This Document Contains Chapters 11 to 14 CHAPTER 11: Economics Multiple Choice Questions 1. Why do members of food-collecting societies not own land individually? a. Land has no intrinsic value to collectors. b. No system of surveying existed in these types of societies. c. Food-collectors were not interested in land because they needed family more. d. Land was an unknown commodity. 2. Of the following economic activities, which finds the individual ownership of land most important? a. food-collecting b. horticulture c. pastoralism d. intensive agriculture 3. Most of the Ngatatjara’s food supply is gathered by __________ and is __________. a. men/meat b. men/fruit c. women/meat d. women/fruit or other plant food 4. Which of the following statements best describes the land ownership situation among the Basseri of southern Iran? a. Individuals may only use the land that they have purchased. b. The political leaders decide who owns specific parcels of land. c. Individuals have rights to pass through certain areas, like cities and agricultural areas, but they do not own the entire territory. d. The government owns all the land, and individuals rent pastures to use for grazing land. 5. In general, which type of economic activity provides the most leisure time? a. food-collecting b. pastoralism c. intensive agriculture d. industrial agriculture 6. An indirect form of __________ is taxation. a. redistribution b. reciprocity c. forced labor d. voluntary labor 7. All societies divide labor by __________ and __________. a. value/service b. service/custom c. value/productivity d. gender/age 8. Of the following, which is not a consequence of horticulture? a. denser populations b. more sedentary way of life c. strict egalitarianism d. the beginning of social differentiation 9. When goods or services are given to another without any apparent expectation of a returned gift, we call it __________. a. negative reciprocity b. redistribution c. generalized reciprocity d. balanced reciprocity 10. __________ is the accumulation of goods by a particular person, or in a particular place, for the purpose of subsequent distribution. a. Reciprocity b. Redistribution c. Commercial exchange d. Balanced reciprocity 11. __________ occurs when prices are subject to supply and demand and do not necessarily involve money. a. Redistribution b. Reciprocity c. Commercial exchange d. Balanced reciprocity 12. The concept of private ownership of land is least likely among __________. a. intensive agriculturalists b. food collectors c. horticulturalists d. pastoralists 13. Under the Homestead Act of 1862, how long did a person need to farm a 160-acre piece of land before the federal government would consider that person the owner of the land? a. 5 months b. 5 years c. 10 months d. 10 years 14. In contrast to food collectors, horticulturalists __________. a. usually grant permanent ownership of land to individual families b. generally grant individual families the exclusive right to land while in use c. rarely defend group territories d. usually grant individuals fewer claims to the land 15. Among pastoral nomads, wealth is usually measured in __________. a. animals b. the amount of land people own c. the number of children people have d. the number of wives a man has 16. Private ownership of land would most likely be found where people make their living through __________. a. horticulture b. specialized pastoralism c. shifting agriculture d. intensive agriculture 17. The subsistence strategy that characterized most of human history was __________. a. horticulture b. irrigation agriculture c. food collection d. pastoralism 18. Which of the following characterizes horticulture? a. working land for short periods and then leaving it idle for some years b. permanently cultivating fields c. gathering, hunting, scavenging, or fishing for wild plant and animal resources d. domesticating herds of animals that feed on natural pastures 19. What is considered by anthropologists to be somewhat more commercialized than transitional subsistence economies? a. balanced reciprocity b. market economies c. generalized reciprocity d. peasant economies 20. The Yanomamö do all of the following except __________. a. plant manioc b. shrink the heads of their enemies killed in battle c. use slash and burn horticulture d. hunt monkeys with bow and arrow 21. People are most likely to be forced to work in __________. a. societies dependent on tree crops b. food collector societies c. complex societies d. societies dependent on shifting agriculture 22. A form of commercialization that took place in Tikopia and involved the movement of people to neighboring islands to find employment is __________. a. non-agricultural commercial production b. production of supplementary cash crops c. migratory labor d. introduction of commercial and industrial agriculture 23. Once taxes are taken into consideration, how many months out of the year does the average person in the United States work for the various levels of government? a. 1 month b. 2 months c. 3 months d. 4 months 24. Compared to food-collectors, horticulturalists generally __________. a. are more sparsely populated b. are more nomadic c. get more food from a given area d. have fewer differences in prestige between people 25. The worldwide trend for intensive agriculturalists to produce for a market is called __________. a. production b. sales c. commercialization d. foraging 26. By “food collection,” anthropologists mean the obtaining of food from __________. a. wild plants and animals b. wild plants c. domesticated plants and animals d. plants, wild and domesticated 27. Generalized reciprocity is most likely between __________. a. friendly neighboring groups b. close kin c. strangers and enemies d. friends in modern societies 28. By “market exchange,” anthropologists mean __________ a. money has been set aside for “a rainy day” b. transactions in which prices are subject to supply and demand, whether or not the transaction takes place in the marketplace c. money is always used in economic transactions d. food items are being exchanged 29. Individual families in pastoral societies are most likely to own __________. a. animals b. grazing lands c. permanent dwelling places d. land for cultivating crops 30. The changeover to food production occurred about __________ years ago. a. 2,000 b. 4,000 c. 6,000 d. 10,000 31. Anthropologists must be cautious in drawing inferences about the past from observations on contemporary foragers for all of the following reasons EXCEPT __________ a. The environments most foragers live in today may not be representative or comparable to the environments foragers lived in the past b. Contemporary foragers have evolved and are not relics of the past c. There is considerable interaction between contemporary foragers and societies that did not exist in the past d. Contemporary foragers generally do not maintain a nomadic lifestyle, but instead form permanent settlements 32. The Saami exemplify which type of subsistence strategy? a. foraging b. pastoralism c. horticulture d. intensive agriculture 33. Which of the following is NOT classified as a food producer? a. foragers b. pastoralists c. horticulturalists d. agriculturalists 34. Evidence for the initial changeover to food production is associated with which region of the world? a. Southeast Asia b. Africa c. the Near East d. Mexico 35. Which of the following is a defining feature of general-purpose money? a. it is perishable b. it cannot be stored c. it is generally transportable d. it is not divisible 36. What generally results from the introduction of commercial agriculture in a society? a. class polarization develops b. manufactured items are restricted to urban areas increasing social inequality c. laborers migrate to rural areas d. an immediate improvement in standards of living for all members of society Essay Questions 37. Describe the three forms of reciprocity. Which one would most likely be used by a used car salesperson? Why? 38. Define market exchange. What are the factors that lead to it? 39. How is special-purpose money utilized? 40. What is a leveling device? How is this practiced in commercial economies? How can reciprocity be used as a leveling device? 41. How is taxation a form of forced labor? 42. Why do children in horticultural and agricultural societies work? Why do you think that children of foragers apparently do not work as much? 43. What defines the value of general-purpose money (such as the dollar)? 44. What is commercialization? Why do you think most if not all large societies are commercialized now? 45. Why might the transition to food production have taken place in the Near East 10,000 years ago? Describe the theories explaining the development of food production. Multiple Choice Answer Key 1. a 2. d 3. d 4. c 5. a 6. c 7. d 8. c 9. c 10. b 11. c 12. b 13. b 14. b 15. a 16. d 17. c 18. a 19. d 20. b 21. c 22. c 23. d 24. c 25. c 26. a 27. b 28. b 29. a 30. d 31. d 32. b 33. a 34. c 35. c 36. a Essay Answer 37. The three forms of reciprocity are positive reciprocity (giving something to receive something of equal or greater value), negative reciprocity (using coercion or deception to gain an advantage), and generalized reciprocity (giving without expecting an immediate return). A used car salesperson would most likely use positive reciprocity by offering something perceived as valuable (e.g., discounts, extras) to encourage a purchase, aligning with the expectation of receiving a sale in return. 38. Market exchange refers to the buying and selling of goods and services where prices are determined by supply and demand. Factors that lead to market exchange include individual preferences, prices set by supply and demand forces, competition among buyers and sellers, and the pursuit of maximizing utility or profit. 39. Special-purpose money is utilized for specific transactions or within limited contexts, such as tokens for public transportation or gift cards for specific stores. It is not generally accepted as a universal medium of exchange but serves specific, predetermined purposes or within restricted networks. 40. A leveling device is a mechanism that promotes equality or reduces social and economic disparities. In commercial economies, leveling devices can include progressive taxation, welfare programs, and policies promoting equal opportunity. Reciprocity can act as a leveling device by fostering mutual support and balancing inequalities through exchanges of goods, services, or favors among individuals or groups, thereby promoting social cohesion and fairness. 41. Taxation can be seen as a form of forced labor because it requires individuals to contribute a portion of their income or wealth to the government under threat of legal penalties. This obligation is enforced regardless of individual consent, compelling individuals to work to earn money that will then be taxed, akin to labor that is compelled or coerced. 42. Children in horticultural and agricultural societies work because their labor contributes directly to household subsistence. They help with tasks like planting, harvesting, and tending to crops or livestock, which are essential for family survival and economic stability. In foraging societies, children do not work as much because these societies rely on gathering food from the environment rather than cultivating crops or raising livestock. Foraging typically requires less labor-intensive tasks from children, who may learn essential skills through play and observation rather than direct economic contribution. 43. The value of general-purpose money, like the dollar, is defined by its widespread acceptance as a medium of exchange, unit of account, and store of value within a specific economy. Its value is influenced by factors such as economic stability, inflation rates, government policies, and confidence in the currency's purchasing power. 44. Commercialization refers to the process of introducing something into commerce or making it available for sale or profit. In the context of societies, it often refers to the transformation of goods, services, or activities into commodities that are bought and sold in markets. Most large societies are commercialized now because commercialization facilitates economic growth, specialization, and efficiency. It allows for the exchange of goods and services beyond subsistence needs, encourages innovation and competition, and supports the development of complex economic systems that cater to diverse consumer demands and preferences. 45. The transition to food production in the Near East around 10,000 years ago likely occurred due to environmental changes, population pressures, and experimentation with plant and animal domestication. Theories explaining this development include: 1. Population Pressure Theory: Growing populations required more stable and predictable food sources, prompting experimentation with agriculture to ensure reliable food supplies. 2. Climate Change Theory: Shifts in climate may have led to the decline of wild food sources, motivating humans to cultivate plants and domesticate animals for food security. 3. Cultural Evolution Theory: Socio-cultural factors, such as increased social complexity or prestige associated with food production, may have incentivized agricultural practices. 4. Co-evolution Theory: Mutual adaptations between humans and plants/animals may have encouraged domestication as both species adapted to each other's presence. These theories suggest a complex interplay of environmental, demographic, and cultural factors driving the shift from foraging to food production in the Near East. CHAPTER 12: Social Stratification: Class, Ethnicity, and Racism Multiple Choice Questions 1. The Mbuti people practice which form of social stratification? a. egalitarian b. caste c. class d. rank 2. A society is practicing which form of stratification when the members of the society have equal access to economic resources but not to prestige? a. egalitarian b. caste c. class d. rank 3. Modern industrial societies are noted for having disparate access to economic resources and power. What type of stratification exists in these societies? a. egalitarian b. caste c. class d. rank 4. Which of the following societies is not considered to be egalitarian? a. Nimpkish Native Americans b. Mbuti c. the Yanomamö d. the !Kung 5. Which of the following is considered a rank society? a. Nimpkish Native Americans b. Mbuti c. the Yanomamö d. the !Kung 6. A __________ is a category of persons in which all have about the same opportunity to obtain economic resources, power, and prestige. a. social group b. class c. open class d. caste 7. Attending a university and gaining an education can result in the upward __________ of a student. a. re-education b. training c. restructuring d. mobility 8. The probability that an individual will change class levels in an open class system is __________. a. high b. extremely low c. about even d. impossible 9. A __________ is a ranked group in which membership is determined at birth and marriage is restricted to members of one’s own group. a. class b. caste c. social group d. open class 10. In the United States, college-educated individuals have on average __________ percent more income than those with a high school diploma. a. 40 b. 75 c. 80 d. 100 11. Without exception, recent and modern industrial and post-industrial societies are __________. a. caste systems b. ranked c. egalitarian d. socially stratified 12. __________ are persons who do not own their own labor, and as such they represent a class. a. Peasants b. Serfs c. Slaves d. Prisoners 13. If all social groups in a society have equal access to wealth, prestige, and power, then anthropologists call that society __________. a. socialistic b. communistic c. a chiefdom d. egalitarian 14. A society with equal access to wealth and power, but unequal access to prestige, is called __________. a. egalitarian b. ranked c. a closed class society d. a caste system 15. Egalitarian societies are least likely to be found among __________. a. pastoralists b. food collectors c. societies with tree agriculture d. societies with intensive agriculture 16. In egalitarian societies, people may differ in prestige, but these differences are not related to __________. a. personal abilities b. age c. the economic status of one’s parents d. sex 17. Sharing is most common in __________. a. egalitarian societies b. societies suffering from severe famine c. stratified societies d. pastoral societies 18. In ranked societies, chiefs are never __________. a. granted more prestige than others in the society b. considered the “owners” of the group’s land c. allowed to accumulate significantly more wealth than commoners d. set off from the others by special markings or clothes 19. Which of the following is not characteristic of the chief? a. His people invest him with “ownership” of the land. b. His position may be hereditary. c. He is set apart from the others by the special regalia he wears. d. His position carries considerable prestige. 20. Manumission – the granting of freedom to slaves – was built into which system? a. United States b. Egypt c. Rome d. Nupe 21. How is chiefly status obtained among the Faulk culture? a. War b. Purchase c. Genealogically in the female line d. Genealogically in the male line 22. Racial classifications are __________. a. biological categories b. cultural categories c. economic categories d. social categories 23. Anthropologists not consider __________ a caste? a. the Eta of Japan b. blacks in the American South in segregation days c. the Camar (leather-workers) of India d. Anthropologists would classify all of these groups as castes. 24. Before the caste system in Rwanda was overthrown, which was the ruling caste? a. Hutu b. Tutsi c. Twa d. none of the above 25. Slavery __________. a. is most common in societies with intensive agriculture b. is extremely rare in the anthropological record c. has been found most often in horticultural societies d. has existed in various forms in many times and places 26. __________ is a form of slavery practiced by the Nupe of Nigeria. a. Manumission b. Taxation c. Forced labor d. Child labor 27. Which of the following would a male Nupe slave of central Nigeria not be permitted to do? a. Will his belongings to his children. b. Acquire slaves of his own. c. Have children who could become free men and women. d. Acquire property and wealth. 28. Anthropologists are reasonably certain that social stratification __________. a. emerged relatively recently in human history b. is as old as Homo sapiens c. does not exist in the United States d. has occurred only in industrial societies 29. Social stratification may be less likely in societies with __________. a. fixed settlements b. agriculture or herding economies c. at least some full time craft specialization d. egalitarianism 30. __________ usually separates a group of people with common origins and language, shared history, and selected cultural differences such as difference in religion. a. Class b. Caste c. Prestige d. Ethnicity Essay Questions 31. Define social stratification. How does it come about? How are the barriers between classes in the United States maintained? 32. In open class systems, which class is difficult to move into from a lower class? Why? 33. How does the role of chief or headman differ from such roles as Congressman or President? 34. What is a caste? What social mechanisms are used to block mobility in these types of societies? How successful are they at maintaining the social order? 35. How did ancient Greek slavery differ from eighteenth and nineteenth century American slavery? 36. What social and economic mechanisms keep egalitarian societies egalitarian? 37. What forces (economic, social, and technological) have led to the almost complete elimination of slavery worldwide? 38. What forces led to the emergence of stratification? Multiple Choice Answer Key 1. a 2. d 3. c 4. a 5. a 6. b 7. d 8. b 9. b 10. b 11. d 12. c 13. d 14. b 15. d 16. c 17. a 18. d 19. c 20. d 21. c 22. d 23. d 24. b 25. d 26. a 27. a 28. a 29. d 30. d Essay Answer 31. Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups in a society based on socioeconomic status, wealth, power, or other criteria. It arises from factors like wealth distribution, education, occupation, and social networks. In the United States, barriers between classes are maintained through factors such as unequal access to education, discrimination based on race or gender, limited social mobility, and policies that favor the wealthy or powerful. Economic disparities and cultural norms also reinforce these barriers, impacting opportunities and social outcomes. 32. In open class systems, the upper class is often the most difficult to move into from a lower class. This is because access to high levels of wealth, education, and social connections typically required for upper-class status is restricted and not easily accessible to those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. 33. The role of a chief or headman typically involves leadership within a smaller community or tribe, focusing on local governance and cultural matters. In contrast, roles like Congressman or President involve leadership at higher levels of government, dealing with broader legislative, executive, and national issues, often within a formal political system. 34. A caste is a rigid social stratification system where individuals are born into specific hereditary groups with defined roles, status, and social mobility restrictions. Social mechanisms such as endogamy (marriage within one's caste), occupational restrictions, and religious sanctions are used to block mobility between castes. These mechanisms are generally successful at maintaining the social order by enforcing strict boundaries that limit upward mobility and preserve traditional societal structures and norms. 35. Ancient Greek slavery differed from eighteenth and nineteenth century American slavery primarily in terms of legal status and treatment. In ancient Greece, slaves could sometimes earn or buy their freedom, had legal rights, and could occupy skilled positions. In contrast, American slavery was racially based, hereditary, legally permanent, and involved extreme exploitation without legal rights or avenues for freedom. 36. Egalitarian societies maintain their egalitarianism through social norms that emphasize sharing, cooperation, and mutual support. Economic mechanisms such as resource distribution based on need rather than accumulation of wealth also play a role. Additionally, cultural practices that discourage hierarchy and promote fairness contribute to sustaining egalitarianism. 37. The abolition of slavery worldwide has been driven by economic shifts towards industrialization, which reduced the economic viability of slavery; social movements advocating for human rights and equality; and technological advancements that increased labor productivity and shifted economic structures away from labor-intensive practices. International pressure, legal reforms, and evolving moral norms also contributed to the global abolition of slavery. 38. The emergence of social stratification can be attributed to factors such as economic inequalities, the rise of agriculture and surplus production, technological advancements that concentrated wealth and power, and the development of complex societies with specialized roles and hierarchies. These forces contributed to the formation of distinct social classes and stratified societies over time. CHAPTER 13: Sex and Gender Multiple Choice Questions 1. Humans display __________. That is, the females and males of the species exhibit fairly marked differences in size and appearance. a. physiological differences b. chromosomal differences c. genotypic differences d. sexually dimorphic characteristics 2. Which of the following statements best describes humans as they grow taller? a. Females achieve their ultimate height shortly after puberty, but boys continue to grow for years after puberty. b. Boys achieve their ultimate height shortly after puberty, but females continue to grow for years after puberty. c. Both sexes continue to grow for years after puberty. d. Both sexes achieve their ultimate height shortly after puberty. 3. Which of the following theories explains the differences between male and female roles based on the greater aerobic capacity of males? a. Compatibility with child care theory b. Economy of effort theory c. Expendability theory d. Strength theory 4. According to the __________ theory, men may produce musical instruments from wood because men are the ones who collect the wood in the first place and probably understand its physical properties better. a. compatibility with child care b. economy of effort c. expendability d. strength 5. __________ is not a primary subsistence activity? a. Gathering b. Corn grinding c. Fishing d. Herding 6. In most societies, what is the average length of time for a mother to breast feed her child? a. 12 months b. 18 months c. 24 months d. 30 months 7. What percentage of societies do not allow women to participate in warfare? a. 87 b. 75 c. 67 d. 92 8. Which may explain why men generally have higher status than women in most societies? a. economy of effort theory b. political warfare theory c. Women’s status will be high when they contribute substantially to primary subsistence d. Women’s status will be highest when they contribute mostly to secondary subsistence activities 9. Many Agta women of the Philippines regularly hunt wild pig and deer. What percent of wild game is killed by Agta women? a. almost 20% b. almost 30% c. almost 40% d. almost 80% 10. In Oman there is a third gender role called __________. a. two-spirits b. Berache c. homosexual d. Xanith 11. Of the following societies, which is the most lenient about restrictions dealing with the timing of sexual intercourse inside of marriage? a. the Yapese b. the Chenchu c. American d. the Lesu 12. Of the following societies, which is the most pro-homosexual? a. American b. the Etoro c. the Siwans d. the Papago 13. Societies that frown on sexual expression by young children __________. a. allow premarital and extramarital sexual relations b. do not condone premarital sexual relations but allow extramarital relations c. also punish premarital and extramarital sex d. condone some premarital sexual expression but not extramarital sex 14. Variation in gender contribution to primary subsistence relates directly to the type of __________. a. food getting b. warfare c. social stratification d. gender roles 15. In all human societies yet examined, males generally have __________. a. greater grip strength than females b. lower aerobic work capacity than females c. proportionately smaller lungs than female d. proportionately smaller hearts than females 16. In societies with a high female contribution to primary subsistence, __________. a. infants are fed solid foods earlier, girls are likely to be trained to be industrious, and baby girls are more valued b. infants are fed solid foods later, girls are likely to be trained to be industrious, and baby girls are less valued c. infants are fed solid foods later, girls are not likely to be trained to be industrious, and baby girls are more valued d. infants are fed solid foods earlier, girls are likely to be trained to be industrious, and baby girls are less valued 17. In ________ of surveyed societies, only men were leaders. a. 65% b. 55% c. 88% d. 75% 18. Of the following, the best explanation for why men typically make musical instruments is __________. a. men are usually more musical than women b. men normally collect the hard materials involved, and so may be more familiar with their properties and how to work them c. making a musical instrument requires long concentration, which is impossible for women engaged in child-care d. many musical instruments require a great deal of strength to make them 19. In which type of society are women most likely to contribute more than men to primary subsistence? a. pastoral b. hunter-gatherer c. horticultural d. intensive agriculture 20. Mbuti women __________. a. are highly valued, but have few personal rights and virtually no influence in political decision-making b. have practically no rights, and very little influence c. have more political power than men, due in part to fear and being awe-inspired by menstrual taboos d. have unusually high status 21. Cross-cultural studies show that __________ is related to higher status for women in many areas of life. a. being a member of an intensive agriculture society b. less hunting c. the presence of religions with many female deities, or a female high god d. kin groups and marital residence organized around women 22. Among the Iroquois, women __________. a. had a great deal of say over who the group’s leaders were b. participated alongside the men as warriors in battle c. had little say over how the goods they produced were distributed d. lived in their husband’s home 23. Colonial influence in various parts of the world seems to have __________. a. only slightly affected the status of women b. lowered the status of women c. generally resulted in greater sexual antagonism between men and women d. raised the status of women 24. Among the Lepcha, a man was believed to become homosexual if he __________. a. engaged in intercourse with another male b. ate the flesh of an uncastrated pig c. did not marry d. did not engage in premarital sex 25. One sex difference that appears very early in American children as well as in children in all societies for which systematic data is available is __________. a. greater sociability in girls b. greater nurturance in boys c. greater responsibility in boys d. greater aggressiveness in boys 26. Which of the following personality traits did not differentiate between boys and girls in the Six Cultures project? a. a tendency to seek help and interpersonal contact b. aggressiveness c. a tendency to play in larger groups d. seeking and offering friendship 27. Premarital sex is __________. a. considered abhorrent by most of the world’s societies b. discouraged in all of the societies for which we have information c. encouraged in some societies as a form of trial marriage d. severely punished among the Hopi 28. Premarital sex is __________. a. considered good for boys in some societies but is apparently universally discouraged for girls b. frowned upon by almost all of the world’s societies c. actively encouraged in some societies d. accepted in some societies but apparently never actively encouraged 29. Extramarital sex __________. a. is common in only a small inority of the world’s cultures b. is considered unacceptable in virtually all of the world’s societies c. is permissible for women in most of the world’s societies d. is generally more acceptable for men than for women 30. Male homosexual behavior __________. a. is frowned upon in all known human societies b. is severely punished by the Papago Indians of the Southwest c. although accepted in some societies, is always considered inferior to heterosexual behavior d. is considered superior to heterosexual behavior among the Etoro of New Guinea Essay Questions 31. What are the misconceptions about the differences in behavior between boys and girls? What needs to be done to clarify some of these misconceptions? 32. Why are women more restricted in their sexual behavior than men in most societies? 33. Of the few, what restrictions exist about sexual relations inside of marriage? 34. Define primary subsistence and secondary subsistence activities. Why are men apparently more involved in primary activities? 35. How does the economy of effort theory explain why men tend to be the producers of such items as musical instruments and boats? 36. What influences did women have in Iroquois society? Do these powers make the Iroquois a matriarchal society? 37. How is male homosexuality expressed in Papago society? What function might this behavior play in the overall society? 38. Explain the major factors related to the gender division of labor found in almost all societies. Multiple Choice Answer Key 1. d 2. a 3. d 4. b 5. b 6. c 7. a 8. c 9. b 10. d 11. c 12. b 13. c 14. a 15. a 16. a 17. c 18. b 19. c 20. d 21. d 22. a 23. b 24. b 25. d 26. d 27. c 28. c 29. d 30. d Essay Answer 31. Some misconceptions about differences in behavior between boys and girls include: 1. Uniformity in Behavior: Assuming all boys or all girls will behave the same way. 2. Innate Abilities: Believing certain behaviors are biologically determined rather than influenced by socialization. 3. Fixed Preferences: Stereotyping interests and preferences based on gender norms. To clarify these misconceptions, it's essential to: • Promote awareness of diverse individual behaviors within each gender. • Encourage environments that allow children to explore a range of interests regardless of gender norms. • Support education and research that emphasizes the role of socialization in shaping behaviors. 32. Women are often more restricted in their sexual behavior than men in most societies due to historical and cultural norms that emphasize female purity, reproductive roles, and societal expectations of modesty and chastity. These norms are often enforced through social sanctions, religious beliefs, and gender roles that perpetuate inequalities in sexual autonomy and expression. 33. Some restrictions on sexual relations inside marriage may include: • Cultural or religious norms dictating acceptable sexual practices. • Expectations regarding fidelity and exclusivity. • Legal restrictions in some countries, such as laws against marital rape. • Personal boundaries and preferences of each partner. 34. Primary subsistence activities involve directly obtaining food and resources from the environment, such as hunting, fishing, and gathering. Secondary subsistence activities involve processing and distributing these resources, such as cooking, storing, and trading. Men are often more involved in primary subsistence activities due to historical roles shaped by physical strength requirements for tasks like hunting and fishing. Cultural norms and division of labor have also traditionally assigned men these roles, while women often handle secondary activities that involve processing and preparing food gathered by men. 35. The economy of effort theory suggests that men tend to produce items like musical instruments and boats because these tasks require physical strength and endurance, aligning with historical roles where men traditionally performed tasks demanding greater physical exertion and skill. This theory posits that gender roles in production are influenced by efficiency in allocating labor based on biological and cultural factors. 36. In Iroquois society, women held significant influence primarily through roles in clan governance and property ownership, including the power to appoint and remove chiefs. Despite this influence, Iroquois society is not typically classified as matriarchal because leadership and decision-making still involved both genders, and men held certain ceremonial and hunting responsibilities. The balance of power and responsibilities between genders reflects a more egalitarian social structure rather than strict matriarchy. 37. In Papago society, male homosexuality was traditionally recognized and accepted within certain cultural contexts, such as shamans who embodied both male and female qualities. This behavior often served ceremonial and spiritual functions, contributing to the balance and harmony within the community rather than being stigmatized. 38. The gender division of labor in societies is influenced by several major factors: 1. Biological differences: Physical capabilities and reproductive roles often lead to different tasks for men and women. 2. Cultural norms: Traditions and beliefs dictate roles and responsibilities based on gender. 3. Economic considerations: Access to resources and technology can influence who performs which tasks. 4. Socialization: Early upbringing and education reinforce gender-specific roles and expectations. 5. Political and legal factors: Laws and governance may formalize or challenge gender roles in labor. CHAPTER 14: Marriage, Family, and Kinship Multiple Choice Questions 1. Marriage includes two major factors. These are __________. a. economic and kinship considerations b. economic and land-ownership considerations c. sexual and economic considerations d. sexual and kinship considerations 2. In a patrilocal residence, who leaves the household so that the married couple lives with or near the husband’s parents? a. son b. daughter c. sister d. brother 3. Which of the following is not a stated explanation for marriage? a. gender division of labor b. prolonged infant dependency c. guaranteed sexual satisfaction d. sexual competition 4. What is the least common form of residence pattern? a. matrilocal b. bilocal c. avunculocal d. neolocal 5. Marriage is considered a __________ trait by anthropologists because it is practiced by all societies. a. dominant b. prescriptive c. sensible d. universal 6. What factor has been discovered by Elman Service to explain bilocal residence? a. a drastic loss of population because of infectious disease b. population increase due to increased health-care delivery since World War II c. an indifference to social change by the married couple d. a complete breakdown of social customs so that the married couple can make the choice on its own. 7. Bride __________ is a gift of money or goods from the groom or his kin to the bride’s kin. a. price b. service c. exchange d. treasure 8. __________ descent affiliates an individual with kin related to him or her through men or women. a. Patrilineal b. Matrilineal c. Unilineal d. Ambilineal 9. Of the following, which is the more common distribution of economic marriage transactions among societies that have them? a. bride service b. bride price c. indirect dowry d. gift exchange 10. What percentage of the societies known to anthropologists includes one or more explicit economic transactions that take place before or after a marriage? a. about 15 b. about 75 c. about 45 d. about 25 11. Which of the following societies is more likely to practice bride service? a. Asian horticulturalists b. African agriculturalists c. Native North and South American societies d. European industrialists 12. Most people in the United States practice which kinship system? a. ambilineal b. double unilineal descent c. bilateral d. unilineal 13. A __________ is a set or kin whose members believe themselves to be descended from a common ancestor or ancestress, but the links back to that ancestor are not specified. a. kindred b. moiety c. lineage d. clan 14. Which is the second most common form of economic transaction at marriage? a. dowry b. bride price c. gift exchange d. bride service 15. In which group were incestuous marriages permitted? a. poor urban African Americans b. the Nuer of East Africa c. the Manbikwara Indians of Brazil d. royal Egyptian families 16. If a society is divided into two unilineal descent groups, anthropologists call each group a __________. a. moiety b. phratry c. lineage d. parsimony 17. Which kinship system is ego-centered; hence it varies with different points of reference (except for brothers and sisters)? a. unilineal b. bilateral c. double-descent d. ambilineal 18. Most societies __________. a. encourage marriages between parallel cousins b. disapprove of marriages between first cousins c. encourage marriages between first cousins d. encourage marriages between cross cousins 19. Cousin marriage is most common in __________. a. moderately stratified societies b. relatively large and densely populated societies c. nomadic societies d. societies with medium-sized populations 20. Of the following forms of marriage, the rarest is __________. a. polygyny b. group marriage c. the levirate d. polyandry 21. The custom of allowing a man to marry more than one woman is __________. a. found in most of the societies anthropologists have studied b. found in only a small minority of the world’s societies c. unlikely to engender jealousy among co-wives d. strictly forbidden by the Muslim religion 22. A long post-partum sex taboo is most likely to occur __________. a. where there are more males than females in the society b. in societies with a high proportion of monogamous marriages c. where people depend on crops that are low in protein d. in egalitarian societies 23. Polygyny is least likely in societies __________. a. with more women than men b. with a long post-partum sex taboo c. suffering from a high male mortality rate in warfare d. with balanced sex ratios 24. In many Western countries there has been a dramatic __________ recently in the percentage of one-parent families. a. decrease b. drop c. change d. increase 25. The form of marital residence in which the married couple lives apart from the relatives of both spouses is __________. a. patrilocality b. matrilocality c. neo locality d. avunculocality 26. __________ is the most common form of marital residence. a. Matrilocal b. Patrilocal c. Bilocal d. Neolocal 27. Neolocality is most likely to occur in __________. a. a society with extended-family households b. a society with a money economy c. a food-collecting society d. a horticultural society 28. With matrilineal descent, a man belongs to the same descent group as his __________. a. uncle’s mother b. daughter c. brother’s daughter d. sister’s son 29. Because of its ego-centered nature, __________ is least likely to serve as a permanent or persistent group. a. a matrilineage b. a patrilineage c. a kindred d. an ambilineal descent group 30. In societies with unilineal descent, __________. a. the kin group rarely acts as a unit b. all individuals who reside together are considered kin c. some very close biological relatives are excluded from one’s kin group d. no biological relatives are excluded from the kin group Essay Questions 31. Define the terms bride price, dowry, and gift exchange. Of the three, which is the most common? What is its purpose? 32. Describe the family disruption theory by Malinowski, and Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. What are the flaws in both arguments? 33. Compare exogamy and endogamy. How are these rules applied in India? 34. Describe polyandry and polygyny. What explanations are there for these behaviors? 35. What are the advantages to the extended-family household? The disadvantages? 36. Why do men tend to be more violent than women in situations of jealousy? 37. What social functions do both the levirate and sororate play in the societies that have this type of second marriage? 38. In what situations does polyandrous marriage occur? What are the economic advantages of this behavior? 39. Distinguish between sororal polygyny and nonsororal polygyny. Multiple Choice Answer Key 1. c 2. b 3. c 4. c 5. d 6. a 7. a 8. d 9. b 10. b 11. c 12. c 13. d 14. d 15. d 16. a 17. b 18. b 19. b 20. b 21. c 22. c 23. d 24. d 25. c 26. b 27. b 28. d 29. c 30. c Essay Answer 31. 1. Bride price: A payment made by the groom or his family to the bride's family before marriage. • Purpose: It often symbolizes the groom's ability to support the bride and is seen as a gesture of respect and appreciation to the bride's family. 2. Dowry: Property or money brought by a bride to her husband at marriage. • Purpose: Historically, it was intended to provide security for the bride in her new household and ensure her future welfare. 3. Gift exchange: Exchange of goods or services between both families as part of marriage rituals. • Purpose: It fosters social ties between families and reinforces alliances. Most common: Bride price is more prevalent globally compared to dowry or gift exchange. 32. 1. Malinowski's Family Disruption Theory: • Description: Malinowski proposed that the Oedipus complex creates tension within the family, leading to family disruption. Sons desire their mothers, creating rivalry with their fathers. • Flaws: It oversimplifies complex family dynamics and ignores cultural variations in family structures and roles. Critics argue it does not account for the diversity of family arrangements across societies. 2. Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory: • Description: Freud's theory posits that unconscious desires and conflicts, such as the Oedipus complex, shape personality development. It suggests that unresolved conflicts can lead to psychological issues. • Flaws: Critics argue it lacks empirical evidence and is difficult to test scientifically. It is criticized for being too focused on sexual and aggressive instincts, neglecting other aspects of human development and experience. These theories have sparked debate and criticism within the field of psychology and anthropology due to their limitations in explaining the complexities of human behavior and family dynamics across different cultures. 33. Exogamy refers to the cultural practice of marrying outside one's social group, clan, or tribe, often to strengthen alliances or prevent inbreeding. Endogamy, on the other hand, involves marrying within a specific group, such as one's caste, ethnicity, or religious community, to maintain cultural or social purity. In India, both exogamy and endogamy are prevalent but vary widely across regions and communities. Endogamy is particularly strong due to the traditional caste system, where marriages are often restricted within one's caste to preserve social hierarchy and cultural practices. Exogamy can occur through arranged marriages to expand social networks or for economic reasons, but adherence to endogamous norms remains significant in many communities. 34. Polyandry is a marital system where a woman has multiple husbands simultaneously. This practice is rare and often occurs in societies where resources are scarce, and it serves to limit population growth and maintain family land holdings. Polygyny, on the other hand, is a marital system where a man has multiple wives simultaneously. It's more common globally and historically linked to social status, wealth, and political alliances, allowing men to demonstrate their ability to provide for and protect multiple households. Both polyandry and polygyny can be explained by cultural norms, economic considerations, and demographic factors influencing marriage patterns and family structures in different societies. 35. Advantages of extended-family households include shared childcare responsibilities, economic pooling, emotional support, and continuity of traditions. Disadvantages may include conflicts over authority, limited privacy, financial strain, and potential for intergenerational tensions. 36. Men tend to exhibit more violence in situations of jealousy due to evolutionary and cultural factors that prioritize male aggression as a means of protecting reproductive opportunities and ensuring genetic fitness. This behavior is influenced by social norms, biological predispositions, and perceived threats to status or relationships. 37. Both levirate and sororate marriages serve important social functions in societies: 1. Levirate: In levirate marriage, a man marries the widow of his deceased brother. This practice ensures continuity of lineage, inheritance of property, and provides economic support to widows and their children. It also maintains social stability by preventing widows from becoming marginalized. 2. Sororate: In sororate marriage, a man marries the sister of his deceased wife. This practice strengthens family alliances, maintains social cohesion, and ensures continued care for children within the extended family structure. It also serves to manage household responsibilities and maintain kinship ties. These practices are deeply rooted in cultural and social traditions, providing mechanisms to address familial and societal needs following the loss of a spouse. 38. Polyandrous marriage occurs in societies where resources are limited, and population pressure is high. It typically occurs when brothers share a wife, helping to reduce division of land and property and ensuring family resources are not split. This practice can also limit population growth, preventing fragmentation of inherited property while ensuring family unity and cohesion 39. 1. Sororal Polygyny: This occurs when a man marries multiple wives who are sisters. In this form of polygyny, the wives are often from the same family, which can strengthen family alliances and maintain unity within the extended family. 2. Nonsororal Polygyny: In this type of polygyny, a man marries multiple wives who are not sisters or otherwise related. The wives in nonsororal polygyny may come from different families or backgrounds, and the marriages are typically based on individual preferences or social norms rather than familial ties. Test Bank for Human Evolution and Culture: Highlights of Anthropology Carol R. Ember, Melvin R. Ember, Peter N. Peregrine 9780205924776, 9780205232390, 9780136036357, 9780133976069
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