Chapter 9: Raising Children Part I: Multiple Choice Questions 1. In the opening vignette, Karen and Betsy are an example of: A. single mothers who pool their resources by living together. B. sisters raising their children together on a farm. C. an abusive mother and her daughter. D. two daughters describing what it is like growing up in a single-father household. E. a same-sex couple raising children. Answer: E Rationale: Karen and Betsy are a same-sex couple raising two children. Learning Objective 9.1: Are there differences in parenting practices cross-culturally? 2. Economic conditions, region of the country, whether it is urban or rural, cultural and religious traditions, gendered norms, job opportunities, and level of technology are just a few of the ______________ that shape parenting. A. micro-level factors B. role-taking factors C. super-ego factors D. macro-level factors E. concrete operational factors Answer: D Rationale: All are examples of macro-level factors. 3. In many developed and developing nations families receive a cash benefit from the government to help with the costs of raising children, which is known as: A. welfare. B. a family allowance. C. maternity benefits. D. a wage enhancer. E. EITC. Answer: B Rationale: Family allowances are a monthly cash grant from the government to help offset the costs of raising children. 4. The Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC): A. is found in Canada and most of Western Europe. B. is designed to partially offset taxes that low-income persons would otherwise pay, thereby serving as an inducement to work. C. offers a monthly cash grant from the government to help offset the cost of raising children. D. is available to all families, regardless of income. E. reaches all targeted families. Answer: B Rationale: Only B is true; the EITC is designed to partially offset taxes that low-income persons would otherwise pay, thereby serving as an inducement to work. Learning Objective 9.2: How has parenting changed over time? 5. Betsy lived during colonial America. As a mother, she probably held the following views EXCEPT: A. adolescence was a special time of life in which young people transitioned to adulthood. B. parents tended to be strict and expected unqualified obedience from their children. C. parents were cautious about becoming too close to their children. D. children were thought to be born with sin, and therefore needed firm discipline and severe religious training to prevent them from going to hell. E. parents were emotionally distant from their children. Answer: A Rationale: There was no special period known as adolescence during colonial times in America. 6. Urbanization, industrialization, and immigration produced two views of childhood: the “protected child” among ______________ ; and “the useful child” among ______________ . A. Whites; Blacks B. urban; rural C. wealthy; poor D. immigrants; Blacks E. rural; urban Answer: C Rationale: These contrasting views were held by the rich and poor. Learning Objective 9.3: What are current trends in parenting found around the world? 7. Which of the following trends is found in parenting around the world today? A. Although parents are central to childrearing, other people and social institutions are becoming increasingly involved in raising children. B. Around the world, parents increasingly discourage permissiveness and are becoming more adult-oriented because of the aging population. C. Increasingly, a higher value is placed on girls than on boys in many societies. D. Formal operational thought is becoming increasingly important. E. Cognitive parenting is increasingly recognized as the best form of parenting. Answer: A Rationale: Only A is true: other people and social institutions are becoming increasingly involved in raising children. 8. ______________ value is placed on boys than/as on girls in most societies in the world. A. A lower B. A higher C. The same Answer: B Rationale: A higher value is placed on boys in most societies in the world. Learning Objective 9.4: What are some well-known theories of human development and socialization? 9. According to Sigmund Freud, the ______________ is the rational component of personality that attempts to balance the need for immediate gratification with the demands of society. A. id B. looking glass self C. ego D. preoperational thought E. superego Answer: C Rationale: The ego is the rational component of personality. 10. Jean Piaget focused on how people think and understand, and make meaning of their experiences. He identified four stages. Which is NOT one of them? A. concrete operational thought B. formal operational thought C. preoperational thought D. motor-coordinated thought E. sensorimotor intelligence Answer: D Rationale: All are stages except for D. 11. Mario, a university researcher, studies children. He is particularly interested in the period that begins in adolescence. During this stage, children develop capacities for abstract thought, and can conceptualize more complex issues or rules that can be used for problem solving. Using Piaget’s model, which stage is this? A. concrete operational thought B. formal operational thought C. preoperational thought D. motor-coordinated thought E. sensorimotor intelligence Answer: B Rationale: Formal operational thought begins in adolescence. Children develop capacities for abstract thought, and can conceptualize more complex issues or rules that can be used for problem solving. 12. We come to see ourselves as others perceive and respond to us, a process described as ______________ . A. the id B. the open door C. the looking-glass self D. formal operational thought E. sensorimotor intelligence Answer: C Rationale: Cooley suggested that we come to see ourselves as others perceive and respond to us, a process he described as the looking-glass self. 13. Who expanded the idea that children learn by reinforcement and believed that children also learn by watching and imitating others, an idea made famous by his research with dolls? A. Charles Horton Cooley B. Jean Piaget C. Sigmund Freud D. George Herbert Mead E. Alfred Bandura Answer: E Rationale: Social Learning Theory was developed by Alfred Bandura. Learning Objective 9.5: Who socializes our children? 14. Agents of socialization: A. are more relevant in developing nations than in developed ones. B. are first found among the toys and games that young children play with. C. are more relevant for girls than for boys. D. teach children about the norms and values of their particular culture. E. consist of individual persons known to the child, but not social institutions, such as the media. Answer: D Rationale: Agents of socialization teach children about the norms and values of their particular culture. 15. Which agent of socialization listed below has the greatest impact on socializing children? A. parents and family members B. books and toys C. the media D. teachers E. peer groups Answer: A Rationale: Parents and family have the greatest impact on socialization. Learning Objective 9.6: How does socialization differ by social class, race and ethnicity, and gender? 16. When parents are asked to choose from a list of childhood traits, they consider most desirable for their children, lower-income parents tend to choose traits such as ______________ . A. creativity B. ambition C. independence D. curiosity E. obedience Answer: E Rationale: Lower-income parents are more likely to choose traits such as obedience to authority. 17. Anna wanted to ride her bike to the store but her mother said no. When Anna asked her why, her mother simply said, “Because I told you so.” Taking a guess, in which social class do they reside? A. middle class B. working class C. upper class D. the underclass E. upper-middle class Answer: B Rationale: Working-class parents were more likely to see themselves as authority figures, and to issue directives rather than to try negotiating with their children. 18. Maria, a Hispanic mother, feels strongly that she must teach her children about the importance of race, ethnicity, prejudice, and discrimination, while also providing the coping skills necessary to develop and maintain a strong and healthy self-image and understanding of their heritage. This is referred to as: A. prejudicial socialization. B. anticipatory socialization. C. minority response socialization. D. racial or ethnic socialization. E. discrimination-avoidance socialization. Answer: D Rationale: Racial or ethnic socialization involves teaching the importance of race, ethnicity, prejudice, and discrimination, while also providing coping skills and knowledge of heritage. Learning Objective 9.7: What are three different parenting styles? 19. Hien was raised by parents who put few controls or demands on him and rarely held him accountable for his actions when he misbehaved. However, they were also warm and loving. His parents showed what type of parenting style? A. the looking glass B. cognitive C. permissive D. transitional E. anticipatory Answer: C Rationale: Permissive parents are warm but also quite lenient. They put few controls or demands on their children and do not hold children accountable for their actions. 20. Developmental psychologists believe that the ______________ parenting style best predicts outcomes in children thought to be most desirable. A. looking glass B. cognitive C. authoritative D. transitional E. anticipatory Answer: C Rationale: Developmental psychologists believe that the authoritative parenting style offers the best outcomes for children. Learning Objective 9.8: What does it mean to be a “mother,” and how does that role differ from a “father”? 21. Motherhood in the U.S.: A. is a powerful identity, but less so than marital status. B. is less fraught with anxiety compared to other developed nations. C. leads to less depression than among childfree women. D. represents biological lineage. E. is socially constructed, and framed by gender, race, and class. Answer: E Rationale: Mothering takes place within specific historical and cultural contexts, and is framed by structures of gender, race, and class 22. Natalie is thinking about what it would be like to be a mother. Now that you are an expert on the subject, which of the following would you tell her? A. Mothers, as compared to fathers, do the majority of socialization, hands-on care, and emotional work, but fathers do the majority of discipline and management. B. Among mothers and fathers who work full-time, mothers are more involved in childcare than are fathers when the children are preschool-age, but this difference disappears by the time children are about age 6. C. Employed mothers spend about 17 hours a week engaged with their children, as compared to about 52 hours a week for mothers who do not work outside the home. D. Many employed mothers feel guilty about the time they spend at work, although they are engaged with their children only a few hours less per week than are nonemployee mothers. E. Mothers are more likely than fathers to report that they are well-rested. Answer: D Rationale: All answers are false except D; many employed mothers feel guilty, but they spend only a few hours less per week engaged with their children. 23. Tyree is thinking about what it would be like to be a father. Now that you are an expert on the topic, what would you tell him? A. The only role that fathers have played through most of history was breadwinner. B. The industrial revolution in the 19th century transformed men’s roles into that of the “good provider,” which emphasized breadwinning and deemphasized the nurturing and caregiving tasks. C. The good provider role continued until the 1930s, but was changed significantly by the Great Depression. D. The amount of time that fathers spend with children tends to increase as the child ages. E. Divorced noncustodial fathers tend to spend more time with their daughters than with their sons. Answer: B Rationale: All answers are false except B; the industrial revolution in the 19th century transformed men’s roles into that of the “good provider.” Learning Objective 9.9: How do children influence their parents? 24. Parents do not simply socialize children; their children also influence this socialization through several mechanisms. Which is NOT one of these? A. the child’s culture B. the child’s temperament C. the child’s cognitive abilities D. the child’s health and well-being E. the child’s sex. Answer: A Rationale: All are correct except A; culture is not a way in which children influence socialization. 25. In the boxed feature “Diversity in Families: Sara and Jake,” how does Jake influence the socialization he experiences? A. He has come out to his mother as gay. B. He is a biracial child. C. He has a serious disability. D. His IQ is near genius. E. He is an “easy” child. Answer: C Rationale: Jake has a severe case of cerebral palsy. Learning Objective 9.10: What can be done to reduce the number of teen pregnancies? 26. Teenage birthrates ______________ between 2007 and 2008. A. declined sharply B. rose sharply C. declined slightly D. rose slightly E. remained the same Answer: C Rationale: Teen birthrates are in a state of flux, but declined slightly between 2007 and 2008. 27. What can be done to help reduce the number of teen pregnancies? The Annie E. Casey Foundation, in its annual report, Kids Count, makes the following recommendations, EXCEPT: A. Reinvigorate prevention efforts, intensifying the focus on underlying causes. B. Remove parents from the role of sex educators. C. Broaden the scope of pregnancy prevention efforts. D. Give young people a credible vision of a positive future. E. Provide accurate, clear, consistent, and ongoing information about how to reduce risk-taking behavior. Answer: B Rationale: All are recommended by the Casey Foundation except B; parents should be helped in their role as sex educators. Learning Objective 9.11: Why should we be careful not to overgeneralize single parents? 28. The term “broken home” is sometimes used to refer to: A. same-sex couples and their children. B. fathers who fail to pay child support. C. teenagers who have children outside of marriage. D. single-parent households. E. grandparents raising children. Answer: D Rationale: The term “broken home” has been used to refer to single-parent households. 29. Single-parent families have been maligned for causing juvenile delinquency, poverty, and a host of other social problems. The problem with such a generalization is: A. there are different kinds of single-parent families with different kinds of circumstances. B. there are different paths to becoming a single parent with similar consequences. C. the cause-and-effect relationship is clear. D. single parenthood is more problematic in other developed nations. E. fathers are now more likely to be single parents than are mothers, and most of their children do not have these problems. Answer: A Rationale: All are false except A; there are different kinds of single-parent families with different kinds of circumstances. 30. Which group is most likely to live with a single parent? A. Hispanic children age 0-2 B. Black children age 0-2 C. White children age 12-17 D. Hispanic children age 3-5 E. Black children age 6-11 Answer: E Rationale: Black children age 6-11 are most likely to live with a single parent. Learning Objective 9.12: How distinctive are gay and lesbian parents from heterosexual parents? 31. About 1 out of ______________ lesbian couples and 1 out of ______________ gay couples are raising children. A. 5; 20 B. 2; 15 C. 10; 22 D. 3; 5 E. 10; 25 Answer: D Rationale: One out of three lesbian couples and one out of five gay couples are raising children. 32. Although most aspects of parenting differ little between heterosexual and same-sex families, gays and lesbians do have several unique aspects with respect to raising children. Which is NOT one of these unique aspects? A. The decision to parent is usually a deliberate choice that reflects a strong commitment to raising children. B. Same-sex families are more likely to be affected by loss. C. Same-sex families must cope with homophobia and discrimination. D. Lesbians are less committed to sons than to daughters, and gays are less committed to daughters than to sons. E. Same-sex families often have a close network of fictive kin who provide emotional and social support. Answer: D Rationale: Only D is false; there is no evidence that same-sex couples have greater commitment to one sex over the other. 33. Most lesbian and gay families are formed from: A. artificial insemination. B. stepfamilies. C. domestic adoption. D. international adoption. E. birth. Answer: B Rationale: Most lesbian and gay families are formed from stepfamilies. Learning Objective 9.13: What are the unique strengths and challenges of grandparents raising grandchildren? 34. About ______________ million children live with their grandparents, in their grandparents own home, without a parent present. A. 1 B. 3 C. 10 D. 17 E. 23 Answer: B Rationale: About 3 million children live with their grandparents, in their grandparents’ own home, with parents absent. 35. Which of the following is TRUE with respect to grandparents taking care of their grandchildren? A. Most arrangements are done privately rather than through social welfare agencies. B. The majority of grandparents are age 65 or older. C. Parents are absent for many reasons; the most common is jail. D. Most grandparents are middle-class, but about 20 percent are lower-income. E. About 10 million live with their grandparents with their own parents absent. Answer: A Rationale: Only A is true; most arrangements are done privately rather than through social welfare agencies. Part II: True – False Questions 1. Betsy and Karen, from the opening vignette, are siblings being raised by a single mother. Answer: False 2. A family allowance is a monthly cash grant from the government that helps offset the cost of raising children. Answer: True 3. A family allowance was implemented in the U.S. after the Great Depression in the 1930s. Answer: False 4. During colonial America, children were treated like adults in many ways. Answer: True 5. The 1950s produced two views of childhood: the “protected child” among the wealthy, who was given education and leisure; and “the useful child” whose labor was needed by poor and working-class families to make ends meet. Answer: False 6. One of the recent trends around the world in childrearing is that there is a decline in the value parents place on obedience to parental authority. Answer: True 7. A higher value is placed on boys than on girls in most societies around the world. Answer: True 8. The superego refers to the lifelong process by which we acquire the knowledge, cultural values, and skills needed to function as human beings and participate in society. Answer: False 9. George Herbert Mead identified four stages of cognitive development that are rooted in biology and based upon age; the sensorimotor intelligence; preoperational thought; concrete operational thought, and formal operational thought. Answer: False 10. Social learning theory developed by Alfred Bandura (1973; 1977; 1997), expanded the idea that children learn by reinforcement to state that children also learn by watching and imitating others. Answer: True 11. The mass media, especially television, is an increasingly important agent of socialization because almost 90 percent of U.S. households have at least one television set. Answer: False 12. Parents and family are the primary agents of socialization. Answer: True 13. When parents are asked to choose from a list of childhood traits that they consider most desirable for their children, lower-income parents tend to choose traits such as obedience, conformity, staying out of trouble, and keeping neat and clean. Answer: True 14. Minority parents must teach their children about the importance of race, ethnicity, prejudice, and discrimination, while also providing their children with the coping skills necessary to develop and maintain a strong and healthy self-image. This is known as “anticipatory socialization.” Answer: False 15. Comments such as “Big boys don’t cry,” “You throw like a girl,” “Let’s play dress- up,” “You’re my little tomboy,” “Help your mother with the dishes,” and “Help your dad take the trash out,” are examples of gender socialization. Answer: True 16. An authoritative parenting style is one in which parents are demanding and maintain high levels of control over their children, but they are also warm and receptive. These parents try to guide their children compassionately, while also setting limits on their behavior. Answer: True 17. Samira’s parents are strict, punitive, less communicative, and offer less warmth and support than many other parents. Her parents love her, but tend toward being rigid. This is an example of authoritative parenting. Answer: False 18. Women (and their partners) raise children in relative isolation in Western societies. Answer: True 19. The identities of mothering and fathering are similar, but their activities are different. Answer: False 20. Sociologist Jessie Bernard (1973) traced the historical development and the changes in male roles in families in the U.S, and observed that the industrial revolution in the mid- 19th century transformed men’s roles into a “good provider,” in which the focus shifted to primarily his breadwinning capabilities. Answer: True 21. Research shows that father involvement is important because it can enhance children’s social, emotional, and cognitive well-being. Answer: True 22. Parents do not simply socialize children. Children also influence this socialization through their own temperament, cognitive abilities, health and well-being, and their sex. Answer: True 23. The story of Jake, discussed in the feature box, shows how a child’s high IQ shapes the socialization process. Answer: False 24. The Casey Foundation says that the best programs for preventing pregnancy focus more on reproductive biology and less on helping teens make good decisions. Answer: False 25. Hispanics have shown the greatest recent decline in teen pregnancy, whereas Whites have shown the least decline. Answer: True 26. The total number of single-mother and single-father families has increased substantially over the past 15 years. Answer: False 27. The rise in single-parent families is largely due to the rise in teenage unmarried women who are having babies. Answer: False 28. As compared to children growing up in heterosexual households, children in same- sex households show no significant differences in psychological well-being, performance in school, substance abuse, delinquency, or early sexual experiences, although they are more likely to have a homosexual experience or to envision that they could have one in the future. Answer: True 29. Although most aspects of raising children are similar regardless of parents’ sexual orientation (e.g., the daily tasks of getting children to school on time, taking children to soccer practice, or getting involved in the PTA), several specific features can affect the dynamics of lesbians and gays raising children. Answer: True 30. Children separated from their parents and living with their grandparents usually experience trauma, but living with a grandparent, rather than a nonrelative or living in an institution, can minimize that trauma by providing a sense of continuity and family support. Answer: True Part III: Short Answer/Fill in the Blank Questions: 1. In many countries families receive a cash benefit from the government to help with the costs of raising children. This benefit is called a ______________ . Answer: family allowance 2. Nils and his wife live in Sweden, and their family receives a “family allowance” from the government. What is this? Answer: A cash benefit from the government to help with the costs of raising children. 3. With industrialization, urbanization, and immigration during the 19th and early 20th centuries came sweeping changes in society. This period produced two views of childhood, and what are they? Answer: (1) The “protected child” among wealthy families, who was given education and leisure; and (2) the “useful child” whose labor was needed by poor and working-class families to make ends meet. 4. In looking at the evolution of childrearing, family scholars note at least three trends that exist to varying degrees in both industrial and non-industrial societies today. These trends are: Answer: (1) Although parents are central to childrearing, other people and social institutions are becoming increasingly involved in raising children; (2) Parents increasingly encourage permissiveness and child independence around the world; (3) A higher value is placed on boys than on girls in most societies around the world. 5. ______________ refers to the lifelong process by which we acquire the knowledge, cultural values, and skills needed to function as human beings and participate in society. Answer: Socialization 6. According to Sigmund Freud, the id is the part of the personality that ______________ Answer: includes biological drives and needs for immediate gratification. 7. Mead elaborated on Cooley’s concept of the “looking-glass self’ by describing “role taking,” which is ______________ . Answer: the process of mentally assuming the role of another person to understand the world from his or her point of view and to anticipate his or her response to us. 8. List five primary agents of socialization. Answer: (1) family; (2) schools; (3) peers; (4) toys; (5) mass media 9. Briefly, why do lower-income parents tend to emphasize conformity and related traits in their children? Answer: Because these traits may be useful in the working-class jobs their children are likely to hold in the future. 10. Teaching minority children about prejudice and discrimination, teaching the coping skills necessary to develop and maintain a strong and healthy self-image, and instilling a sense of identity, pride, and enculturation is called: Answer: racial/ethnic socialization 11. Many nights before bed, Juan spends about five minutes with his children engaged in what family scientists would call “racial/ethnic socialization.” What is Juan doing with his children? Answer: Teaching them about prejudice, discrimination, giving them the coping skills necessary to develop and maintain a strong and healthy self-image, and instilling a sense of identity, pride, and enculturation. 12. List the three different parenting styles discussed in the text. Answer: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive 13. The parenting style that places the fewest demands or controls on a child is called: Answer: permissive 14. “Mothering” and “fathering” are comprised of identities and ______________ . Answer: activities 15. Children are not only influenced by their parents, but also influence their parents. List four traits of children that are likely to affect how parents socialize them: Answer: (1) temperament; (2) cognitive abilities; (3) health and well-being; (4) child’s sex 16. List three ways that a child’s sex influences parental socialization. Answer: (1) Parents react differently to sons and daughters. For example, parents are more verbal with daughters and more physical with sons, even when children are infants; (2) The amount of time that parents spend with sons and daughters, especially the father’s time. Fathers spend more time with sons than they do with daughters; (3) A child’s sex also influences the parents’ relationship with one another, increasing the quality and stability of their marriage. Parents report more satisfaction with their relationship after the birth of a son. 17. List at least three suggestions made by the Casey Foundation to reduce teenage pregnancy. Answer: (1) Reinvigorate prevention efforts, intensifying the focus on underlying causes; (2) Help parents succeed in their role as sex educators; (3) Broaden the scope of pregnancy prevention efforts; (4) Provide accurate, clear, consistent, and ongoing information about how to reduce risk-taking behavior; (5) Create a community-wide plan for teen pregnancy prevention, including adolescent reproductive health services; (6) Give young people a credible vision of a positive future. 18. Single-parent families have been maligned for causing juvenile delinquency, poverty, and a host of other social problems. List at least three difficulties with such a sweeping generalization. Answer: (1) There are different kinds of single-parent families with different kinds of circumstances (e.g., a teenage mother and a 40-year-old female executive); (2) There are different paths to becoming a single parent with varying consequences; (3) The cause-and-effect relationship is unclear; (4) Single parenthood is less problematic in other industrialized nations because of many social supports that are notably lacking in the United States. 19. About 1 in ______________ lesbian couples and 1 in ______________ gay couples are raising children. Answer: 3; 5 20. The U.S. Census Bureau estimated that about 7 million children lived with their grandparents. What is the fastest growing type? Answer: In the grandparents’ home with parents absent. Part IV: Essay Questions 1. Explain the differences and similarities of parenting cross-culturally. Answer: Parenting practices vary significantly across cultures due to differing beliefs, values, and social norms. However, certain universal themes can be identified, such as the importance of nurturing, protecting, and educating children. Differences can be observed in disciplinary methods, educational approaches, and expectations regarding independence and obedience. For example, collectivist cultures often emphasize community and familial harmony, influencing parenting styles that prioritize social integration and respect for authority. In contrast, individualistic cultures may prioritize personal autonomy and initiative, resulting in parenting styles that encourage self-expression and independence. 2. Compare and contrast a family allowance with the EITC. Answer: Both the Family Allowance (typically a monthly government payment to families) and the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC, a refundable tax credit for low-to-moderate-income working individuals and couples) aim to alleviate poverty and support families financially. However, they differ in implementation and impact. The Family Allowance provides direct financial assistance regularly, irrespective of employment status, aiming to support families with children regardless of their work situation. In contrast, the EITC functions through the tax system, providing a credit to working families based on income, with higher credits for families with children. It incentivizes work by supplementing earned income and can potentially lift families out of poverty by increasing their disposable income. 3. Describe the main contributions that Freud, Piaget, Cooley and Mead, and Bandura made to child development. Answer: • Freud : Freud's psychoanalytic theory highlighted the importance of early childhood experiences and unconscious motivations in shaping personality and behavior. His stages of psychosexual development, such as the oral, anal, and phallic stages, emphasized the role of parental interactions in child development. • Piaget : Piaget's cognitive development theory focused on how children construct knowledge and understanding through active interaction with their environment. He identified stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational) that describe how children's thinking becomes more sophisticated as they mature. • Cooley and Mead : Cooley and Mead contributed to social development theory through their work on socialization and the development of self-concept. Cooley introduced the concept of the "looking-glass self," where individuals shape their self-concept based on how they believe others perceive them. Mead expanded on this with his theory of symbolic interactionism, emphasizing how social interactions and language play a crucial role in the development of self-awareness and social identity. • Bandura : Bandura's social learning theory emphasized the importance of observational learning, imitation, and modelling in child development. He introduced concepts such as vicarious reinforcement and self-efficacy, highlighting how children learn behaviours through observing others, particularly influential role models. These theorists have significantly shaped our understanding of how children develop cognitively, socially, and emotionally, influencing both theory and practical applications in child development and education. 4. How does socialization differ by social class and race? Answer: Socialization varies by social class and race due to differences in cultural values, access to resources, and societal expectations. Social class influences socialization through exposure to education, economic opportunities, and networks that shape children's aspirations and behaviours. For example, middle-class families often emphasize independence, achievement, and educational success, whereas working-class families may prioritize practical skills and obedience to authority. Race also plays a significant role in socialization, impacting experiences of discrimination, cultural heritage, and identity formation. African American families, for instance, may emphasize resilience, racial pride, and navigating systemic inequalities, shaping children's awareness of race-related challenges and strategies for coping. 5. Compare and contrast the three parenting styles, and provide an explicit example of each. Answer: Parenting styles—authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive—differ in their approaches to discipline, warmth, and expectations: • Authoritative: Characterized by high warmth and responsiveness combined with reasonable demands and expectations. Example: A parent who listens to their child's concerns, sets clear rules, and encourages independence while providing guidance and support. • Authoritarian: Low warmth with high demands and strict discipline. Example: A parent who imposes strict rules without much explanation, expects obedience, and uses punishments for non-compliance. • Permissive: High warmth but low demands and few expectations. Example: A parent who is nurturing and indulgent, allowing the child considerable freedom without setting clear boundaries or expectations for behavior. 6. Compare and contrast “mothering” and “fathering” both as an identity and an activity. Answer: "Mothering" and "fathering" refer to the roles and activities associated with motherhood and fatherhood, influenced by gender norms and societal expectations: • Identity: Mothering and fathering as identities are shaped by cultural beliefs about gender roles and parenting responsibilities. Mothers are often associated with nurturing, emotional support, and caretaking, while fathers are associated with providing, discipline, and guidance. These identities influence how individuals perceive their roles and responsibilities within the family unit. • Activity: As activities, mothering and fathering encompass caregiving, decision-making, and role modelling. Activities associated with mothering might include breastfeeding, emotional support, and managing daily routines, whereas fathering activities might involve financial provision, discipline, and imparting practical skills. However, these roles can overlap, and both mothers and fathers can engage in a wide range of parenting activities depending on family dynamics and individual preferences. Understanding these distinctions helps in appreciating how gender, culture, and societal norms shape parenting practices and identities. 7. Explain the ways that children also influence the socialization process, and give explicit examples. Answer: Children actively participate in their own socialization through their reactions, interpretations, and choices. They can influence the socialization process by resisting or accepting parental values, negotiating rules, and seeking out peer groups that align with their interests. For example, a child who questions traditional gender roles within their family may influence their parents to reconsider their views on gender equality. Children's preferences for certain activities or friendships can also shape their parents' decisions about extracurricular activities or social interactions, illustrating their active role in the socialization dynamic. 8. Describe the suggestions made to reduce teen pregnancy by the Casey Foundation. Answer: The Casey Foundation suggests comprehensive strategies to reduce teen pregnancy, including: • Promoting comprehensive sex education that includes information on contraception and healthy relationships. • Increasing access to and awareness of contraception methods. • Encouraging parental involvement and support in adolescents' sexual health education. • Providing youth-friendly healthcare services that address sexual health needs. • Supporting community-based programs that offer mentoring, counseling, and educational opportunities to empower teens to make informed choices about their reproductive health. 9. Write an essay about single parenthood. Be sure to explain why we must be careful not to overgeneralize. Answer: Single parenthood refers to the situation where one parent raises a child without the presence or support of a partner. It can occur due to various reasons such as divorce, separation, death of a spouse, or choice to parent alone. Single parents face unique challenges balancing childcare, work, and personal responsibilities. It's important not to overgeneralize because circumstances and experiences of single parenthood vary widely. Factors such as socioeconomic status, support networks, and the quality of parent-child relationships significantly impact outcomes for children raised by single parents. Stereotypes about single parents can overlook their strengths, resilience, and the diverse ways they provide nurturing environments for their children. 10. Same-sex families face many of the same parenting issues as heterosexual families; however, there are four differences discussed in your text. Please explain these. Answer: Same-sex families encounter parenting issues similar to heterosexual families, such as child discipline, education, and emotional support. However, four distinct differences include: • Legal recognition and rights: Same-sex parents may face legal challenges related to adoption, parental rights, and access to benefits that heterosexual couples may not encounter. • Social stigma and discrimination: Same-sex families may experience prejudice or discrimination based on their family structure, impacting their children's social and emotional well-being. • Conception and fertility options: Same-sex couples often rely on assisted reproductive technologies or adoption to become parents, which can involve additional financial and emotional challenges compared to heterosexual reproduction. • Identity formation: Children in same-sex families may navigate questions about their family structure and societal attitudes toward non-traditional families, influencing their sense of identity and belonging. Understanding these differences helps in recognizing the diverse experiences of same-sex families and addressing their unique needs in parenting support and advocacy. Test Bank for Exploring Marriages and Families Karen T. Seccombe 9780205915194, 9780134708201, 9780133807776
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