately, ensuring interpretations are based on reliable data and contexts. 41) Choose one of the following and discuss how it affects the archaeological record: recycling, heirlooms, curation of ceremonial artifacts. Answer: Heirlooms affect the archaeological record by preserving cultural continuity and transmitting identity across generations. They provide insights into social practices, beliefs, and craftsmanship, reflecting the values and traditions of a community over time. Archaeologically, heirlooms offer clues about kinship systems, status distinctions, and long-term cultural changes, highlighting their significance in understanding cultural heritage and societal dynamics across various contexts. 42) Discuss the kinds of site formation questions the investigators at Boqueirao da Pedra Furada have failed to address adequately. Answer: At Boqueirao da Pedra Furada, investigators have struggled to adequately address questions regarding the formation processes of the archaeological site. Key issues include uncertainties about the integrity of stratigraphic layers due to natural sedimentary processes and the potential for post-depositional disturbances. There is also a need for clearer identification of human versus natural agents of site formation, which could better elucidate how artifacts and features have been preserved and interpreted over time. Chapter Five Test Questions Doing Archaeological Research SAMPLE QUESTIONS Multiple Choice 1) Modern archaeology may be best described as __________. A. a narrow field B. part of biology C. a multidisciplinary effort D. a subdiscipline of physics Answer: C 2) Publishing the results of archaeological research __________. A. is an essential part of every project B. is only necessary for very large projects C. can be done if there is time; otherwise it is not really necessary D. is usually not part of a research project Answer: A 3) According to the scientific method, knowledge and understanding of the natural world __________. A. should be acquired via personal experience B. is an unattainable goal C. need not be tested or checked D. is subject to constant rechecking Answer: D 4) Research into the origins of food production would require specialists in which of the following fields? A. geology B. botany C. soil science D. a team of experts from several disciplines Answer: D 5) An archaeologist today must __________. A. execute methodological skills under working conditions B. be able to administer research funds C. arrange digging permits D. be able to manage a great range of activities Answer: D 6) An important part of the permanent record of archaeology is __________. A. the detailed research report B. the itemized list of expenses C. the research funds D. museum shelves Answer: A 7) David Hurst Thomas' work on Shoshonean settlement patterns in the Great Basin __________. A. was designed to collect basic, descriptive ethnographic data B. was designed to test Steward's hypotheses C. was not guided by any research design D. was designed to collect data pertaining to the origins of agriculture Answer: B 8) The procedure scientists have developed for acquiring knowledge about the world is called __________. A. archaeology B. anthropology C. the scientific method D. the scientific experiment Answer: C 9) Archaeological investigation relies on __________. A. only inductive reasoning B. both deductive and inductive reasoning C. only deductive reasoning D. no reasoning Answer: B 10) Archaeological research designs __________. A. are required only in cultural resource management B. cannot be changed during the course of fieldwork C. are often changed to accommodate new field circumstances D. are only used for very large projects Answer: C 11) Background research requires __________. A. knowledge of ancient texts B. creative usages of field excavation techniques C. both library and fieldwork D. knowledge of a field language Answer: C 12) Research designs are a particularly critical element in __________. A. cultural resource management B. the Nile Valley C. Zambia D. cultural ecology Answer: A 13) The crusty remains found inside ancient Egyptian wine jars at Abydos are __________. A. dried grape peel B. tartaric acid C. bacterial plaque D. colonial algae Answer: B Short Answer 14) Compare and contrast inductive and deductive reasoning. Give examples. Answer: Inductive Reasoning: • Definition: Inductive reasoning involves drawing general conclusions from specific observations or cases. • Example: Observing multiple instances of fossil discoveries and concluding that a particular species existed in a certain geological period based on those findings. Deductive Reasoning: • Definition: Deductive reasoning starts with general principles or hypotheses and applies them to specific cases or observations. • Example: Using the law of gravity to predict the trajectory of a falling object based on its initial height and velocity. Comparison: • Inductive: Moves from specific observations to broader generalizations. • Deductive: Moves from general principles to specific conclusions. Contrast: • Inductive: Allows for conclusions that are probabilistic and based on probability. • Deductive: Provides conclusions that are certain if premises are true 15) Describe an example of a research problem in archaeology. Answer: An example of a research problem in archaeology could be investigating the reasons behind the collapse of a particular ancient civilization, such as the Maya, focusing on factors like environmental degradation, political instability, or economic changes to understand the societal transformations leading to their decline. 16) What is a hypothesis? Answer: A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon or a tentative answer to a research question. It is based on prior knowledge, observations, or existing theories, and it serves as a starting point for further investigation and testing through empirical research and data analysis. 17) What are the end products of archaeological excavation? Answer: The end products of archaeological excavation typically include artifacts, features, samples for analysis, documentation (such as field notes, photographs, and maps), and final reports or publications summarizing findings and interpretations. These products contribute to understanding past human societies and their material culture. 18) Why is publication important in archaeological research? Answer: Publication is crucial in archaeological research because it allows researchers to communicate their findings, interpretations, and methodologies to the broader academic community and the public. It ensures transparency and accountability in research practices, facilitates peer review for quality assurance, and contributes to the cumulative knowledge and understanding of human history and cultural heritage. Additionally, publication allows archaeologists to disseminate insights that may inform conservation efforts, public policies, and educational initiatives related to archaeological sites and artifacts. Essay 19) Relate theoretical expertise, methodological expertise, technical skills, administrative and managerial skills, and writing and analytical skills to the modern practice of archaeology. Answer: In modern archaeology: 1. Theoretical Expertise: Guides research questions and interpretations based on archaeological theories and frameworks. 2. Methodological Expertise: Directs excavation, survey, and analysis techniques to ensure rigorous data collection and interpretation. 3. Technical Skills: Utilized for specialized analyses such as radiocarbon dating, GIS mapping, and artifact conservation. 4. Administrative and Managerial Skills: Essential for project planning, budget management, team coordination, and compliance with legal and ethical standards. 5. Writing and Analytical Skills: Critical for synthesizing and communicating findings through academic publications, reports, and public outreach, ensuring research impact and accessibility. 20) Discuss the kinds of data that would be needed to test hypotheses about early food production at Kom Ombo in Egypt. What specialists would be needed to analyze these data? Answer: To test hypotheses about early food production at Kom Ombo in Egypt, data would include botanical remains (seeds, plant remains) to identify cultivated crops, faunal remains (animal bones) for evidence of domestication, and sediment samples for pollen analysis to reconstruct ancient vegetation and land use. Specialists needed would include archaeobotanists for plant remains, zooarchaeologists for animal bones, and palynologists for pollen analysis. Additionally, geoarchaeologists may analyze sediment samples for environmental reconstruction. Integrating these data would provide insights into the development of agricultural practices in ancient Egypt. 21) Define science and explain the scientific method. Give an example of the scientific method. Answer: Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the natural world. The scientific method is a systematic approach to research where hypotheses are formulated, tested through empirical observation and experimentation, and refined based on results. Example: Hypothesis: Plants grow better with fertilizer. Experiment: Two groups of plants are grown, one with fertilizer and one without. Observation: The plants with fertilizer grow taller. Conclusion: Plants grow better with fertilizer, supporting the hypothesis. 22) Many archaeologists today would argue that archaeology is a science. Do you agree or disagree? How is archaeology a science? How is it not? Answer: I agree that archaeology is a science because it employs systematic methods, rigorous data collection, and hypothesis testing to study human past. Archaeology utilizes scientific principles such as objectivity, repeatability, and peer review to investigate and interpret material culture and behavior. However, archaeology also incorporates interpretive and subjective elements in understanding past societies, which can differ from the strict empiricism often associated with natural sciences. Test Bank for In the Beginning: An Introduction to Archaeology Brian M. Fagan, Nadia Durrani 9780205968039