Chapter 8 Conduct Problems TRUE OR FALSE 1. Typical conduct problems in early childhood include noncompliance, temper tantrums, and oppositional behavior. Answer: True 2. Antisocial personality disorder is diagnosed at 15 when a long history of conduct disordered behavior is present. Answer: False 3. "Normal" nonclinic children do not exhibit oppositional and noncompliant behavior. Answer: False 4. Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is described as a pattern of negativistic, hostile, and defiant behavior that is developmentally extreme. Answer: True 5. Youth diagnosed with conduct disorder tend to be similar in terms of the symptoms they have. Answer: False 6. Research indicates that there is a higher degree of heritability for aggressive rather than rule breaking behavior. Answer: True 7. Paul is 15 years old and engages in the following behaviors: drinks alcohol, lies, has friends who act out, swears, often skips school, and runs away. These behaviors are indicative of aggressive behavior noted by Achenbach and Rescorla (2001). Answer: False 8. Within the empirically derived broad externalizing/conduct disorder syndrome, two narrower syndromes, which might be designated as "aggressive behavior" and "rule-breaking behavior," have been suggested. Answer: True 9. The salient symptom approach to classify conduct disorder is based on the primary problem being displayed. Answer: True 10. Relational aggression is found more often in males than females. Answer: False 11. Violence is typically defined as an extreme form of physical aggression. Answer: True 12. Fire setting represents a behavior that would be described as a covert antisocial behavior. Answer: True 13. The frequency of bullying increases with age. Answer: False 14. Research indicates that there is a relationship between bullying behavior and later criminal behavior. Answer: True 15. Sugden et al., (2010) found that children with a variant on the serotonin transporter gene may have a greater risk of emotional disturbance after a bullying experience. Answer: True 16. Recent research by Roberts and colleagues (2006) found no ethnic differences in the rates of behavioral disorders and ADHD. Answer: True 17. Research has found no meaningful impact of poverty on conduct problems. Answer: False 18. Conduct problems are one of the most frequent reasons for referral to child and adolescent treatment service. Answer: True 19. A youngster who receives a DSM-IV diagnosis of conduct disorder may also get a DSM-IV diagnosis of oppositional defiant disorder. Answer: False 20. Among children diagnosed with ADHD, between 30 and 50% develop conduct disorder. Answer: True 21. Research indicates that youth with conduct problems demonstrate deficits in language, information processing and problem solving. Answer: True 22. Early conduct-disordered behavior is predictive of later antisocial behavior, but not other social-emotional difficulties later in life. Answer: False 23. Callous and unemotional traits put a child at risk for long-term conduct problems. Answer: True 24. Many studies have found that there is no relationship between age onset of conduct problems and more serious persistent antisocial behavior. Answer: False 25. Childhood onset is to life-course-persistent as adolescent onset is to adolescent-limited. Answer: True 26. According to Loeber and Farrington (2000), rejection by peers is a risk factor for child aggression and later serious, violent juvenile offending. Answer: True 27. Typically, aggressive children do not have family histories of aggression or aggressive parents. Answer: False 28. Research by Costello and colleagues (2003) on American Indian youth found that moving out of poverty had no impact on oppositional or conduct problems. Answer: False 29. There is a negative correlation between parental monitoring and antisocial behavior. Answer: True 30. Parents who themselves have antisocial difficulties may do better than most in avoiding such behavior in their own children. Answer: False 31. Many researchers believe that the degree of conflict in a divorce is more predictive of child behavioral problems than the divorce itself. Answer: True 32. Youth who have experienced physical abuse have higher than expected rates of conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder. Answer: True 33. Gordis and colleagues (2010) found that autonomic nervous system functioning can influence the effects of childhood maltreatment on childhood aggression. Answer: True 34. Lee (2011) found that the influence of deviant peer affiliation is stronger for youth with a low activity MAOA genotype, but only in regard to covert antisocial behaviors. Answer: False 35. Examining how youngsters think and feel about social situations is part of understanding conduct disorders (CD). Answer: True 36. Reactive and proactive aggression are each associated with specific social cognitive deficiencies. Answer: True 37. Research findings suggest a greater genetic component for adolescent delinquency than for adult criminal behavior. Answer: False 38. The study by Jaffee et al. (2005) found that pairing a genetic risk with maltreatment increased the probability of a conduct disorder diagnosis by 24 percent. Answer: True 39. According to the text, there is consensus among theories of conduct disorder etiology that the disorder is related to an over-activated behavioral activation system (BAS). Answer: False 40. The fight-or-flight system is viewed as an emotional regulation system and theorized to have a low threshold in conduct disordered youth. Answer: True 41. According to the DSM, substance abuse and substance dependence are interchangeable terms. Answer: False 42. Tolerance is defined as the need to use increased amounts of a substance to achieve the same sensation. Answer: True 43. According to the Monitoring the Future Study, daily marijuana use has increased in 8th, 10th, and 12th graders. Answer: True 44. During adolescence, changes in dopaminergic systems in the brain outpace those of the prefrontal cortex, leading to an increased risk for substance abuse. Answer: True 45. Genetic influences for substance abuse appear to play a bigger role for those teens with heavier, clinical levels of abuse. Answer: True 46. In the assessment of conduct disorders (CD), a clinician would generally not be very interested in parental behaviors and parenting styles. Answer: False 47. Kazdin and colleagues found that combining problem solving skills training with parent management training was superior to either approach alone. Answer: True 48. The Teaching Family Model found that taking the adolescent into a therapeutic group home led to improvements in conduct disordered behavior that were maintained after the teen returned home. Answer: False 49. MST is based on Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model. Answer: True 50. MTFC programs have not proven to be cost effective. Answer: False 51. There is a plethora of well-controlled research regarding the favorable use of medication in treating oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD). Answer: False MULTIPLE CHOICE 52. Within the broad category of externalizing/under-controlled behavior problems, a distinction is often made between A. anxiety and depression on the one hand and aggression, oppositional, and more serious conduct problems on the other. B. inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity on the one hand and aggression, oppositional, and more serious conduct problems on the other. C. inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity on the one hand and anxiety and depression on the other. D. inattention and aggression on the one hand and hyperactivity and impulsivity on the other. Answer: B 53. The term delinquency is primarily employed to refer to A. a juvenile who has committed an act that would be illegal for adults as well. B. a juvenile who has committed an act that is illegal only for juveniles. C. a juvenile who has committed an act that would be illegal for adults as well or an act that is illegal only for juveniles. D. a psychological condition - it refers only to a juvenile who has committed an illegal act because of emotional problems. Answer: C 54. Henry (the case study reported in the text about the 3.5 year old with oppositional behavior) seemed inconsistent in his non-compliant behavior. According to the case study, what was the likely source of is problem? A. A genetic history of oppositional behavior B. Abuse C. Inconsistent parenting D. Learning problems Answer: C 55. An 11-year-old youngster has, for about a period of one year, frequently exhibited the following behaviors: loses temper, refuses to follow requests or rules, deliberately annoys others, and easily annoyed. He would likely receive a DSM-IV diagnosis of A. attention-deficit disorder. B. oppositional-defiant disorder. C. overt conduct disorder. D. early-onset conduct disorder. Answer: B 56. Which of the following statements regarding the DSM-IV diagnosis of Conduct Disorders is accurate? A. Conduct disorders and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder are in separate larger categories. B. The essential feature of the diagnosis is a persistent pattern of behavior that violates the basic rights of others and major age-appropriate societal norms. C. Conduct disorders are part of a larger DSM-IV category called “Externalizing Behavior Disorders.” D. Conduct disorders and oppositional-defiant disorder are in different, larger categories. Answer: B 57. The DSM-IV approach to subtypes of conduct disorders has A. four subtypes defined by the presence or absence of aggression combined with a socialized/unsocialized distinction. B. three subtypes: aggressive, nonaggressive, and substance abuse. C. three subtypes: aggressive, group-delinquent, and other. D. two subtypes: childhood-onset and adolescent-onset. Answer: D 58. Which of the following is a grouping of behaviors included in the criteria for the DSM-IV diagnosis of conduct disorder? A. Aggression to people and animals B. Attention problems C. Mood problems D. Anxiety Answer: A 59. Bobby, a 13-year-old boy is seen at a clinic. He displays the following behaviors: deliberate destruction of others’ property, lying to obtain favors, staying out at night without permission, and frequent truancy from school. These behaviors have all been present during the past year and are ongoing. His parents report that this pattern began when Bobby was 9 years old. Bobby would likely receive a DSM-IV diagnosis of A. oppositional-defiant disorder. B. conduct disorder, childhood-onset. C. conduct disorder, adolescent-onset. D. oppositional-conduct disorder. Answer: B 60. The two narrow-band syndromes suggested to exist within the empirically derived broadband externalizing syndrome of the Achenbach instruments are A. aggressive behavior and rule-breaking behavior. B. aggressive behavior and anxious behavior. C. aggressive behavior and internalizing behavior. D. anxious behavior and rule-breaking behavior. Answer: A 61. Distinguishing between antisocial youngsters whose primary problem is aggression and those whose primary problem is stealing is an example of the _________ approach to grouping problems within the broad externalizing/conduct disorder category. A. Symptom violence B. Overcontrolled/undercontrolled C. Salient symptom D. Early vs. late onset Answer: C 62. Distinguishing between confrontational antisocial behaviors and concealed antisocial behaviors is a distinction between A. externalizing and internalizing antisocial behavior. B. overt and covert antisocial behavior. C. destructive and nondestructive antisocial behavior. D. attention deficit and conduct disordered antisocial behavior. Answer: B 63. Distinguishing between antisocial youngsters whose primary problems are arguing, fighting, and temper tantrums and those whose problems are lying, stealing, and truancy is an example of the _________ distinction in grouping problems within the broad externalizing/conduct disorder category. A. Overcontrolled vs. undercontrolled B. Silent syndrome C. Child vs. adult onset D. Overt vs. covert Answer: D 64. The term “relational aggression” refers to A. physical fighting between siblings. B. physical fighting between any family members. C. behaviors intended to damage another individual’s feelings or friendships. D. behaviors intended to hurt another individual’s relatives. Answer: C 65. Which of the following is an example of relational aggression? A. Purposefully leaving a child out of some activity B. Spitting on another child C. Threatening to beat up another child D. Shoving a child into a locker Answer: A 66. Research on relational aggression suggests that A. boys are more relationally aggressive than girls. B. relational aggression first emerges during the adolescent years. C. girls are essentially non-aggressive. D. relational aggression is associated with feelings of loneliness and depression. Answer: D 67. Which of the following statements regarding fire setting is accurate? A. Fire setting is considered an overt destructive behavior. B. A large percentage of conduct disordered youth engage in fire setting. C. Youth account for approximately 5% of the arrests for arson. D. Fire setters are more likely to come from homes with marital violence. Answer: D 68. Which of the following is true regarding youth and violence? A. Less than 2 percent of US arrests for murder involve juvenile offenders B. Youth are rarely victims of violence C. Exposure to violence increases the risk for aggression. D. A majority of violence committed by youth occurs during the school day Answer: C 69. Which of the following statements best describes the consequences of exposure to violence? A. Youngsters exposed to violence as victims are at risk for developing externalizing disorders. B. Youngsters witnessing violence are at risk for developing internalizing disorders. C. Youngsters witnessing violence are at risk for developing externalizing and internalizing disorders D. Youngsters exposed to violence as either victims or witnesses are at risk for developing externalizing and internalizing disorders Answer: D 70. Regarding bullying, A. boys and girls are exposed to comparable rates of direct bullying attacks. B. boys and girls are exposed to comparable rates of indirect bullying. C. girls are exposed to higher rates of indirect bullying than boys. D. girls are exposed to direct bullying at rates equal to their exposure to indirect bullying. Answer: B 71. Victims of bullying A. if boys, are not typically physically weaker. B. often have some good friends in their class. C. have parents who may be relatively unaware of the problem. D. are not at higher risk for suicide than their peers. Answer: C 72. Which of the following statements regarding the prevalence of conduct-disordered behaviors is accurate? A. Conduct-disordered behavior is not a common reason for referral to mental health clinics. B. The ratio of conduct disorder diagnosis in boys vs. girls is about 10:1. C. The lifetime prevalence rate of oppositional defiant disorder in children is approximately 10%. D. There is no difference in ranges of conduct disorder in urban versus rural settings. Answer: C 73. Regarding the relationship between oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD), the findings of the Developmental Trends study suggest that A. the vast majority of boys who meet the criteria for CD also meet the criteria for ODD. B. the vast majority of boys with ODD progress to CD. C. only a small minority of boys with ODD meet the criteria for ODD two years later. D. CD preceded ODD in most cases. Answer: A 74. _________ are higher order cognitive abilities that play a role in information processing and problem solving. A. Covert functions B. Overt functions C. Proactive functions D. Executive functions Answer: D 75. Regarding the co-occurrence of conduct disorder and depression, it would appear that A. such co-occurrence is rare among adolescents in the community. B. such co-occurrence is rare among youngsters seen in clinics. C. such co-occurrence is more common in girls. D. a shared genetic liability may account, in part, for the co-occurrence. Answer: D 76. Kaleb exhibits the following traits: lack of empathy, deceitfulness, arrogance, manipulative, impulsive and irresponsible. These characteristics are most indicative of A. Oppositional Defiant Disorder B. Psychopathy C. Conduct Disorder D. Depression Answer: B 77. The adolescent-onset pattern of conduct-disordered behavior A. is a less common developmental path than the childhood-onset pattern. B. is less likely to result in arrest than someone the same age with a childhood-onset pattern. C. is characterized by less aggressive behavior than the childhood-onset pattern. D. has a larger proportion of males than the childhood-onset pathway. Answer: C 78. The childhood (early)-onset developmental pathway for conduct-disordered behavior A. is a less stable pattern than later onset. B. is a less common pattern than adolescent-onset. C. is likely to be associated with difficulties such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. D. demonstrates little change in the types of problem behaviors seen over time. Answer: C 79. Which of the following is characteristic of developmental paths of conduct disorders as described by Loeber and others? A. Youngsters who complete one stage progress through all succeeding stages. B. Progression though stages is characterized by the individual displaying an increasing diversification of antisocial behaviors. C. Earlier behaviors (symptoms) are replaced by new ones so that the number of symptoms is stable. D. Early onset in a progression is associated with a better prognosis. Answer: B 80. Which of the following is one of Loeber’s developmental pathways for antisocial behavior? A. Early onset pathway B. Adolescent onset pathway C. Comorbid pathway D. Overt pathway Answer: D 81. According to Loeber, entry into the _________ pathway typically begins earlier than entry into other antisocial behavior developmental pathways. A. authority conflict pathway B. covert pathway C. comorbid pathway D. overt pathway Answer: A 82. Which of the following factors is thought to account for a greater rate of child noncompliance in some families? A. the use of negative consequences for noncompliant behavior by these parents B. the low number of commands these parents give C. the manner in which commands are delivered by these parents D. the high rates of positive consequences given by these parents for compliant behavior Answer: C 83. Patterson's explanations of how problematic behavior develops in aggressive children is labeled "coercion theory" because A. problem behaviors are seen as developing as a way of controlling family members. B. these families need to be coerced into coming into the clinic. C. information is available only through coercing family members. D. the child is labeled as problematic since he is the family member who uses coercion against his prosocial family members. Answer: A 84. A negative reinforcement trap A. occurs when a mother is reinforced for giving in to a child's tantrum by the child stopping the tantrum. B. refers to a parent being trapped by circumstances into frequent use of punishment. C. refers to a parent being forced to use negative reinforcement due to the unavailability of positive reinforcement. D. results in both immediate and long-term negative consequences for a parent. Answer: A 85. Which of the following are constructs in Patterson’s basic parent training model? A. parental punishment and parental reward B. parental discipline and parental monitoring C. parental discipline and parental coercion D. parental monitoring and parental coercion Answer: B 86. According to Patterson, which of the following contributes to poor parental monitoring in problem families? A. Rigid control over the child B. Rarely avoiding confrontations with the child C. Low expectations of positive consequences from their child or social agencies for their involvement D. Fatigue due to the large amounts of supervised time parents spend with their children. Answer: C 87. According to Patterson, parents of problem children A. do not classify as many child behaviors as deviant as compared to other parents. B. nag or scold in response to behaviors other parents consider neutral. C. ignore low-level coercive behaviors more than other parents. D. over reward compliant behavior compared to other parents. Answer: B 88. Which of the following statements regarding peer relations and aggression is correct? A. Aggressive children frequently experience rejection by their peers. B. Rejected, aggressive children, by definition, have no friends. C. All aggressive children are rejected. D. Having friends who are well adjusted has no impact on outcome for delinquent youth. Answer: A 89. Research by Brody and colleagues on a sample of African American children found that A. affiliation with deviant peers was less likely if parents were nurturing and involved. B. affiliation with deviant peers was more likely in neighborhoods with collective socialization practices. C. the effects of parenting and neighborhood collective socialization were minimal for youngsters from the most disadvantaged neighborhoods. D. harsh parenting practices were necessary in certain neighborhoods. Answer: A 90. Research, such as that by Dodge and his colleagues, on the role of cognitive/interpersonal influences on aggression in children suggests which of the following? A. Aggressive children rely heavily on social cues compared to their non aggressive peers. B. Aggressive children misattribute hostile intent to their peer’s actions. C. Aggressive children have no expectation that aggression will produce positive outcomes. D. Aggressive children generate more responses to social problems than their non aggressive peers. Answer: B 91. According to Dodge and his colleagues, _________ is a “hot-blooded” retaliatory form of aggression. A. emotional aggression B. reactive aggression C. relational aggression D. proactive aggression Answer: B 92. According to studies on reactive and proactive aggression, A. reactively aggressive youngsters display deficiencies in early stages of the social-cognitive process. B. proactively aggressive youngsters display deficiencies in early stages of the social-cognitive process. C. reactive aggression is associated with delinquency related violence. D. proactive aggression is related to dating violence, but only when there are low levels of maternal warmth. Answer: A 93. Research regarding a genetic contribution to conduct disorders A. suggests little genetic influence on conduct disorder in children. B. suggests that estimates of genetic influence for conduct-disordered behavior are consistent across different sources of information and different informants. C. suggests that childhood-onset antisocial behavior is more likely to be genetically determined than is the adolescent onset type. D. rules out environmental influences in some types of conduct disorder. Answer: C 94. The _________ tends to activate behavior in the presence of reinforcement and is the reward-seeking component of behavior. A. skin conductance response B. neuropsychological system C. behavioral activation system D. behavioral inhibition system Answer: C 95. The research of van Lier and colleagues (2007) indicated that aggression was highest for children A. with a genetic predisposition to aggression. B. with aggressive friends. C. with family discord. D. with both a genetic predisposition and aggressive friends. Answer: D 96. Quay suggests that youngsters with life-course persistent antisocial behavior may have A. an overactive behavioral inhibition system (BIS) combined with an underactive behavioral activation system (BAS). B. an overactive BAS combined with an underactive BIS. C. overactive BAS and BIS systems. D. moderate and equal BAS and BIS systems. Answer: B 97. _________ is the most widely used substance among young people. A. Alcohol B. Marijuana C. Amphetamines D. Inhalants Answer: A 98. The case study in the text on Rodney, the 17 year-old who woke up in the hospital with a hangover and injuries from a motorcycle accident, highlighted which of the following? A. Parental drinking serves as a model for drinking behavior in children. B. Substance use/abuse is more likely in low achieving youth. C. Cigarettes are highly addictive. D. Social pressures are easier to overcome once one leaves high school. Answer: C 99. In regard to peer factors and substance use, A. peer factors are believed to be among the strongest influences. B. choice in friends is unaffected by substance use. C. adolescents who think peers are using substances are rarely incorrect. D. peer approval of use has little impact on the adolescent’s choice to use a substance. Answer: A 100. Which of the following statements regarding substance use and abuse by youths is correct? A. Parental disapproval has no impact on youth substance use. B. Adolescents tend to use more than one substance. C. Expectations that drinking would facilitate social interactions resulted in less drinking. D. Early conduct problems are not a risk factor for later substance abuse. Answer: C 101. The Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory is an example of a _________ that can be used to assess youngsters with disruptive behavior problems. A. general clinical interview B. structured interview C. behavioral observation system D. behavioral rating scale Answer: A 102. The _________ is a youth self-report measure of conduct problems with items derived from the Uniform Crime Reports. A. Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory B. Sutter-Eyberg Student Behavior Inventory C. Self-Report Delinquency Scale D. Youth Self-Report Form Answer: C 103. The Interpersonal Process Code is an example of a _________ that can be used to assess youngsters with disruptive behavior problems. A. general clinical interview B. structured interview C. behavioral observation system D. behavioral rating scale Answer: C 104. Investigations of Forehand and his colleagues' treatment program for noncompliant behavior suggest that A. decreasing the parents' use of direct concise commands is the central goal of treatment. B. at follow-up, treatment children still differed from nontreated community children. C. treatment was successful at reducing noncompliance but did not affect other behaviors. D. increased compliance was also evident in the untreated siblings of the treated children. Answer: D 105. The program developed by Webster-Stratton and her colleagues to work with parents of young children with conduct problems A. made use of videotapes that depicted parents interacting with children in only an appropriate manner. B. resulted in parents having better attitudes and more confidence in their parenting. C. resulted in parents displaying better parenting skills during clinic sessions, but not at home. D. resulted in initial improvements, but treatment gains were not maintained at follow up. Answer: B 106. Problem-solving training approaches to the treatment of conduct-disordered behavior focus on A. the family interactions of these youngsters. B. the youngsters' interpersonal and social-cognitive deficiencies and distortions. C. societal problems that contribute to conduct problems. D. professionals who work with conduct-disordered youth. Answer: B 107. The Teaching Family Model used a _________ in which points and praise were gained for appropriate behavior and lost for inappropriate behavior. A. Token Economy B. Corrective Model C. Feedback Loop D. Behavioral Scale Answer: A 108. The multidimensional treatment foster care intervention (Chamberlain & Smith, 2003) for conduct-disordered youth A. places youth in family-like settings. B. intervenes in a tightly controlled therapeutic setting. C. creates a large family atmosphere by placing several youngsters in the same home. D. excludes parents in order to focus more intensely on the teens. Answer: A 109. The family-systems-based approach to the treatment of juvenile offenders developed by Henggeler and his colleagues is known as A. The Diversion Project. B. Multisystemic Therapy. C. The Teaching Family Model. D. Cohesion Therapy. Answer: B 110. The Henggeler et al., model A. focuses completely on the family system. B. removes troubled youth from their homes to therapeutic foster homes. C. emphasizes the importance of medication to reduce aggressive behaviors. D. provides 24/7 coverage by clinicians. Answer: D 111. Research on the Henggeler et al., model indicates that when compared to typical juvenile services, those who completed his program A. had fewer arrests. B. had more out of home placements. C. had no change in self-reported delinquency. D. had decreased family cohesion. Answer: A 112. The BASIC program by Webster-Stratton et al. (2005), which was provided to Head Start families, resulted in: A. no change in parent involvement. B. only short-term improvement (less than 1 year). C. less misbehavior in children. D. positive changes only for low income families, but not for families with a history of child abuse and neglect. Answer: C BRIEF ESSAY QUESTIONS 113. Define the term delinquency. What is the difference between an index offense and a status offense? Answer: Certainly! Let's break down these terms: Delinquency: Delinquency refers to behavior by a minor (typically under the age of 18 in most jurisdictions) that is unlawful or beyond parental control and therefore subject to legal action. It often involves acts that would be considered crimes if committed by adults. Delinquent behavior can range from minor offenses like shoplifting or vandalism to more serious crimes such as assault or drug trafficking. In the context of juvenile justice systems, delinquency proceedings are aimed at addressing and correcting the behavior of minors who have violated the law. The focus is often on rehabilitation rather than punishment, with the goal of preventing future criminal behavior. Index Offense vs. Status Offense: 1. Index Offense: • An index offense (also known as a serious crime) refers to a more serious criminal act committed by a juvenile. These offenses are typically similar to crimes committed by adults and may include acts like robbery, assault, burglary, or drug trafficking. • Index offenses are offenses that would be considered criminal regardless of the offender's age. They are serious enough to warrant formal processing through the juvenile justice system. • The handling of index offenses often involves formal legal proceedings, which may include arrest, detention, adjudication (similar to a trial), and sentencing. The focus is on accountability and public safety. 2. Status Offense: • A status offense is behavior that is considered a violation only because of the offender's status as a minor. These behaviors are not considered offenses if committed by adults. • Common examples of status offenses include truancy (skipping school), running away from home, underage drinking, curfew violations, and sometimes minor forms of disobedience or incorrigibility. • The treatment of status offenses typically involves less formal interventions aimed at addressing the underlying issues that contribute to the behavior, such as family conflicts, school problems, or emotional difficulties. • Unlike index offenses, status offenses are often handled through diversion programs, counseling, family therapy, or other community-based services rather than through formal legal proceedings. Key Differences: • Nature of Behavior: Index offenses are serious criminal acts that would be illegal regardless of age, whereas status offenses are behaviors that are only considered offenses because the offender is a minor. • Legal Handling: Index offenses generally involve formal legal proceedings akin to those for adults, while status offenses often emphasize diversion and rehabilitation rather than punishment. • Purpose of Intervention: Index offenses focus on public safety, accountability, and rehabilitation, while status offenses emphasize addressing underlying issues and preventing further delinquency. Understanding these distinctions helps inform how juvenile justice systems and communities address different types of juvenile behavior and tailor interventions accordingly. 114. What are the four groupings of conduct-disordered behavior (symptoms) listed as criteria for a DSM-IV diagnosis of conduct disorder? Answer: In the DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition), conduct disorder is characterized by a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others or major age-appropriate societal norms or rules are violated. To meet the criteria for a diagnosis of conduct disorder, an individual must exhibit a specified number of symptoms from four main groupings. These groupings are: 1. Aggression to People and Animals: • Often bullies, threatens, or intimidates others. • Often initiates physical fights. • Has used a weapon that can cause serious physical harm to others (e.g., a bat, brick, broken bottle, knife, gun). • Has been physically cruel to people. • Has been physically cruel to animals. • Has stolen while confronting a victim (e.g., mugging, purse snatching, extortion, armed robbery). • Has forced someone into sexual activity. 2. Destruction of Property: • Has deliberately engaged in fire setting with the intention of causing serious damage. • Has deliberately destroyed others' property (other than by fire setting). 3. Deceitfulness or Theft: • Has broken into someone else's house, building, or car. • Often lies to obtain goods or favors or to avoid obligations (i.e., "cons" others). • Has stolen items of nontrivial value without confronting a victim (e.g., shoplifting, but without breaking and entering; forgery). 4. Serious Violations of Rules: • Often stays out at night despite parental prohibitions, beginning before age 13 years. • Has run away from home overnight at least twice while living in parental or parental surrogate's home (or once without returning for a lengthy period). • Is often truant from school, beginning before age 13 years. To receive a diagnosis of conduct disorder, an individual must exhibit a specified number of these behaviors within a specific timeframe (e.g., over the past 12 months). The severity of conduct disorder can range from mild to severe, depending on the number and frequency of symptoms exhibited. Treatment typically involves a combination of therapy, family interventions, and sometimes medication, depending on the individual's specific needs and circumstances. 115. Discuss the issues related to the DSM diagnosis of conduct disorder (i.e., what concerns or problems have been raised about this diagnosis)? Answer: The diagnosis of Conduct Disorder (CD) as defined in the DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) has been subject to various concerns and criticisms over the years. These issues reflect both conceptual challenges and practical limitations in diagnosing and treating individuals with this condition. Here are some of the key concerns related to the DSM diagnosis of Conduct Disorder: 1. Cultural and Contextual Variability: • Cultural Bias: The criteria for Conduct Disorder may not be culturally sensitive, leading to overdiagnosis or misdiagnosis across different cultural groups. Behaviors considered normative in one culture may be labeled as conduct problems in another. • Socioeconomic Factors: Social and economic contexts can influence behavior and perceptions of what constitutes conduct disorder, affecting diagnostic accuracy. 2. Heterogeneity of Symptoms: • Diverse Presentation: Conduct Disorder encompasses a wide range of behaviors, from aggression and rule-breaking to deceitfulness and vandalism. The heterogeneity in symptoms can complicate diagnosis and treatment planning. • Overlap with Other Disorders: There is overlap between Conduct Disorder and other conditions such as oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and substance use disorders, which can lead to diagnostic confusion or comorbidity issues. 3. Developmental Considerations: • Age-Related Variability: Some behaviors considered symptomatic of Conduct Disorder may be normative during certain developmental stages (e.g., adolescence), making it challenging to distinguish between typical behavior and pathology. • Change Over Time: The trajectory of conduct problems can vary significantly over time, with some children and adolescents improving spontaneously or with intervention, while others persist or worsen. 4. Diagnostic Reliability and Validity: • Subjectivity in Diagnosis: Diagnosis relies heavily on behavioral observations and reports, which can be subjective and vary depending on the observer (e.g., parents, teachers, clinicians). • Consistency in Criteria Application: Variability in how clinicians interpret and apply DSM criteria can impact diagnostic reliability and validity. 5. Stigma and Labeling: • Stigmatization: Being diagnosed with Conduct Disorder can lead to stigma and negative labeling, affecting self-perception and social interactions. • Impact on Treatment and Services: Labeling with Conduct Disorder may influence access to appropriate services, such as education, mental health care, and social support. 6. Treatment Challenges: • Effectiveness of Interventions: The effectiveness of treatments for Conduct Disorder can vary widely, and there is limited evidence supporting specific interventions for all subtypes and severities. • Complexity of Needs: Individuals with Conduct Disorder often have complex needs (e.g., family dysfunction, trauma history, comorbid disorders), requiring comprehensive, individualized treatment approaches. 7. Ethical Considerations: • Informed Consent and Autonomy: Diagnosing Conduct Disorder involves ethical considerations regarding informed consent, especially when minors are involved, and respecting autonomy in treatment decisions. Conclusion: While the DSM criteria provide a standardized framework for diagnosing Conduct Disorder, these concerns highlight the complexities and limitations in applying psychiatric diagnoses to behavioral disorders. Addressing these issues requires ongoing research, cultural sensitivity, and a holistic approach to understanding and treating conduct-related problems in children and adolescents. Efforts to refine diagnostic criteria, improve assessment tools, and tailor interventions to individual needs are essential for enhancing the validity and utility of diagnoses like Conduct Disorder in clinical practice. 116. Briefly describe the concept of relational aggression. How might it help explain reported gender differences in aggression? Answer: Relational aggression refers to a type of aggression where individuals harm others through deliberately manipulating or damaging their relationships, social status, or psychological well-being. Unlike physical aggression, which involves direct physical harm, relational aggression typically operates through social exclusion, spreading rumors, undermining friendships, or damaging reputations. This concept can help explain reported gender differences in aggression in several ways: 1. Socialization and Communication Styles: Traditionally, girls are often socialized to value relationships and communication more than boys. Relational aggression may reflect a style of conflict resolution or expression that aligns more with social and emotional dynamics, which are emphasized in female socialization. 2. Cultural Norms and Expectations: Societal norms often discourage girls from expressing anger or aggression physically. As a result, relational aggression might be a more socially acceptable or accessible form of aggression for girls compared to physical aggression. 3. Impact of Relationships: Girls may prioritize maintaining social ties and friendships. Therefore, targeting these areas through relational aggression can be a potent way to assert dominance, retaliate, or achieve goals without resorting to physical confrontation. 4. Perception and Reporting: Relational aggression may be less visible or recognizable than physical aggression, potentially leading to underreporting or different interpretations of aggressive behavior across genders. In summary, the concept of relational aggression helps illuminate how aggression can manifest differently based on socialization, norms, and communication styles, which are often influenced by gender expectations and roles in society. These factors collectively contribute to the observed gender differences in aggression patterns. 117. Give an example (at least one of each) of overt/destructive, overt non-destructive, covert/constructive and covert non-destructive behavior. Answer: 1. Overt/Destructive Behavior: • Example: Physical fighting, where one person physically harms another, causing injury or pain. This type of behavior is overt (clearly observable) and destructive (causing harm). 2. Overt/Non-Destructive Behavior: • Example: Verbal aggression, such as shouting insults or threats at someone during an argument. This behavior is overt (observable) but non-destructive (does not cause physical harm). 3. Covert/Constructive Behavior: • Example: Manipulation through spreading rumors or gossip to undermine someone's reputation or social standing. This behavior is covert (not easily detected) and can be seen as constructive in achieving the aggressor's goals without direct physical harm. 4. Covert/Non-Destructive Behavior: • Example: Social exclusion or silent treatment, where someone intentionally ignores or excludes another person from social activities or conversations. This behavior is covert (not immediately visible) and non-destructive (does not cause physical harm). These examples illustrate the different ways aggression can manifest across both overt and covert dimensions, as well as the distinction between behaviors that cause physical harm versus those that operate more subtly through social dynamics. 118. Briefly describe the patterns of co-occurrence among ADHD, CD, and ODD and their likely developmental relationship. Answer: ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder), CD (Conduct Disorder), and ODD (Oppositional Defiant Disorder) are psychiatric disorders that often co-occur in children and adolescents. Here are the patterns of co-occurrence and their likely developmental relationship: 1. Co-occurrence: • ADHD and ODD: ADHD and ODD frequently co-occur. Children with ADHD may exhibit oppositional and defiant behaviors, such as arguing with adults, defying rules, and being easily annoyed or angered. ODD can exacerbate the disruptive behaviors associated with ADHD. • ADHD and CD: There is also a notable overlap between ADHD and CD. Children with ADHD are at increased risk for developing conduct problems, such as aggression towards people or animals, destruction of property, and rule-breaking behaviors characteristic of CD. • ODD and CD: ODD is considered a precursor to CD in some cases. Children with ODD often progress to develop more severe conduct problems associated with CD if their oppositional behaviors persist and escalate. 2. Developmental Relationship: • ADHD as a Risk Factor: ADHD is often considered a precursor or risk factor for the development of ODD and CD. The impulsivity, hyperactivity, and difficulty in regulating emotions seen in ADHD can contribute to the emergence of oppositional and defiant behaviors (ODD) and conduct problems (CD). • Progression from ODD to CD: ODD and CD share some behavioral similarities, but CD involves more severe and persistent patterns of antisocial behavior. Children with ODD may escalate to CD if their oppositional behaviors become more aggressive or if they engage in conduct problems involving violation of others' rights or societal norms. • Shared Risk Factors: These disorders share common risk factors such as genetic vulnerabilities, family dysfunction, exposure to violence or harsh parenting, and neurobiological factors affecting impulse control and emotional regulation. In summary, ADHD often precedes or co-occurs with ODD and CD. ODD may serve as a transitional stage between ADHD and more severe conduct problems associated with CD. Understanding these patterns of co-occurrence helps in early identification, intervention, and treatment planning for children and adolescents with these complex behavioral and emotional issues. 119. Indicate three ways (other than age of onset) in which the childhood-onset and adolescent-onset developmental pathways of conduct-disordered behavior differ. Answer: Childhood-onset and adolescent-onset pathways of conduct-disordered behavior differ in several ways beyond just the age of onset. Here are three key differences: 1. Severity and Persistence: • Childhood-Onset: Conduct disorder (CD) that begins in childhood tends to be more severe and persistent. Children with early-onset CD often exhibit more aggressive behaviors, defiance, and rule-breaking conduct that starts before age 10. These behaviors may be entrenched and difficult to change without intensive intervention. • Adolescent-Onset: CD that develops in adolescence typically emerges around puberty or later. It may manifest as milder forms of antisocial behavior, such as delinquency, substance use, and rule-breaking. Adolescent-onset CD tends to show less severe and persistent patterns compared to childhood-onset CD. It may also be more influenced by peer relationships and temporary situational factors. 2. Psychosocial Factors: • Childhood-Onset: Children with early-onset CD often come from backgrounds characterized by significant family dysfunction, harsh parenting, exposure to violence, and genetic predispositions. These psychosocial factors contribute to the development and maintenance of conduct problems from an early age. • Adolescent-Onset: On the other hand, adolescent-onset CD may be more strongly associated with peer influences, social rejection, academic difficulties, and affiliation with delinquent peers. These factors play a crucial role in shaping behavior during the sensitive period of adolescence when identity formation and peer relationships are central. 3. Outcome Trajectories: • Childhood-Onset: Longitudinal studies suggest that children with early-onset CD are at higher risk for persistent antisocial behavior into adulthood, as well as other negative outcomes such as academic failure, substance abuse, and involvement with the criminal justice system. The trajectory of childhood-onset CD often leads to a chronic pattern of antisocial behavior. • Adolescent-Onset: Individuals with adolescent-onset CD may show more variability in their outcomes. Some may desist from antisocial behavior as they mature and develop better coping skills or positive social supports. However, others may continue to engage in delinquent behavior, particularly if they remain in environments that reinforce antisocial conduct. In summary, while age of onset is a significant factor, the developmental pathways of childhood-onset and adolescent-onset conduct-disordered behavior differ in terms of severity, psychosocial influences, and long-term outcomes. These distinctions underscore the importance of early identification and targeted interventions tailored to the unique needs of individuals on each pathway. 120. What are the three developmental pathways for conduct disorder described by Loeber? Name a behavior characteristic of each pathway. Answer: Thomas J. Loeber, a prominent researcher in the field of conduct disorder (CD), proposed three developmental pathways based on his longitudinal studies and empirical research. Each pathway is characterized by distinct behavioral features and developmental trajectories: 1. Childhood-Onset Pathway: • Behavior Characteristic: Aggressive behavior. • Description: This pathway involves the early onset of conduct problems, typically before age 10. Children following this pathway exhibit aggressive behaviors such as physical fighting, bullying, and cruelty to animals or people. They may also display oppositional and defiant behaviors towards authority figures, persistent rule-breaking, and a lack of remorse for their actions. 2. Adolescent-Onset Pathway: • Behavior Characteristic: Delinquent behavior. • Description: In this pathway, conduct problems emerge during adolescence, typically around puberty or later. Behaviors associated with this pathway include delinquency, substance use, vandalism, and other rule-breaking behaviors that often occur in the context of peer relationships or as a response to social influences. Unlike childhood-onset CD, these behaviors may not be as severe or persistent. 3. Early Childhood-Limited Pathway: • Behavior Characteristic: Oppositional behavior. • Description: This pathway is characterized by oppositional behaviors that emerge in early childhood but do not progress to severe conduct problems or delinquency. Children on this pathway may exhibit oppositional defiance, temper tantrums, argumentativeness, and difficulties with authority figures. These behaviors often decrease over time as the child matures and learns more adaptive coping skills. These pathways provide a framework for understanding the heterogeneous nature of conduct disorder and highlight the importance of considering developmental timing, behavioral patterns, and environmental influences in assessing and intervening with individuals exhibiting conduct problems. 121. Give an example of how negative reinforcement and the reinforcement trap (as described by Patterson) can lead to the development of conduct-disordered behavior. Answer: Let's break down how negative reinforcement and the reinforcement trap can contribute to the development of conduct-disordered behavior, using an example: Example Scenario: Imagine a child named Alex, who often exhibits disruptive behavior in school, such as talking back to teachers and refusing to do assignments. Let's explore how negative reinforcement and the reinforcement trap might play out in Alex's situation: 1. Negative Reinforcement: • Situation: Alex frequently disrupts class by talking loudly and refusing to follow instructions. As a result, the teacher sends Alex out of the classroom. • Negative Reinforcement Mechanism: Being sent out of class (removal from an aversive situation) negatively reinforces Alex's disruptive behavior. This is because Alex's behavior (talking loudly) leads to the removal of something unpleasant (the teacher's instructions or the classroom environment), which strengthens the likelihood of Alex behaving similarly in the future to escape or avoid similar situations. 2. Reinforcement Trap (as described by Patterson): • Escalation: Over time, Alex's disruptive behavior might escalate because each time Alex is sent out of class, the behavior is negatively reinforced (the removal of the aversive situation). This creates a reinforcement trap where Alex becomes more likely to engage in disruptive behavior to achieve the negative reinforcement (removal from class). • Development of Conduct-Disordered Behavior: As Alex's disruptive behavior escalates, it might lead to more serious conduct problems, such as defiance towards authority figures, aggression towards peers or teachers who try to intervene, and an overall disregard for rules and consequences. 3. Cycle of Conduct Disorder: • Cycle Initiation: The initial instances of disruptive behavior (talking back, refusal to comply) are negatively reinforced (removal from class). • Cycle Reinforcement: As Alex's disruptive behaviors are reinforced through negative reinforcement, they become more frequent and intense. • Cycle Escalation: With time, the behaviors might escalate because Alex learns that disruptive behavior reliably results in escape from unwanted situations or gains attention and control over others. • Conduct Disorder: This pattern of behavior can lead to a diagnosis of conduct disorder, characterized by persistent patterns of aggression, defiance, rule violations, and disregard for others' rights. In summary, negative reinforcement and the reinforcement trap can create a cycle where initially minor disruptive behaviors are reinforced and escalate over time, potentially leading to more serious conduct-disordered behavior in children like Alex. This example illustrates how environmental factors and reinforcement processes can influence the development of conduct disorders in individuals. 122. Identify and briefly describe the three skills that define Patterson's construct of parental discipline. Answer: Patterson's construct of parental discipline focuses on three key skills that are crucial for effective parenting and behavior management in children. These skills are central to understanding how parents can influence child behavior and development: 1. Positive reinforcement: This skill involves the use of rewards or positive consequences to increase the likelihood of desired behaviors in children. When parents positively reinforce a behavior, they provide something pleasant or desired immediately following the behavior, which strengthens the behavior and makes it more likely to occur again in the future. For example, praising a child for completing homework or following instructions promptly reinforces these behaviors. 2. Effective commands: Effective commands refer to clear, direct, and age-appropriate instructions or requests given by parents to children. These commands are structured in a way that leaves little room for confusion or negotiation, making it clear to the child what is expected of them. Effective commands help to establish boundaries and expectations, and when consistently enforced, they contribute to shaping appropriate behavior in children. For instance, a parent might say, "Please put your toys away now," rather than a vague instruction like, "Clean up your mess." 3. Consistency in consequences: This skill involves ensuring that consequences for behaviors are consistently applied and predictable. When children understand that certain behaviors lead to specific consequences every time, they are more likely to learn and internalize appropriate behavior. Consistency in consequences helps to establish a sense of accountability and understanding of cause and effect in children. For example, if a child consistently loses screen time privileges for not completing chores, they learn that failing to do chores results in a predictable consequence. These three skills — positive reinforcement, effective commands, and consistency in consequences — form the foundation of Patterson's construct of parental discipline. Together, they provide a structured approach for parents to foster positive behavior and development in their children while minimizing disruptive or inappropriate behavior. 123. What variables contribute to poor parenting strategies? Answer: Several variables contribute to poor parenting strategies, which can negatively impact child development and behavior. These variables include: 1. Lack of Parental Knowledge and Skills: Parents who lack knowledge about child development, effective discipline techniques, or parenting strategies may struggle to provide appropriate guidance and support to their children. This can lead to inconsistent or ineffective parenting practices. 2. Parental Stress and Mental Health Issues: High levels of stress, anxiety, depression, or other mental health issues in parents can impair their ability to respond to their children's needs effectively. Stressors such as financial difficulties, marital conflicts, or personal trauma can also contribute to poor parenting practices. 3. Negative Parenting History: Parents who experienced harsh or inconsistent parenting themselves may repeat these patterns with their own children. They may lack positive role models or strategies for nurturing and supporting their children. 4. Parental Substance Abuse or Addiction: Substance abuse issues can impair a parent's ability to provide a stable and supportive environment for their children. It can lead to neglect, inconsistency in parenting, and unpredictability in behavior. 5. Family Structure and Support: Single-parent households, lack of extended family support, or unstable family dynamics (such as frequent moves or separations) can contribute to poor parenting practices. Limited social support networks can also impact a parent's ability to cope with parenting challenges effectively. 6. Cultural and Socioeconomic Factors: Cultural beliefs and socioeconomic status can influence parenting practices. For example, poverty may limit access to resources and opportunities that support positive parenting practices, while cultural norms may influence disciplinary approaches. 7. Parental Expectations and Perceptions: Unrealistic expectations of child behavior, rigid parenting styles, or overly permissive attitudes can all contribute to ineffective parenting strategies. Misunderstanding child development stages and milestones may lead to inappropriate expectations and responses. 8. Lack of Parental Involvement and Monitoring: Parents who are disengaged or uninvolved in their children's lives may fail to provide necessary guidance, supervision, and emotional support. This can leave children feeling neglected or unsupported. 9. Environmental Stressors and Challenges: Neighborhood violence, exposure to community stressors, or unsafe living conditions can create additional challenges for parents in providing a nurturing and stable environment for their children. Addressing these variables requires a holistic approach that includes parenting education, mental health support for parents, community resources, and policies that support families in managing stress and accessing necessary resources for effective parenting. 124. Discuss the ways that marital discord can facilitate conduct disorders in children. Answer: Marital discord, or conflict between parents, can significantly impact children's emotional and behavioral development, potentially contributing to the development of conduct disorders through various mechanisms: 1. Modeling of Aggressive or Dysfunctional Behavior: Children often learn how to interact with others and manage their emotions by observing their parents. Marital discord characterized by frequent arguments, hostility, or aggression can model inappropriate conflict resolution strategies and negative emotional expression. Children may internalize these behaviors and apply them in their own interactions, leading to aggressive or disruptive behaviors characteristic of conduct disorders. 2. Inconsistent Parenting and Discipline: Marital discord can lead to inconsistent parenting practices where parents may be emotionally unavailable, preoccupied with conflicts, or inconsistent in applying discipline. Inconsistent discipline can confuse children about expectations and boundaries, contributing to behavioral problems such as defiance or rule-breaking. 3. Emotional Stress and Instability: Constant exposure to parental conflict can create a stressful and emotionally unstable environment for children. Chronic stress can disrupt normal emotional regulation and coping mechanisms in children, potentially leading to emotional outbursts, impulsivity, or aggression — all of which are symptoms often seen in conduct disorders. 4. Parental Mental Health Issues: Marital discord is often associated with increased rates of depression, anxiety, or other mental health issues in parents. Parents experiencing these issues may have difficulty providing stable emotional support and nurturing environments for their children, which can exacerbate behavioral problems in children. 5. Divided Attention and Neglect: When parents are preoccupied with marital conflict, they may inadvertently neglect their children's emotional needs or fail to provide adequate supervision and guidance. This lack of parental involvement can leave children feeling insecure, unsupported, and more prone to seeking attention through negative behaviors. 6. Interparental Hostility and Parentification: In extreme cases of marital discord, children may be drawn into conflicts, used as pawns, or exposed to hostile interactions between parents. This can lead to a role reversal where children feel compelled to take on adult responsibilities or act as mediators, disrupting normal developmental processes and increasing their risk of behavioral problems. 7. Disrupted Family Dynamics: Marital discord can lead to changes in family structure, such as separation, divorce, or frequent changes in living arrangements. These disruptions can further destabilize children's lives, affecting their sense of security and contributing to emotional and behavioral problems. Addressing marital discord and its potential impact on children requires interventions that support healthy family dynamics, effective communication between parents, and strategies for managing conflict constructively. Providing children with stable and nurturing environments, access to support systems, and opportunities for emotional expression and coping can mitigate the negative effects of marital discord on their development and reduce the risk of conduct disorders. 125. List and describe the three brain systems Gray (1987) believed to be related to conduct disordered behavior. How are they proposed to be operating in conduct disordered youth? Answer: Richard J. Gray (1987) proposed a theory involving three brain systems that are related to conduct disordered behavior. These systems are part of Gray's reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST), which suggests that individual differences in behavior can be attributed to variations in the sensitivity and responsiveness of these brain systems to different types of reinforcement or punishment. Here are the three brain systems and their proposed roles in conduct disordered youth: 1. Behavioral Activation System (BAS): • Description: The BAS is responsible for approach behavior towards rewards and cues for reward. It is activated by signals of reward or non-punishment. • Operation in Conduct Disordered Youth: Conduct disordered youth are proposed to have an overactive BAS, meaning they are more sensitive to cues of reward and less sensitive to punishment cues. This heightened sensitivity to reward may lead to impulsive, sensation-seeking behavior as these individuals seek immediate gratification without considering long-term consequences. 2. Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS): • Description: The BIS is responsible for sensitivity to signals of punishment, non-reward, or novel stimuli that may signal potential threats or dangers. It generates anxiety and inhibits behavior in response to cues for punishment or non-reward. • Operation in Conduct Disordered Youth: Conduct disordered youth are suggested to have an underactive BIS, meaning they are less sensitive to cues of punishment or potential threats. This reduced sensitivity may lead to a lack of fear or anxiety about consequences, resulting in reckless or antisocial behavior without regard for negative outcomes. 3. Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS): • Description: The FFFS is responsible for responses to immediate threat or danger, triggering fight (aggression), flight (escape or avoidance), or freeze (immobility) responses. • Operation in Conduct Disordered Youth: Conduct disordered youth may have an overactive or dysregulated FFFS, which can lead to aggressive and impulsive behaviors in response to perceived threats or conflicts. This heightened reactivity may contribute to the expression of conduct disorder symptoms such as aggression towards others or rule-breaking behavior. How They Operate Together in Conduct Disordered Youth: • Imbalance and Dysregulation: According to Gray's theory, conduct disordered behavior arises from an imbalance or dysregulation among these brain systems. Specifically, an overactive BAS combined with an underactive BIS and potentially dysregulated FFFS can lead to a pattern of behavior characterized by impulsivity, aggression, sensation-seeking, and disregard for consequences. • Behavioral Manifestations: Conduct disordered youth may engage in behaviors such as aggression towards peers or authority figures, rule-breaking, defiance, and risky behaviors (e.g., substance abuse, reckless driving). These behaviors are thought to reflect a combination of heightened sensitivity to rewards (BAS), reduced sensitivity to punishment (BIS), and exaggerated responses to perceived threats (FFFS). Understanding these brain systems provides insight into the underlying neurobiological mechanisms that contribute to conduct disordered behavior, highlighting the complex interplay between neurobiology, environment, and behavior in youth with conduct disorders. 126. Discuss the various models or theories of adolescent substance abuse (there are essentially three noted in the text). Answer: There are several models or theories that attempt to explain adolescent substance abuse, each offering different perspectives on the factors influencing initiation and maintenance of substance use behaviors. Here are three notable models or theories: 1. Biopsychosocial Model: • Description: This model integrates biological, psychological, and social factors to explain substance abuse. It recognizes that substance abuse results from a complex interplay of genetic vulnerabilities (biological), psychological factors (such as personality traits or mental health issues), and social influences (including family dynamics, peer relationships, and cultural factors). • Key Points: • Biological Factors: Genetic predispositions, neurotransmitter imbalances, and physiological responses to substances may increase vulnerability to substance abuse. • Psychological Factors: Personality traits like impulsivity, sensation-seeking, or low self-esteem can contribute to substance use as individuals seek mood regulation or enhancement. • Social Factors: Family dynamics (such as parenting styles or parental substance use), peer influences (including peer pressure or social norms favoring substance use), and cultural contexts shape attitudes and behaviors related to substance use. 2. Developmental Psychopathology Model: • Description: This model focuses on the developmental trajectories and pathways that lead to substance abuse. It emphasizes how risk and protective factors interact over time to influence the onset and course of substance use behaviors. • Key Points: • Early Developmental Influences: Early childhood experiences (e.g., trauma, parental substance use) may set the stage for later substance abuse. • Adolescent Transitions: Puberty and adolescence are critical periods where biological, psychological, and social changes increase vulnerability to experimentation with substances. • Continuity and Change: It considers how individual characteristics (e.g., temperament, coping skills) and environmental factors (e.g., peer relationships, access to substances) interact dynamically to either maintain or diminish substance use over time. 3. Social Learning Theory: • Description: Social learning theory posits that substance use behaviors are learned through observation, imitation, and reinforcement within social contexts. It emphasizes the role of modeling and reinforcement processes in the development and maintenance of substance abuse. • Key Points: • Modeling and Imitation: Adolescents learn substance use behaviors by observing others (e.g., parents, peers) who use substances. • Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement (e.g., feeling euphoric) and negative reinforcement (e.g., stress reduction) from substance use can strengthen behaviors. • Social Context: Peer influence, societal norms, and media portrayals of substance use contribute to shaping attitudes and behaviors related to substance use. Integration and Application: These models and theories provide complementary perspectives on adolescent substance abuse, highlighting the multifaceted nature of the phenomenon. Effective prevention and intervention strategies often draw from multiple models, addressing biological vulnerabilities, psychological risk factors, and social influences concurrently. By understanding these dynamics, professionals can develop tailored approaches to prevent substance abuse and support adolescents in making healthier choices. 127. List and explain five of the ten variables in the Mayes & Suchman (2006) model of substance use in adolescence. Answer: Mayes and Suchman (2006) proposed a comprehensive model of substance use in adolescence that integrates multiple factors influencing the onset and progression of substance use behaviors. Here are five variables from their model, along with explanations of each: 1. Genetic Vulnerability: • Explanation: Genetic factors play a role in predisposing individuals to substance use disorders. Certain genetic variations may increase susceptibility to the reinforcing effects of substances or alter responses to stress, which can influence initiation and progression of substance use in adolescence. • Example: Family history of substance use disorders (e.g., parental alcoholism) increases the likelihood that adolescents may inherit genetic vulnerabilities contributing to their own substance use. 2. Neurobiological Factors: • Explanation: Neurobiological factors include brain structures and functions that regulate reward processing, impulse control, and decision-making. Differences in neurobiology can impact sensitivity to the rewarding effects of substances and the ability to regulate substance use behaviors. • Example: Adolescents with alterations in dopamine receptors or deficiencies in prefrontal cortex development may be more prone to seeking out substances for reward and less capable of inhibiting impulsive behaviors. 3. Psychiatric Comorbidity: • Explanation: Adolescents with psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety disorders, or conduct disorders, are at higher risk for substance use. Substance use may be used as a coping mechanism or may exacerbate existing mental health symptoms. • Example: A teenager experiencing symptoms of depression may turn to alcohol or drugs to alleviate feelings of sadness or hopelessness, which can contribute to a cycle of substance use and worsening mental health. 4. Family Dynamics: • Explanation: Family factors such as parenting styles, family cohesion, conflict, and parental substance use influence adolescent substance use. Supportive family environments with clear rules and communication reduce risk, while dysfunctional family dynamics or parental substance use increase vulnerability. • Example: Authoritarian parenting styles characterized by strict rules and punishment may lead adolescents to rebel and seek out substances as a form of defiance or escape from family conflict. 5. Peer Influence: • Explanation: Peers play a significant role in shaping adolescent behaviors, including substance use. Peer influence can operate through peer pressure, social norms favoring substance use, and opportunities for access to substances. • Example: Adolescents who associate with peers who use substances are more likely to experiment with and continue using substances themselves, influenced by the desire for social acceptance or perceived benefits of substance use. These variables from Mayes and Suchman's model illustrate the multifaceted nature of adolescent substance use, emphasizing the interaction of biological, psychological, social, and environmental factors. Understanding these variables can inform prevention and intervention efforts aimed at reducing substance use and promoting healthier adolescent development. 128. What are the common elements of a parent training program? Answer: Parent training programs typically include a variety of elements designed to enhance parenting skills, improve parent-child interactions, and reduce behavioral problems in children. While specific programs may vary in their approach and content, common elements often found in effective parent training programs include: 1. Psychoeducation: Providing parents with information about child development, behavior management techniques, and strategies for promoting positive child outcomes. This helps parents understand the rationale behind the program's techniques and interventions. 2. Skill Building: Teaching specific parenting skills that are relevant to managing behavior, fostering positive relationships, and promoting children's social and emotional development. Skills may include effective communication, positive reinforcement, setting limits, and problem-solving. 3. Behavioral Techniques: Teaching parents how to apply behavioral principles to manage challenging behaviors in children. This often includes techniques such as praise and encouragement for positive behavior, ignoring minor misbehavior, time-out procedures, and effective discipline strategies. 4. Role-playing and Modeling: Providing opportunities for parents to practice new skills through role-playing scenarios or observing demonstrations of effective parenting techniques. This helps parents gain confidence in applying techniques in real-life situations. 5. Parental Self-Management: Helping parents recognize and manage their own stress, emotions, and reactions during parenting challenges. Techniques may include stress management strategies, self-care practices, and cognitive reframing to promote effective parenting. 6. Problem-Solving Skills: Teaching parents how to identify specific behavior problems, analyze contributing factors, and develop tailored interventions. This empowers parents to address challenges systematically and adapt strategies as needed. 7. Home Practice and Feedback: Assigning homework assignments or tasks that encourage parents to practice newly learned skills at home. Providing feedback and support during follow-up sessions helps reinforce learning and troubleshoot any difficulties. 8. Parent Support and Networking: Facilitating opportunities for parents to connect with peers, share experiences, and receive social support. Support groups, parent networks, or online forums can provide encouragement, validation, and additional resources. 9. Cultural Sensitivity: Acknowledging and respecting cultural differences in parenting practices and values. Tailoring interventions to be culturally sensitive enhances program relevance and effectiveness across diverse populations. 10. Long-term Maintenance and Generalization: Supporting parents in maintaining and generalizing learned skills beyond the program duration. Strategies may include booster sessions, ongoing support, and community resources to sustain positive changes in parenting behavior. Effective parent training programs are typically structured, evidence-based, and tailored to meet the specific needs of parents and their children. They aim to empower parents with knowledge, skills, and support to foster positive parent-child relationships and promote children's healthy development. 129. Summarize the findings from conduct disorder treatment program studies. What types of interventions appear to be most effective? What is needed to maintain change? Answer: Studies on conduct disorder treatment programs have identified several key findings regarding effective interventions and factors necessary to maintain positive changes in behavior. Here are the summarized findings: 1. Effective Interventions: • Parent Training Programs: Interventions that focus on improving parenting skills, such as positive reinforcement, consistent discipline, and effective communication, have shown significant effectiveness. Programs like Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) and the Incredible Years Program are examples. • Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): CBT interventions target cognitive distortions, teach problem-solving skills, and help children develop coping strategies to manage anger and impulsivity. • Multisystemic Therapy (MST): MST addresses multiple domains including family, school, and community factors, aiming to improve social skills, family relationships, and reduce antisocial behaviors. • School-Based Interventions: Programs that involve teachers and school staff in behavior management strategies, social skills training, and academic support can improve behavior and academic performance. • Medication: In some cases, medication (e.g., stimulants, mood stabilizers) may be used to manage specific symptoms like impulsivity and aggression, especially when combined with psychosocial interventions. 2. Factors Contributing to Maintenance of Change: • Parental Involvement and Support: Continued parental involvement in reinforcing learned strategies and maintaining consistent discipline at home is crucial. • Skill Generalization: Teaching children to apply newly learned skills across different settings (e.g., home, school, community) enhances the generalization of behavior improvements. • Community Support: Access to community resources, ongoing support groups, or therapeutic services can provide continued support and reinforcement for families. • Long-term Follow-up and Monitoring: Regular follow-up sessions and monitoring of progress help identify potential setbacks early and adjust interventions as needed. • Consistent Reinforcement of Positive Behavior: Continued use of positive reinforcement for appropriate behaviors and consistent consequences for problematic behaviors reinforces behavioral changes over time. 3. Challenges and Considerations: • Complexity of Cases: Conduct disorder often co-occurs with other disorders (e.g., ADHD, substance use), requiring integrated treatment approaches. • Family Dynamics: Addressing family dysfunction, trauma, or parenting stress that contribute to conduct disorder is essential for sustained improvement. • Individualized Approach: Tailoring interventions to address the specific needs and strengths of each child and family improves treatment outcomes. • Cultural Sensitivity: Considering cultural factors in treatment planning and delivery enhances engagement and effectiveness across diverse populations. In conclusion, effective treatment programs for conduct disorder typically involve comprehensive, evidence-based interventions that target multiple domains of functioning. The most effective interventions emphasize improving parenting skills, teaching cognitive-behavioral techniques, and involving multiple systems (family, school, community). To maintain positive changes, ongoing support, reinforcement of learned skills, and addressing underlying family and environmental factors are crucial. 130. List and give examples of four (out of eight) rules for effective commands from parent-child interaction therapy programs. Answer: Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) emphasizes the use of effective commands as a fundamental strategy to improve child compliance and reduce behavioral problems. Here are four rules for effective commands from PCIT programs, along with examples: 1. Use Directives, Not Questions: • Rule: Give clear directives rather than asking questions that can be answered with a "yes" or "no." • Example: Instead of asking, "Would you like to clean up your toys now?" say, "Please clean up your toys." 2. Use Brief and Specific Commands: • Rule: Keep commands concise and specific to the behavior you want to see. • Example: Instead of saying, "Get ready for bed," say, "Brush your teeth and put on your pajamas." 3. Give One Command at a Time: • Rule: Avoid overwhelming the child with multiple commands at once; give one command at a time. • Example: Instead of saying, "Clean your room and then take out the trash," say, "Clean your room." 4. Give Commands Clearly and Firmly: • Rule: Use a clear and firm tone of voice when giving commands to convey your expectation. • Example: Instead of saying, "Could you please turn off the TV?" say, "Turn off the TV now." These rules are designed to enhance the clarity, effectiveness, and consistency of commands given by parents, which helps to improve children's understanding of expectations and promotes compliance with parental directives. In PCIT, mastering these command skills is crucial for establishing a structured and predictable environment that supports positive parent-child interactions and reduces behavioral challenges. 131. What are the levels of service provided in the Adolescent Transition Program and what is offered? Answer: The Adolescent Transition Program (ATP) typically offers several levels of service aimed at providing support and interventions to adolescents transitioning from various settings, such as hospitalization, residential treatment, or intensive outpatient programs, back to community or home environments. These levels of service can vary depending on the specific program, but generally include: 1. Intensive Outpatient Program (IOP): • Description: The IOP level of service in ATP provides structured, therapeutic programming while allowing adolescents to live at home or in a supportive community setting. • Services Offered: • Group therapy sessions focusing on coping skills, relapse prevention, and social skills. • Individual therapy sessions to address specific issues and goals. • Family therapy sessions to improve communication, address family dynamics, and support the transition process. • Psychiatric services for medication management if needed. • Educational support and coordination with schools to ensure academic progress. 2. Partial Hospitalization Program (PHP): • Description: PHP offers a more intensive level of care than IOP, providing daily therapeutic services and support while allowing adolescents to return home or to a supportive living environment in the evenings. • Services Offered: • Daily structured therapy sessions, including individual, group, and family therapy. • Medication management and psychiatric services. • Intensive crisis intervention and stabilization. • Educational support and coordination with schools to address academic needs. 3. Residential Treatment Program: • Description: Residential treatment involves adolescents residing full-time in a therapeutic environment that provides 24/7 supervision and support. • Services Offered: • Structured daily schedule including therapy sessions, educational programming, and recreational activities. • Individualized treatment planning and goal setting. • Psychiatric and medical services as needed. • Family therapy and involvement in treatment planning. • Transition planning and preparation for reintegration into community or home settings. 4. Aftercare and Follow-Up Services: • Description: Aftercare services are provided to support adolescents and their families after completing a structured program, helping to maintain gains and prevent relapse. • Services Offered: • Continued outpatient therapy sessions to reinforce skills and address ongoing issues. • Family therapy to support ongoing communication and adjustment. • Support groups or peer support networks for adolescents. • Coordination with community resources and ongoing monitoring of progress. The goal of the Adolescent Transition Program is to provide a continuum of care that supports adolescents in their recovery journey, promotes healthy development, and facilitates successful transitions back into community or home environments while ensuring ongoing support and stability. Specific offerings may vary based on the program's philosophy, staffing, and resources available. Test Bank for Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology Rita Wicks-Nelson, Allen C. Israel 9781317351344, 9780205036066, 9780205901128
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