CH-8 Deviance and Social Control – Sociology : Book Guide

CHAPTER 8 DEVIANCE AND SOCIAL CONTROL ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. What types of behavior are included in the concept of social control? Answer: Social control encompasses a wide range of behaviors and mechanisms aimed at maintaining social order and conformity within a society. This concept includes both formal and informal methods of influencing individuals' behavior to adhere to societal norms and expectations. Some key types of behavior included in the concept of social control are: 1. Formal Social Control: This includes laws, regulations, and rules established by governments and institutions to regulate behavior. Punishments for violating these norms can range from fines to imprisonment, aiming to deter individuals from engaging in deviant behavior. 2. Informal Social Control: Informal social control is exerted through socialization processes, peer pressure, and community expectations. It involves the use of informal sanctions such as ridicule, criticism, or ostracism to encourage conformity to social norms. 3. Self-Control: Individuals also internalize societal norms and values, leading to self-regulation of behavior. This form of social control is influenced by personal ethics, morals, and beliefs, guiding individuals to act in ways that align with societal expectations. 4. Socialization: The process of socialization, particularly during childhood and adolescence, plays a crucial role in instilling societal norms and values in individuals. Family, schools, and religious institutions are primary agents of socialization that help shape behavior and attitudes. 5. Surveillance and Monitoring: Surveillance mechanisms, such as security cameras or online tracking, are used to monitor behavior and deter individuals from engaging in deviant acts. This form of social control is prevalent in modern societies, particularly in public spaces and online environments. 6. Conformity and Obedience: Social control is also maintained through the expectation of conformity and obedience to authority figures. This can be observed in various social institutions, including the workplace, military, and educational settings, where adherence to rules and regulations is enforced. In conclusion, social control encompasses a variety of behaviors and mechanisms that influence individuals to conform to societal norms and expectations. It operates through formal and informal means, as well as through self-regulation and socialization processes, to maintain social order and cohesion. 2. Distinguish between conformity and obedience. Answer: Conformity and obedience are two concepts in sociology that relate to how individuals respond to social norms and authority figures, but they differ in their nature and underlying mechanisms. Conformity refers to the process of adjusting one's behavior, attitudes, and beliefs to match those of a specific group or society. It involves a change in behavior in response to real or imagined group pressure. Conformity is often driven by the desire to fit in, be accepted, or avoid rejection. It can be explicit, such as following fashion trends, or implicit, such as adopting the values and beliefs of one's culture. Obedience, on the other hand, involves the direct influence of authority figures on individual behavior. Obedience is characterized by the willingness to comply with commands or requests from someone perceived as having legitimate authority. Unlike conformity, which is more about fitting in with a group, obedience is about following orders from a higher-ranking individual or institution. Obedience can be observed in various contexts, such as the military, where soldiers follow orders from their superiors, or in everyday situations like following traffic laws. In summary, conformity involves adjusting one's behavior to match that of a group, while obedience involves complying with the commands or requests of authority figures. Conformity is more about social influence and the desire to belong, while obedience is about following orders from those in positions of authority. 3. Examine binge drinking in light of the following sociological concepts: obedience, conformity, and deviance. Answer: Binge drinking can be examined through the lens of several sociological concepts, including obedience, conformity, and deviance, shedding light on the individual and societal factors influencing this behavior. Obedience: In the context of binge drinking, obedience can be seen in the influence of social norms and peer pressure. Individuals may engage in binge drinking to obey the perceived expectations of their social group or to conform to the behavior of their peers. The desire to fit in and be accepted can lead individuals to engage in excessive drinking despite personal reservations or concerns. Conformity: Binge drinking often occurs in social settings where there is a normative expectation of alcohol consumption. Individuals may conform to these expectations by participating in binge drinking to align themselves with the behavior of their peers. The pressure to conform can be strong, particularly among young adults and college students, where binge drinking is often normalized as a part of socializing. Deviance: From a sociological perspective, binge drinking can be considered deviant behavior when it violates societal norms or expectations regarding alcohol consumption. While binge drinking is prevalent in many cultures and social groups, it is often seen as deviant when it leads to negative consequences such as health problems, accidents, or social disturbances. Society's response to binge drinking, such as legal regulations and public health campaigns, reflects the perception of this behavior as deviant. In conclusion, binge drinking can be understood as a complex social phenomenon influenced by factors such as obedience to social norms, conformity to peer behavior, and the perception of deviance within society. Examining binge drinking through these sociological concepts provides insights into the individual and social dynamics that contribute to this behavior. 4. Discuss the procedures in, and conclusions to be drawn from Stanley Milgram’s experiment on obedience to authority. Answer: Stanley Milgram's experiment on obedience to authority is a seminal study in the field of psychology that also has significant sociological implications. The experiment aimed to investigate the extent to which individuals would obey orders from an authority figure, even if it involved potentially harmful actions. Procedures: In Milgram's experiment, participants were recruited to take part in a study on learning and memory. They were told to administer electric shocks to another person (a confederate of the experimenter) whenever the learner made a mistake in a memory task. The shocks increased in intensity with each mistake, and the learner (confederate) would eventually express pain and reluctance to continue. Despite this, the experimenter would instruct the participant to continue shocking the learner, emphasizing the importance of the experiment. The key aspect of the experiment was that the shocks were not real, and the learner's responses were pre-recorded, but participants were led to believe otherwise. Conclusions: Milgram's experiment revealed several important conclusions about obedience to authority. Firstly, a significant majority of participants (about 65%) were willing to administer the maximum level of shocks, despite the apparent distress of the learner. This demonstrates the power of authority figures in influencing individuals to act against their own moral beliefs and values. Secondly, the study highlighted the role of situational factors in obedience, showing that ordinary people can commit acts of harm under certain conditions, such as when they feel a sense of duty to authority or when responsibility is diffused among a group of participants. Implications: The findings of Milgram's experiment have profound implications for understanding human behavior in social contexts. They suggest that obedience to authority is a powerful force that can override personal ethics and morality. The study also raises ethical questions about the use of deception in research and the potential harm that can result from blindly following orders. Additionally, it underscores the importance of individual agency and critical thinking in resisting harmful or unethical commands from authority figures. In conclusion, Stanley Milgram's experiment on obedience to authority provides valuable insights into the complexities of human behavior and the influence of social forces. It highlights the need for further research and discussion on the dynamics of obedience, ethics in research, and the balance between individual autonomy and societal expectations. 5. How did Stanley Milgram explain the high rates of compliance found in his obedience experiments? Answer: Stanley Milgram explained the high rates of compliance found in his obedience experiments through several key factors: 1. Perceived Authority of the Experimenter: Milgram emphasized the importance of the experimenter's perceived authority in influencing participants' behavior. The experimenter, dressed in a lab coat and portrayed as a scientist, was seen as a legitimate figure of authority, leading participants to defer to his instructions even when they conflicted with their own moral beliefs. 2. Gradual Commitment: The obedience in Milgram's experiments often involved a gradual escalation of commands, starting with relatively minor requests and progressing to more extreme actions. This gradual commitment made it easier for participants to justify their actions at each stage, as they had already invested effort and complied with previous requests. 3. Bureaucratic Nature of the Experiment: The experimental setup, with its formal procedures and the perception of being part of a scientific study, created a sense of obligation and duty among participants. This bureaucratic structure added legitimacy to the authority of the experimenter and contributed to high compliance rates. 4. Diffusion of Responsibility: Participants in Milgram's experiments were part of a larger group of participants, with each person playing a small role in the overall process. This diffusion of responsibility reduced individual accountability and made it easier for participants to comply with the experimenter's commands, as they felt less personally responsible for the consequences of their actions. 5. Socialization and Conformity: Milgram also pointed to the role of socialization and conformity in shaping individuals' behavior. Participants may have been influenced by societal norms that emphasize obedience to authority figures, as well as by the behavior of their peers in the experimental setting. Overall, Milgram's explanation for the high rates of compliance in his obedience experiments emphasizes the complex interplay of social, situational, and psychological factors that can lead individuals to act in ways that contradict their own values and beliefs. His findings continue to be relevant in understanding obedience and authority in various social contexts. 6. Use the interactionist perspective to explain some of the findings in Milgram’s study of obedience. Answer: The interactionist perspective focuses on how individuals interpret and respond to symbolic interactions within a social context. Applying this perspective to Milgram's study of obedience provides insights into the dynamics of authority and obedience in social interactions. 1. Symbolic Meaning of the Experiment: From an interactionist perspective, participants in Milgram's study may have interpreted the experiment and the role of the experimenter symbolically. The experimenter's lab coat, the scientific setting, and the formal procedures all conveyed symbols of authority and expertise, shaping participants' perceptions of the situation and influencing their behavior. 2. Role-taking and Role-playing: Interactionism emphasizes the process of role-taking, where individuals put themselves in the shoes of others to understand their perspectives. In Milgram's study, participants may have taken on the role of obedient subjects, influenced by the perceived authority of the experimenter and the expectations of the experimental setting. This role-playing behavior contributed to the high rates of compliance observed in the study. 3. Social Construction of Reality: According to the interactionist perspective, reality is socially constructed through shared meanings and interpretations. In the context of Milgram's study, the social construction of reality was influenced by the experimenter's instructions, which framed the situation as a legitimate scientific study requiring obedience to authority. Participants' compliance can be seen as a result of their acceptance of this constructed reality. 4. Labeling and Self-Concept: Interactionism also highlights the role of labeling in shaping individuals' self-concepts and behaviors. In Milgram's study, participants may have labeled themselves as obedient or compliant based on their actions in the experiment, leading to a reinforcement of that behavior. The experimenter's labeling of their actions as necessary for the study may have also influenced participants' self-perceptions and behavior. Overall, the interactionist perspective offers a nuanced understanding of the findings in Milgram's study, emphasizing the role of symbolic interactions, role-taking, social construction of reality, and labeling in shaping individuals' obedience to authority in social situations. 7. Distinguish between informal and formal social control and give examples of each. Answer: Informal and formal social control are two mechanisms through which societies regulate behavior and maintain social order, but they differ in their nature, enforcement, and consequences. Informal Social Control: Informal social control is the process by which individuals and groups enforce conformity to norms and values through unofficial means. It operates through social interactions, norms, and values rather than through official laws or regulations. Examples of informal social control include: 1. Social Norms: Unspoken rules and expectations within a society that guide behavior. For example, in many cultures, there is an informal norm against speaking loudly in public places. 2. Socialization: The process by which individuals learn and internalize societal norms and values. Families, schools, and peer groups play a significant role in socializing individuals and enforcing conformity to social norms. 3. Peer Pressure: Influence exerted by peers to conform to group behaviors and expectations. For example, adolescents may be pressured by their peers to engage in certain activities or adopt certain attitudes. 4. Gossip and Reputation: Informal mechanisms such as gossip and reputation can influence behavior by rewarding conformity and punishing deviance. Individuals may avoid deviant behavior to protect their reputation within their community. Formal Social Control: Formal social control, on the other hand, is the process by which society enforces conformity to norms and laws through officially sanctioned mechanisms. It involves the use of institutions and authorities to regulate behavior. Examples of formal social control include: 1. Laws and Regulations: Formal rules established by governments and institutions that dictate acceptable behavior. Violations of these laws can result in legal consequences such as fines or imprisonment. 2. Law Enforcement: Agencies such as the police, courts, and corrections system that enforce laws and punish individuals who violate them. Law enforcement officers are authorized to use force if necessary to maintain social order. 3. Judicial System: Courts and legal proceedings that adjudicate disputes and administer justice according to established laws. The judicial system plays a crucial role in interpreting and enforcing laws in society. 4. Punitive Measures: Formal social control often involves punitive measures designed to deter deviant behavior and protect society. These measures can include incarceration, probation, and community service. In summary, informal social control operates through social interactions, norms, and values, while formal social control relies on laws, institutions, and authorities to regulate behavior. Both forms of social control are essential for maintaining social order and ensuring that individuals adhere to societal norms and values. 8. Explain how the legal order reflects the underlying social values of a society. Answer: The legal order of a society reflects its underlying social values in several ways, serving as a mirror of the norms, beliefs, and priorities that are important to that society. This reflection is evident in the laws that are created, enforced, and upheld by the legal system. 1. Legislation and Lawmaking: The laws enacted by a society's legislative bodies often reflect its values and moral standards. For example, a society that values individual freedom and autonomy may have laws protecting freedom of speech and expression. Conversely, a society that prioritizes communal well-being may have laws regulating behavior for the greater good, such as public health regulations. 2. Law Enforcement and Punishment: The way laws are enforced and punishments are administered can also reflect societal values. For example, a society that values fairness and justice may have a legal system that emphasizes due process and fair trials. On the other hand, a society that prioritizes deterrence and retribution may have harsher punishments for crimes. 3. Legal Rights and Protections: The legal order can reflect a society's commitment to certain rights and protections for its citizens. For example, laws prohibiting discrimination based on race, gender, or religion reflect a society's commitment to equality and social justice. 4. Social Control and Order: Laws are also used to maintain social order and control deviant behavior. The types of behavior that are considered deviant and the severity of the penalties for deviance can reflect societal norms and values. For example, a society that values tradition and conformity may have stricter laws against behaviors that challenge traditional norms. 5. Evolution of Legal Norms: Over time, legal norms can evolve to reflect changing social values. For example, laws regarding same-sex marriage have evolved in many societies to reflect changing attitudes towards LGBTQ+ rights. In conclusion, the legal order of a society is closely intertwined with its social values, reflecting the collective beliefs, norms, and priorities of that society. The legal system serves not only to regulate behavior but also to uphold and reinforce the values that are important to the society as a whole. 9. Explain Travis Hirschi’s control theory. Answer: Travis Hirschi's control theory, also known as social control theory, proposes that individuals are naturally inclined to deviate from societal norms and engage in delinquent behavior. However, people refrain from such behavior when their bonds to society are strong. Hirschi identified four types of social bonds that prevent individuals from engaging in deviant behavior: 1. Attachment: This refers to the emotional bond an individual has with others, such as family, friends, and community. Strong attachments increase the individual's commitment to conventional society, making them less likely to engage in deviant behavior for fear of disappointing or harming these relationships. 2. Commitment: Commitment refers to the investments an individual has made in conventional society, such as education, career, and future goals. The more invested a person is in these aspects of life, the more they have to lose by engaging in deviant behavior, thus deterring them from such actions. 3. Involvement: Involvement refers to the extent to which an individual is engaged in conventional activities, such as school, work, or community organizations. Active involvement in these activities leaves less time and opportunity for deviant behavior, reducing the likelihood of engaging in such actions. 4. Belief: Belief refers to an individual's acceptance of societal norms and values. Those who strongly believe in the moral validity of societal rules are less likely to engage in deviant behavior, as they see such actions as wrong or unjust. In summary, Hirschi's control theory suggests that strong social bonds, including attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief, act as deterrents to deviant behavior by increasing individuals' stakes in conformity and reducing the appeal of deviance. 10. Explain how deviance varies by group, by social context, and even over time. Answer: Deviance, the violation of social norms, can vary significantly across different groups, social contexts, and over time due to cultural, societal, and historical factors. 1. Variation by Group: Deviance can vary among different social groups due to the diverse norms and values they hold. What may be considered deviant in one group may be normal behavior in another. For example, the dress code for women can vary greatly between different religious or cultural groups, with some considering certain styles deviant while others do not. 2. Variation by Social Context: Deviant behavior can also vary based on the social context in which it occurs. For instance, behavior that is deviant in a formal setting like a workplace may be acceptable or even expected in a casual setting among friends. This highlights the importance of context in defining and perceiving deviance. 3. Variation Over Time: Deviance can change over time as societal norms and values evolve. What was considered deviant in the past may no longer be so today, and vice versa. For example, attitudes towards smoking have shifted over time, leading to changes in laws and social norms regarding smoking in public places. Overall, deviance is a complex and dynamic phenomenon that is influenced by a variety of factors, including group norms, social context, and historical changes. Understanding these variations is crucial for comprehensively studying deviance and social control in society. 11. What is “stigma,” and what is its relationship to deviant behavior? Answer: Stigma, as described by sociologist Erving Goffman, refers to a negative label or mark that society places on individuals or groups who are perceived to deviate from cultural norms. This label can lead to social disgrace, shame, and exclusion, impacting how individuals view themselves and are viewed by others. Stigma is closely related to deviant behavior in several ways: 1. Labeling Theory: Labeling theory suggests that deviant behavior is not inherent in certain acts but rather is a result of society's reaction to those acts. When individuals are labeled as deviant, they may internalize this label, leading to further deviant behavior as they adopt the identity society has imposed on them. 2. Social Control: Stigma is a form of social control that discourages individuals from deviating from societal norms. The fear of being stigmatized can act as a deterrent, influencing individuals to conform to accepted behavior to avoid negative consequences. 3. Social Exclusion: Stigma can lead to social exclusion, as individuals who are stigmatized may be ostracized from mainstream society. This exclusion can further marginalize individuals and push them towards deviant behavior as they seek acceptance and belonging in alternative social groups. 4. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Stigma can create a self-fulfilling prophecy, where individuals who are labeled as deviant may internalize this label and behave in ways that align with society's expectations. This can perpetuate a cycle of deviant behavior and further stigmatization. In conclusion, stigma plays a significant role in shaping deviant behavior by influencing how individuals perceive themselves, how others perceive them, and the social consequences of deviating from cultural norms. Understanding stigma is crucial for comprehensively addressing issues related to deviance and social control in society. 12. What is the relationship between the “beauty myth,” stigma, and deviance? Answer: The "beauty myth," stigma, and deviance are interconnected concepts that highlight the social construction of beauty standards and their impact on individuals' perceptions and behaviors. 1. Beauty Myth: Coined by Naomi Wolf, the beauty myth refers to the societal pressure on individuals, particularly women, to conform to unrealistic standards of physical beauty. This myth perpetuates the idea that beauty is a measure of worth and success, leading to the marginalization of those who do not fit these standards. 2. Stigma: Stigma, as described by Erving Goffman, is a negative label or mark placed on individuals who deviate from societal norms. In the context of beauty, individuals who do not conform to mainstream beauty standards may be stigmatized and labeled as unattractive or undesirable. 3. Deviance: Deviance is the violation of social norms, which can include norms related to appearance and beauty. Individuals who deviate from beauty norms may be seen as deviant and face social consequences such as ridicule, exclusion, or discrimination. The relationship between these concepts lies in the way societal beauty standards contribute to the stigmatization of certain individuals and groups. The beauty myth creates a standard of beauty that is often unattainable for many, leading to feelings of inadequacy and low self-esteem. Those who do not conform to these standards may be stigmatized and marginalized, experiencing social consequences that can push them towards deviant behavior as they seek acceptance or validation. Overall, the beauty myth, stigma, and deviance are interconnected through societal norms and expectations regarding appearance. Understanding these concepts can provide insight into the complex ways in which beauty standards shape social interactions and perceptions of self and others. 13. Discuss deviance and technology in the new millennium. Answer: In the new millennium, the relationship between deviance and technology has evolved significantly, impacting various aspects of social life and the definition of deviant behavior. 1. Digital Deviance: With the rise of the internet and digital technologies, new forms of deviant behavior have emerged. Cyberbullying, online harassment, and cybercrime are examples of deviance facilitated by technology. These behaviors blur the lines between physical and virtual spaces, challenging traditional notions of deviance. 2. Social Media and Deviant Identities: Social media platforms have provided a new space for individuals to construct and perform identities. This can include the adoption of deviant identities or behaviors for attention or social acceptance. The presentation of a curated self-image online can also lead to deviant behavior, such as online deception or self-harm challenges. 3. Technological Surveillance: The use of technology for surveillance has expanded, impacting notions of privacy and control. While surveillance can deter deviant behavior in some cases, it also raises concerns about the infringement of civil liberties and the potential for abuse of power by authorities. 4. Digital Activism and Hacktivism: Technology has also been used as a tool for activism and protest. While some forms of digital activism are considered legitimate, hacktivism, which involves illegal or unauthorized access to computer systems for political purposes, is seen as deviant by authorities. 5. Normalization of Deviant Behavior: The constant exposure to diverse forms of behavior through digital media has led to the normalization of certain deviant behaviors. This can desensitize individuals to deviance and challenge traditional notions of what is considered deviant in society. Overall, the relationship between deviance and technology in the new millennium is complex and multifaceted. Technology has both amplified traditional forms of deviance and facilitated the emergence of new forms of deviant behavior, challenging social norms and structures in the process. Understanding this relationship is crucial for addressing the implications of technology on social control and deviance in contemporary society. 14. Why is Émile Durkheim’s view of deviance considered an example of a functionalist approach? Answer: Émile Durkheim's view of deviance is considered an example of a functionalist approach because it emphasizes the functional role deviance plays in society. Durkheim argued that deviance is not simply a result of individual pathology but serves important functions for the stability and cohesion of society as a whole. 1. Social Cohesion: Durkheim suggested that deviance can actually promote social cohesion by clarifying societal norms and values. When deviant behavior is punished, it reaffirms the boundaries of acceptable behavior, reinforcing solidarity among members of society who share these norms. 2. Social Change: Durkheim also believed that deviance can be a catalyst for social change. By challenging existing norms and values, deviant behavior can lead to the evolution of societal rules and practices, contributing to social progress. 3. Anomie: Durkheim introduced the concept of anomie, which refers to a state of normlessness or lack of social regulation. He argued that rapid social change and a breakdown of traditional norms can lead to anomie, which in turn can increase deviant behavior as individuals seek new ways to adapt to their changing social environment. 4. Functional Necessity: Overall, Durkheim viewed deviance as a functional necessity for society, as it helps maintain social order, reinforces norms and values, and can even spur positive social change. This perspective contrasts with views that see deviance solely as a breakdown of social order or as a reflection of individual pathology, making it a key example of the functionalist approach in sociology. 15. Discuss and illustrate the four types of nonconforming behavior presented by Robert Merton in his theory of deviance. Answer: Robert Merton's strain theory of deviance outlines five types of nonconforming behavior, each representing a different relationship between cultural goals and the legitimate means available to achieve them. These types are: 1. Conformity: Conformity occurs when individuals accept both the cultural goals of society (such as wealth or success) and the legitimate means of achieving those goals (such as education or hard work). They conform to societal norms and pursue success through approved channels. 2. Innovation: Innovation refers to individuals who accept the cultural goals of society but reject or lack the legitimate means to achieve them. These individuals may turn to deviant or criminal means (such as theft or fraud) to attain wealth or success. 3. Ritualism: Ritualism occurs when individuals abandon or scale back their pursuit of cultural goals but continue to adhere rigidly to the legitimate means. These individuals may go through the motions of working hard and following the rules but no longer aspire to achieve the cultural goals of success or wealth. 4. Retreatism: Retreatism involves individuals who reject both the cultural goals of society and the legitimate means of achieving them. These individuals may withdraw from society and live outside mainstream norms, such as homeless individuals or those struggling with addiction. 5. Rebellion: Rebellion is the final type of nonconforming behavior, in which individuals reject both the cultural goals and the legitimate means of achieving them, but actively seek to replace them with alternative goals and means. These individuals may engage in revolutionary or radical behavior to challenge and change the existing social order. Merton's theory illustrates how different individuals may respond to the strain between societal expectations and available opportunities, leading to various forms of nonconforming behavior. These categories help to explain the diversity of deviant behavior in society and highlight the complex interplay between cultural goals, means, and deviant behavior. 16. In what ways does Edwin Sutherland’s approach to criminology draw upon the significance of the socialization process? Answer: Edwin Sutherland's approach to criminology, known as differential association theory, emphasizes the role of socialization in the development of criminal behavior. Sutherland argued that individuals learn deviant behavior through interactions with others, particularly in intimate group settings, and that this learning process is similar to the way in which individuals learn other types of behavior. 1. Social Learning: Sutherland's theory suggests that criminal behavior is learned through social interactions, primarily within close-knit groups such as family, friends, or peers. Individuals are more likely to engage in criminal behavior if they are exposed to favorable attitudes and definitions of such behavior within these groups. 2. Cultural Transmission: According to Sutherland, criminal behavior is transmitted through a process of cultural transmission, similar to the transmission of language or norms. Individuals learn the techniques, motives, rationalizations, and attitudes necessary for criminal behavior from those around them. 3. Socialization Processes: Sutherland's approach highlights the significance of the socialization process in shaping behavior. He argued that individuals are socialized into both conventional and deviant behavior through interactions with others, and that this socialization process begins early in life and continues throughout adulthood. 4. Primary and Secondary Groups: Sutherland distinguished between primary groups (such as family and close friends) and secondary groups (such as peers and acquaintances) in terms of their influence on criminal behavior. He suggested that primary groups have a stronger influence on behavior due to their intimate and long-lasting nature. 5. Cultural Conflict: Sutherland also discussed the role of cultural conflict in the development of criminal behavior. He argued that individuals who are exposed to conflicting norms and values may experience strain, which can lead to the adoption of deviant behavior as a way to resolve this conflict. Overall, Sutherland's approach to criminology emphasizes the importance of socialization in shaping criminal behavior. By focusing on the role of social interactions and cultural transmission, Sutherland's theory provides a social explanation for crime that complements more individual-focused theories of criminal behavior. 17. Describe Edwin Sutherland’s approach to deviance, which draws upon the interactionist perspective. Answer: Edwin Sutherland's approach to deviance, known as differential association theory, draws upon the interactionist perspective by focusing on the processes of social interaction and communication as fundamental to understanding deviant behavior. 1. Focus on Social Interaction: Sutherland's theory emphasizes that deviant behavior is learned through social interaction with others. He posited that individuals become deviant when they are exposed to more definitions favorable to deviance than to conformity. This suggests that deviance is not simply a result of individual characteristics, but is shaped by the social environment. 2. Importance of Definitions: Central to Sutherland's theory is the concept of definitions, which are the meanings attached to behaviors. Individuals learn these definitions through their interactions with others, and they can either encourage or discourage deviant behavior. For example, if an individual's peers define stealing as acceptable or justifiable in certain situations, that individual is more likely to engage in theft. 3. Group Influence: Sutherland emphasized the role of groups in the learning of deviant behavior. He argued that individuals are more likely to become deviant if they associate with groups that have favorable attitudes towards deviance. This highlights the importance of peer influence and group dynamics in shaping behavior. 4. Cultural Transmission: Sutherland's theory also suggests that deviant behavior is transmitted through a process of cultural transmission, similar to the transmission of language or norms. Individuals learn the techniques, motives, and rationalizations for deviant behavior from those around them, particularly in close-knit groups. 5. Social Control: From an interactionist perspective, Sutherland's theory also considers the role of social control in shaping behavior. He suggested that individuals are less likely to engage in deviant behavior when they have strong social bonds and attachments to conventional society, as these bonds discourage deviance. Overall, Sutherland's approach to deviance from an interactionist perspective highlights the importance of social interaction, group dynamics, and cultural transmission in shaping deviant behavior. It moves away from individualistic explanations of deviance and emphasizes the social processes through which deviance is learned and perpetuated. 18. Explain the routine activities theory and indicate why proponents believe that it is a useful theory for explaining the increase in crime during the last 50 years. Answer: The routine activities theory, developed by Lawrence E. Cohen and Marcus Felson in 1979, posits that crime occurs when three elements converge in time and space: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian. Proponents of this theory believe it is useful for explaining the increase in crime over the last 50 years due to societal changes that have altered routine activities and created more opportunities for criminal behavior. 1. Changes in Routine Activities: One key factor contributing to the increase in crime is the changes in people's routine activities. The last 50 years have seen significant changes in how people live, work, and socialize. For example, the rise of dual-income households means that homes are often unoccupied for long periods, increasing the likelihood of burglary. 2. Increase in Suitable Targets: Another factor is the increase in suitable targets for crime. Technological advancements have led to the proliferation of valuable electronics and gadgets, making them attractive targets for theft. Similarly, the rise of online shopping has created opportunities for cybercrime and identity theft. 3. Decrease in Capable Guardianship: There has also been a decrease in capable guardianship over the last 50 years. This can be attributed to factors such as the breakdown of traditional community structures, increased reliance on technology for surveillance, and the rise of individualistic lifestyles that prioritize personal privacy over community watchfulness. 4. Urbanization and Population Growth: Urbanization and population growth have also played a role in the increase in crime. As cities have grown and become more densely populated, there are more potential offenders and targets in close proximity, creating fertile ground for criminal activity. 5. Technological Advances: Technological advances have not only created new opportunities for crime but have also made it easier for offenders to carry out criminal acts. For example, the internet has facilitated crimes such as cyberbullying, online fraud, and identity theft. In conclusion, proponents of the routine activities theory argue that it is a useful framework for understanding the increase in crime over the last 50 years. By focusing on changes in routine activities, the availability of suitable targets, and the presence of capable guardianship, the theory provides insights into the societal factors that have contributed to the rise in criminal behavior. 19. Briefly explain the basic ideas of labeling theory. Answer: Labeling theory, developed by sociologists Howard Becker and Edwin Lemert, suggests that deviance is not inherent in specific behaviors but is instead a result of the social labels or stigmas attached to certain behaviors. The theory emphasizes the significance of societal reactions to individuals and how these reactions can influence subsequent behavior. 1. Primary and Secondary Deviance: Labeling theory distinguishes between primary deviance, which refers to the initial act of deviance that may go unnoticed or have minimal consequences, and secondary deviance, which occurs when an individual accepts the deviant label and begins to identify with it, leading to further deviant behavior. 2. Stigma and Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: The theory also highlights the role of stigma in shaping deviant behavior. Once labeled as deviant, individuals may internalize this label and conform to the expectations associated with it, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy where the labeled individual behaves in ways that align with the deviant label. 3. Social Reactions and Deviance Amplification: Labeling theory suggests that societal reactions to deviant behavior can amplify the deviance. This can occur through processes such as social exclusion, where the labeled individual is marginalized from mainstream society, leading to further deviant behavior as they seek acceptance in alternative social groups. 4. Critique of Social Control: Labeling theory critiques traditional approaches to social control, which often focus on punishing or controlling deviant behavior. Instead, the theory argues for more understanding and acceptance of deviance, as harsh societal reactions can actually contribute to the perpetuation of deviant behavior. Overall, labeling theory highlights the importance of societal reactions in shaping deviant behavior and suggests that deviance is a social construct influenced by the labels and stigmas attached to certain behaviors. 20. Explain how labeling theory draws on the work of both conflict theorists and interactionists. Answer: Labeling theory draws on the work of both conflict theorists and interactionists by emphasizing the role of power, social control, and the interpretation of symbols in shaping deviant behavior. 1. Conflict Theory: Labeling theory aligns with conflict theory in its emphasis on power dynamics in society. Conflict theorists argue that society is characterized by inequality and competition for resources, and that those in power use labels to control and marginalize certain groups. Labeling theory similarly suggests that those in power determine what is considered deviant behavior and impose labels on individuals, leading to social stratification and the perpetuation of deviance. 2. Interactionism: Labeling theory is also influenced by interactionism, particularly symbolic interactionism, which focuses on how individuals interpret symbols and create meaning through social interactions. Interactionists argue that deviant behavior is not inherently deviant but is defined as such through social interactions and interpretations. Labeling theory builds on this idea by suggesting that deviance is a product of social reactions and labels attached to certain behaviors. 3. Social Construction of Reality: Both conflict theorists and interactionists emphasize the social construction of reality, which suggests that reality is created through social interactions and interpretations. Labeling theory contributes to this perspective by highlighting how societal reactions and labels shape individuals' perceptions of themselves and others, influencing their behavior and identity. 4. Stigmatization and Social Control: Conflict theorists and interactionists also share an interest in stigmatization and social control. Conflict theorists argue that stigmatization is a tool used by those in power to maintain control over marginalized groups, while interactionists focus on how stigmatization affects individuals' self-concepts and interactions with others. Labeling theory bridges these perspectives by showing how stigmatization and social control are interconnected processes that contribute to the perpetuation of deviant behavior. Overall, labeling theory draws on the insights of both conflict theorists and interactionists to provide a comprehensive understanding of deviance as a social construct influenced by power dynamics, social interactions, and the interpretation of symbols. 21. Distinguish among labeling theory, the societal-reaction approach, and the social constructionist perspective. Answer: Labeling theory, the societal-reaction approach, and the social constructionist perspective are all theories within sociology that focus on deviance and how it is defined, perceived, and treated within society. While they share some similarities, they differ in their emphasis and underlying assumptions. 1. Labeling Theory: Labeling theory posits that deviance is not inherent in specific behaviors but is instead a result of the social labels or stigmas attached to certain behaviors. It emphasizes the role of societal reactions in shaping deviant behavior, suggesting that individuals may internalize deviant labels and conform to them, leading to further deviant behavior. Labeling theory is concerned with the process of labeling individuals as deviant and the consequences of these labels on their identity and behavior. 2. Societal-Reaction Approach (or Interactionist Approach): The societal-reaction approach, also known as the interactionist approach, focuses on how social reactions to deviance contribute to the construction of deviant identities and behaviors. It emphasizes the importance of social interactions in defining and perpetuating deviance, suggesting that societal reactions can amplify or mitigate deviant behavior. This approach is concerned with the labeling process and its impact on individuals' self-concepts and interactions with others. 3. Social Constructionist Perspective: The social constructionist perspective extends beyond labeling theory and the societal-reaction approach to emphasize that all aspects of reality, including deviance, are socially constructed. This perspective argues that deviance is not a fixed or objective phenomenon but is rather constructed through social processes and interactions. It focuses on how societal norms, values, and institutions shape the definition, perception, and treatment of deviance. The social constructionist perspective highlights the fluid and dynamic nature of deviance, suggesting that it can change over time and vary across different societies and cultures. In summary, labeling theory focuses on the labeling process and its effects on individuals, the societal-reaction approach emphasizes social reactions to deviance and their role in defining deviant behavior, and the social constructionist perspective takes a broader view, arguing that deviance is a product of social construction and is subject to change and interpretation within society. 22. How do conflict theorists view deviance? Answer: Conflict theorists view deviance as a result of social inequality and the struggle for power and resources within society. They argue that deviance is not a reflection of individual pathology but is instead a product of the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and resources. Conflict theorists highlight the role of social institutions, such as the government, the media, and the criminal justice system, in defining and controlling deviant behavior. 1. Social Inequality: Conflict theorists argue that deviance is more prevalent in societies characterized by high levels of social inequality. They suggest that individuals from marginalized or disadvantaged groups are more likely to engage in deviant behavior as a means of challenging or resisting oppressive social structures. 2. Power Dynamics: Conflict theorists emphasize the role of power dynamics in shaping definitions of deviance and determining who is labeled as deviant. They argue that those in power use deviance as a tool to maintain control over marginalized groups and to justify social inequalities. 3. Criminal Justice System: Conflict theorists critique the criminal justice system for its role in perpetuating social inequality and targeting marginalized groups. They argue that the criminal justice system is biased against certain groups, such as racial minorities and the poor, leading to disproportionate rates of arrest, conviction, and punishment for these groups. 4. Social Control: Conflict theorists view social control mechanisms, such as laws, norms, and institutions, as tools used by the dominant class to maintain their power and privilege. They argue that deviance is often a response to oppressive social conditions and that efforts to control deviance serve to reinforce existing power structures. In conclusion, conflict theorists view deviance as a complex phenomenon rooted in social inequality and power dynamics. They highlight the role of social institutions in defining and controlling deviant behavior, and they advocate for a more critical examination of the underlying social conditions that contribute to deviance. 23. Distinguish between a professional criminal and a white-collar criminal. Answer: To distinguish between a professional criminal and a white-collar criminal, we can examine their characteristics, behaviors, and societal perceptions: 1. Nature of Crime: • Professional Criminal: Engages in traditional criminal activities such as theft, burglary, robbery, or drug trafficking as a primary means of livelihood. • White-Collar Criminal: Commits non-violent, financially motivated crimes typically in the course of their occupation or business activities, such as embezzlement, fraud, insider trading, or tax evasion. 2. Motivation: • Professional Criminal: Often driven by immediate financial gain or personal reasons such as supporting a drug habit or lifestyle. • White-Collar Criminal: Motivated by financial gain, typically seeking to exploit their position or access to resources within legitimate organizations for personal benefit. 3. Social Status: • Professional Criminal: Often associated with lower socioeconomic backgrounds and may have a history of repeated criminal behavior. • White-Collar Criminal: Typically comes from higher social classes, often with respectable occupations and educational backgrounds. 4. Method of Operation: • Professional Criminal: Relies on physical force, stealth, or intimidation to commit crimes. • White-Collar Criminal: Uses deception, manipulation, or abuse of trust to carry out crimes, often exploiting gaps in organizational systems or regulations. 5. Legal Consequences: • Professional Criminal: May face imprisonment or other legal penalties upon arrest and conviction. • White-Collar Criminal: May face fines, civil penalties, or in some cases, imprisonment, though the legal consequences can vary depending on the severity and scope of the crime. 6. Public Perception: • Professional Criminal: Often viewed as a threat to public safety and security, generating fear and concern among the general population. • White-Collar Criminal: Sometimes viewed more leniently or with less stigma, especially if the individual is from a respected professional background, though this perception has been changing with increased awareness of the impact of white-collar crimes on society. In summary, while both professional criminals and white-collar criminals engage in illegal activities, their motivations, methods, social backgrounds, and societal perceptions distinguish them in significant ways. 24. Apply the concept of ethnic succession to organized crime. Answer: Ethnic succession in organized crime refers to the phenomenon where control over criminal activities shifts from one ethnic or cultural group to another. This concept is often observed in the history of organized crime in various countries, where different immigrant groups have taken control of criminal enterprises over time. One example of ethnic succession in organized crime is the evolution of the Italian-American Mafia in the United States. In the early 20th century, Italian immigrants established criminal networks that became known as the Mafia. These groups controlled various illegal activities such as gambling, extortion, and bootlegging during Prohibition. However, as Italian-American organized crime groups faced increased law enforcement scrutiny and internal conflicts, other ethnic groups, such as Irish, Jewish, and later Hispanic and Asian groups, began to take control of some criminal enterprises. This transition is an example of ethnic succession in organized crime. Ethnic succession in organized crime can occur for several reasons: • Law Enforcement Pressure: Increased law enforcement efforts targeting a specific ethnic group may lead to a decline in their criminal activities, creating opportunities for other groups to take over. • Internal Conflict: Infighting or power struggles within a criminal organization can weaken the group, making it vulnerable to takeover by a rival ethnic group. • Changing Demographics: Shifts in immigrant populations or demographic changes within a society can create new opportunities for different ethnic groups to enter the criminal underworld. Overall, the concept of ethnic succession highlights the dynamic nature of organized crime and the fluidity of power within criminal networks. It demonstrates how criminal enterprises adapt to changing circumstances, including law enforcement actions, internal dynamics, and societal changes. 25. How do conflict theorists view white-collar crime? Answer: Conflict theorists view white-collar crime as a product of social inequality and the power dynamics inherent in capitalist societies. They argue that the capitalist economic system creates an environment where individuals and corporations are driven to maximize profits, often at the expense of ethical considerations or legal boundaries. This pursuit of profit can lead to behaviors that are considered deviant or criminal. According to conflict theorists, white-collar crime is often overlooked or treated less severely than street crime because the individuals and institutions involved in white-collar crime tend to have more power, influence, and resources. They suggest that the criminal justice system is biased in favor of the wealthy and powerful, resulting in lenient treatment for white-collar criminals compared to individuals involved in street crimes. Furthermore, conflict theorists argue that white-collar crime is not just the result of individual wrongdoing but is also a product of the broader economic and social structures. They point to issues such as corporate culture, organizational practices, and the pressure to meet financial targets as factors that can contribute to white-collar crime. In conclusion, conflict theorists view white-collar crime as a reflection of the unequal distribution of power and resources in society. They argue that addressing white-collar crime requires not only holding individuals accountable but also addressing the underlying structural issues that contribute to these crimes. 26. What arguments have been made by supporters of decriminalization of “victimless crimes”? Answer: Supporters of the decriminalization of "victimless crimes" argue that these offenses should not be illegal because they do not directly harm other individuals or society as a whole. They believe that criminalizing such behaviors is unnecessary and can lead to negative consequences. Some of the key arguments made by supporters of decriminalization include: 1. Personal Freedom: Individuals should have the right to make choices about their own bodies and behaviors, as long as they do not harm others. Decriminalization allows for greater personal freedom and autonomy. 2. Reduced Criminalization: Criminalizing victimless crimes can lead to individuals being unfairly stigmatized and punished for behaviors that do not cause harm. Decriminalization can reduce the number of people caught up in the criminal justice system for nonviolent offenses. 3. Focus on Harm Reduction: Instead of criminalizing behavior, supporters of decriminalization argue for a focus on harm reduction strategies. This approach aims to minimize the negative consequences associated with certain behaviors, such as drug use, through education, treatment, and support services. 4. Resource Reallocation: Decriminalization can free up resources that are currently used for enforcement and prosecution of victimless crimes. These resources could be redirected towards addressing more serious crimes or towards public health initiatives. 5. Public Health Approach: Some argue that treating certain behaviors, such as drug addiction, as public health issues rather than criminal offenses can be more effective in addressing underlying causes and reducing harm to individuals and society. In summary, supporters of the decriminalization of victimless crimes believe that criminalizing these behaviors is unnecessary, unjust, and counterproductive. They advocate for approaches that prioritize personal freedom, harm reduction, and public health. 27. What arguments have been made by opponents, particularly feminists, of decriminalization? Answer: Opponents of decriminalization, particularly feminists, argue against decriminalizing certain behaviors considered "victimless crimes" due to concerns about the potential harm to individuals, particularly women. Some of the key arguments made by opponents of decriminalization, including feminists, include: 1. Exploitation and Coercion: Opponents argue that decriminalizing certain behaviors, such as prostitution or pornography, can lead to increased exploitation and coercion of vulnerable individuals, particularly women and children. They argue that these industries often perpetuate harmful stereotypes and contribute to the objectification of women. 2. Impact on Gender Equality: Feminist opponents of decriminalization argue that certain behaviors, such as prostitution, reinforce gender inequality by perpetuating the notion that women's bodies can be bought and sold. They argue that decriminalization could further entrench these inequalities rather than addressing them. 3. Public Health Concerns: Some opponents raise public health concerns, particularly regarding the decriminalization of drug use. They argue that decriminalization could lead to increased drug use and related health issues, such as addiction and overdose deaths. 4. Normalization of Harmful Behaviors: Opponents argue that decriminalization could normalize behaviors that are harmful to individuals and society, such as drug use or certain forms of sexual exploitation. They argue that maintaining these behaviors as illegal sends a message about societal values and expectations. 5. Lack of Regulation: Critics of decriminalization argue that removing legal restrictions could lead to a lack of regulation and oversight, potentially increasing the risks associated with certain behaviors, such as unsafe working conditions in the sex industry or the sale of contaminated drugs. In summary, opponents of decriminalization, particularly feminists, argue that maintaining legal restrictions on certain behaviors is necessary to protect individuals, particularly women, from exploitation, coercion, and harm. They raise concerns about the potential impact of decriminalization on gender equality, public health, and societal values. 28. What does the analysis of international crime rates indicate about the level of criminal activity in the United States? Answer: The analysis of international crime rates provides valuable insights into the level of criminal activity in the United States, revealing both unique trends and comparative perspectives. Several key points emerge from this analysis: 1. Higher Violent Crime Rates: The United States tends to have higher rates of violent crime, particularly homicide, compared to many other developed nations. This disparity is often attributed to factors such as the prevalence of firearms, socioeconomic inequalities, and cultural attitudes towards violence. 2. Property Crime Comparisons: While the U.S. exhibits high levels of property crime, these rates are more comparable to other developed countries. Factors such as urbanization, economic conditions, and law enforcement practices influence property crime rates across different nations. 3. Variability in Reporting and Classification: International comparisons can be complicated by differences in how crimes are reported and classified. For example, what constitutes a "violent crime" may vary from country to country, affecting the comparability of crime statistics. 4. Influence of Socioeconomic Factors: Socioeconomic factors such as poverty, unemployment, and education levels play a significant role in crime rates. The U.S. has considerable socioeconomic disparities, which contribute to higher crime rates in certain areas. 5. Impact of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice Policies: The U.S. criminal justice system, with its high incarceration rates and specific policing strategies, impacts crime rates. For instance, the "war on drugs" has led to a significant number of incarcerations for drug-related offenses, influencing overall crime statistics. 6. Cultural Factors: Cultural attitudes towards crime and punishment, as well as societal norms and values, also affect crime rates. The U.S. has a distinct culture that emphasizes individualism and personal freedom, which can contribute to both the perpetration and perception of crime. 7. Trends Over Time: Analysis of international crime rates over time shows that crime rates in the U.S. have fluctuated, with significant declines in violent crime since the 1990s. However, certain types of crime, such as mass shootings, remain more prevalent in the U.S. compared to other countries. In summary, the analysis of international crime rates indicates that the United States has relatively high levels of violent crime and certain property crimes compared to other developed nations. These differences are influenced by a range of factors, including socioeconomic conditions, law enforcement policies, cultural attitudes, and reporting practices. Understanding these factors is crucial for developing effective crime prevention and intervention strategies. 29. Discuss the debate over gun control from both the conflict and interactionist perspectives. Answer: The debate over gun control can be analyzed through the lenses of both conflict theory and interactionist perspective, offering distinct insights into the underlying dynamics and implications. Conflict Perspective: Conflict theorists view gun control as a reflection of the broader struggles between different social groups over power, resources, and influence. Key points from this perspective include: 1. Power and Inequality: Conflict theorists argue that the debate over gun control is deeply rooted in issues of power and social inequality. Wealthy and powerful groups, such as the gun lobby and firearm manufacturers, exert significant influence over legislation and public policy. These groups often prioritize profit and political power over public safety. 2. Social Class and Violence: The availability and regulation of guns disproportionately affect different social classes. For example, lower-income communities may experience higher rates of gun violence, but also face more stringent enforcement of gun control laws. Meanwhile, affluent individuals may have better access to legal resources and influence to navigate or circumvent restrictions. 3. Ideological Struggles: The gun control debate often centers around ideological conflicts between groups advocating for individual rights (e.g., the right to bear arms) and those advocating for collective security and public safety. Conflict theorists highlight how these ideological battles reflect broader societal tensions between individualism and collectivism. Interactionist Perspective: The interactionist perspective focuses on the micro-level interactions and meanings that individuals and groups attach to guns and gun control. Key points from this perspective include: 1. Social Construction of Meaning: Interactionists examine how the meanings and symbols associated with guns are constructed and maintained through social interactions. For example, guns may be seen as symbols of freedom and self-reliance in some communities, while in others, they are seen as symbols of danger and violence. 2. Identity and Group Membership: Gun ownership and attitudes towards gun control are often tied to individual and group identities. Interactionists explore how people use guns to express their identities and affiliations, such as being part of a particular social group (e.g., hunters, sports shooters, or self-defense advocates). 3. Everyday Interactions and Perceptions: Interactionists study how everyday interactions and experiences shape individuals' perceptions of guns and gun control. This includes how media portrayals, personal experiences with violence or crime, and social networks influence people's attitudes and behaviors regarding gun ownership and regulation. Synthesis: Combining these perspectives provides a comprehensive understanding of the gun control debate. Conflict theorists highlight the structural and power dynamics that shape gun control policies, while interactionists focus on the subjective meanings and identities that influence individual attitudes and behaviors. Together, these perspectives reveal the complexity of the gun control debate, emphasizing both the macro-level power struggles and the micro-level social interactions that shape this contentious issue. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Discuss how members of a military unit could openly bring themselves to committing murder against some individuals, and not feel any sense of deviance or criminal wrongdoing for the act. Be sure to include ideas from the work of Stanley Milgram in your answer. Answer: Members of a military unit can commit acts of killing without feeling a sense of deviance or criminal wrongdoing due to a combination of social, psychological, and organizational factors. This phenomenon can be better understood through concepts of authority, socialization, and moral disengagement, as well as insights from Stanley Milgram's research on obedience to authority. 1. Authority and Obedience: • Stanley Milgram's experiments demonstrated that individuals are likely to obey authority figures, even when instructed to perform actions that conflict with their personal morals. In a military context, soldiers are trained to follow orders from superiors without question. The hierarchical structure of the military reinforces the authority of commanders, making it easier for soldiers to commit acts that they might otherwise consider deviant. 2. Socialization and Group Norms: • Military training and socialization processes instill specific norms and values in soldiers, emphasizing loyalty, duty, and the collective mission over individual moral judgments. This strong group identity can lead to a sense of unity and shared purpose, where actions taken in the line of duty are seen as necessary and justified, rather than deviant. 3. Moral Disengagement: • Soldiers may employ mechanisms of moral disengagement to justify their actions. This includes dehumanizing the enemy, viewing them as less than human or as a threat that must be neutralized. By framing the act of killing as a necessary defense or a duty to protect their comrades and country, soldiers can distance themselves from the moral implications of their actions. 4. Legitimization of Violence: • The context of war and military operations legitimizes violence as a means to achieve strategic objectives. Soldiers are often told that their actions are for the greater good, such as defending their nation or liberating oppressed people. This framing can reduce the perception of deviance and criminality associated with acts of killing. 5. Psychological Conditioning: • Military training often includes desensitization to violence and the conditioning of soldiers to react automatically in combat situations. This conditioning reduces the emotional and psychological barriers to committing acts of violence, making it easier for soldiers to act without feeling deviant. In summary, members of a military unit can commit acts of killing without feeling a sense of deviance or criminal wrongdoing due to the powerful influence of authority, socialization into military norms, moral disengagement strategies, the legitimization of violence within the context of war, and psychological conditioning. Insights from Stanley Milgram's work on obedience to authority help explain how individuals can override their personal morals and commit acts they would otherwise consider wrong when directed by a legitimate authority figure. 2. Discuss the definition of deviance as related to cultural variation. Give examples of how certain acts in the United States are considered deviant by other cultures, and conversely what acts we might consider deviant, even though they are considered normal in other cultures. Answer: Deviance is defined as behavior that violates the norms or expectations of a particular society or social group. Since norms vary significantly across cultures, what is considered deviant in one culture may be seen as acceptable or even normal in another. This cultural variation highlights the relativity of deviance. Cultural Variation in Deviance: 1. Norms and Values: • Norms and values are culturally specific. An act deemed deviant in one society might be entirely normative in another, reflecting different moral, religious, or social standards. 2. Examples of Deviance in the United States Viewed by Other Cultures: • Individualism: The strong emphasis on individualism in the U.S., such as children moving out at 18 or the pursuit of personal success, can be seen as deviant in collectivist cultures that prioritize family cohesion and interdependence. • Dress Codes: Clothing choices considered normal in the U.S., such as revealing attire or casual wear in formal settings, can be seen as disrespectful or inappropriate in cultures with more conservative dress codes. • Dietary Practices: The consumption of beef, which is common in the U.S., is seen as deviant in Hindu-majority cultures like India, where cows are considered sacred. 3. Examples of Acts Considered Deviant in the U.S. but Normal Elsewhere: • Public Displays of Affection: In many Middle Eastern and Asian cultures, public displays of affection are considered deviant and inappropriate, whereas in the U.S., they are generally accepted and normal. • Body Modification: Practices such as extensive tattooing, scarification, or body elongation, which are seen as deviant or extreme in the U.S., are traditional and respected practices in some African and Pacific Islander cultures. • Social Practices: Certain social practices, such as arranged marriages, common in South Asian and Middle Eastern cultures, may be viewed as outdated or even oppressive in the U.S. The Relativity of Deviance: Deviance is not inherent in any act but is defined by social context and cultural norms. The variability in what is considered deviant across cultures underscores the importance of understanding the social and cultural context when analyzing behavior. This cultural relativity is crucial for sociologists studying deviance, as it reveals that norms are not universal but are shaped by the values and beliefs of specific societies. Conclusion: Deviance is a culturally relative concept that varies across different societies. Acts considered deviant in the United States may be seen as normal or even desirable in other cultures, and vice versa. Understanding this cultural variation in definitions of deviance helps to appreciate the diversity of human behavior and the influence of cultural norms on what is deemed acceptable or unacceptable. 3. Discuss how individuals may feel less restricted in performing certain deviant acts in the company of others, such as skinny-dipping, consuming alcohol, or smoking marijuana. Why would an individual not routinely perform such behavior alone? Answer: Individuals may feel less restricted in performing certain deviant acts in the company of others due to several social and psychological factors. Group dynamics, social validation, and diffusion of responsibility play key roles in influencing deviant behavior when people are in groups. Here are some key reasons why individuals may engage in deviant acts like skinny-dipping, consuming alcohol, or smoking marijuana more readily in the presence of others: Social Validation and Norms: 1. Group Norms and Peer Pressure: • In a group setting, individuals may feel pressured to conform to the behaviors and norms of the group. If the group collectively views a deviant act as acceptable or even desirable, individuals are more likely to participate to fit in and gain social acceptance. 2. Social Validation: • Performing a deviant act in a group provides social validation. When others are engaging in the same behavior, it reduces the sense of deviance and makes the act seem more acceptable. This collective engagement can normalize the behavior and diminish feelings of guilt or deviance. Psychological Factors: 1. Diffusion of Responsibility: • In a group, the sense of personal responsibility for deviant behavior is diffused among all members. This diffusion reduces individual accountability and the fear of being singled out or judged, making it easier to justify and engage in the behavior. 2. Deindividuation: • Deindividuation occurs when individuals lose their sense of individual identity and self-awareness in a group. This psychological state can lead to reduced inhibitions and an increased likelihood of engaging in behaviors that one might avoid when alone. 3. Shared Excitement and Risk: • The presence of others can enhance the excitement and perceived adventure of engaging in deviant acts. The shared experience of taking risks can be thrilling and create a sense of camaraderie, encouraging individuals to participate. Social and Environmental Factors: 1. Anonymity and Reduced Surveillance: • Groups can provide a sense of anonymity, as individuals feel less visible and less likely to be caught or judged. This reduced surveillance can lower inhibitions and make deviant behavior seem safer and more appealing. 2. Support and Encouragement: • Group members often support and encourage each other in engaging in deviant acts, providing a safety net and mutual reinforcement. This support can alleviate fears and make the behavior feel more acceptable and enjoyable. Individual Reluctance to Perform Alone: 1. Fear of Judgment and Consequences: • When alone, individuals may be more aware of societal norms and the potential consequences of deviant behavior, such as legal repercussions or social ostracism. This awareness can act as a deterrent. 2. Lack of Social Reinforcement: • Without the presence of others to validate and reinforce the behavior, individuals may lack the motivation and confidence to engage in deviant acts. The absence of peer encouragement and shared experience can diminish the appeal of the behavior. 3. Personal Inhibitions and Morality: • Individuals may have personal moral standards and inhibitions that prevent them from engaging in deviant behavior alone. The presence of a group can temporarily override these personal constraints, but they often resurface when one is alone. In summary, individuals are more likely to engage in deviant acts in the company of others due to social validation, diffusion of responsibility, deindividuation, and the excitement of shared risk. Conversely, performing such behaviors alone may bring heightened awareness of societal norms, potential consequences, and personal moral standards, making individuals less likely to engage in deviant acts on their own. 4. Discuss Merton’s anomie theory of deviance, including the five forms of adaptation. Do you think that society confuses certain people by misrepresenting an individual’s chances of becoming successful? Give some examples to support your answer. Answer: Robert K. Merton’s anomie theory of deviance explains how societal structures can pressure individuals to commit deviant acts. According to Merton, anomie occurs when there is a disjunction between culturally prescribed goals and the legitimate means available to achieve them. This strain can lead individuals to adapt in different ways, some of which may be deviant. Merton identifies five forms of individual adaptation to anomie: Merton’s Five Forms of Adaptation: 1. Conformity: • Conformists accept both the culturally approved goals and the legitimate means of achieving them. They strive for success through hard work, education, and perseverance, adhering to societal norms. 2. Innovation: • Innovators accept the cultural goals but reject the legitimate means of achieving them. Instead, they devise new, often deviant, ways to achieve success, such as engaging in criminal activities or exploiting loopholes. 3. Ritualism: • Ritualists abandon the pursuit of cultural goals but continue to adhere to the legitimate means. They follow societal rules rigidly without expecting to achieve the desired success, often leading to a sense of resignation. 4. Retreatism: • Retreatists reject both the cultural goals and the legitimate means. They withdraw from societal expectations altogether, often retreating into substance abuse or vagrancy as a way of escaping the pressures. 5. Rebellion: • Rebels reject both the existing cultural goals and means, but they actively seek to replace them with new ones. They advocate for radical change and may engage in revolutionary activities to create a new social order. Society’s Misrepresentation of Success: Society often confuses individuals by misrepresenting their chances of achieving success. This misrepresentation can occur through various channels, including media portrayals, education systems, and economic structures. Here are some examples to support this assertion: 1. Media Portrayals: • The media often glorifies the "American Dream," suggesting that anyone can achieve success through hard work and determination. This portrayal overlooks systemic barriers such as socioeconomic status, race, and access to quality education, leading individuals to believe that their chances of success are higher than they actually are. 2. Education System: • The education system frequently promotes the idea that obtaining a college degree guarantees a prosperous career. However, this notion fails to account for the rising costs of education, the burden of student debt, and the competitive job market, which may leave graduates underemployed or unemployed. 3. Economic Inequality: • Economic structures can create significant disparities in opportunities. For instance, individuals from affluent backgrounds have better access to resources, networks, and opportunities that can facilitate success. In contrast, those from disadvantaged backgrounds may struggle to overcome systemic obstacles, despite their efforts. 4. Examples of Misrepresentation: • Lottery Success Stories: The promotion of lottery winners as examples of sudden success can mislead individuals into believing that such outcomes are common and achievable, encouraging gambling behavior as an innovative means to wealth. • Entrepreneurship Myths: Stories of successful entrepreneurs who started with minimal resources can create unrealistic expectations. The challenges and failures that many face are often downplayed, leading individuals to adopt risky strategies in pursuit of success. In summary, Merton’s anomie theory of deviance explains how societal pressures and structural inequalities can lead to different forms of adaptation, including deviance. Society often misrepresents individuals’ chances of success, creating confusion and strain. By understanding these dynamics, we can better address the systemic issues that contribute to deviance and work towards a more equitable society. 5. Discuss how punishment for a deviant or minor criminal act could actually encourage a person to commit a more serious criminal act, and apply your rationale to discuss how the death penalty could actually encourage some to commit crime. Answer: Punishment for a deviant or minor criminal act can sometimes have unintended consequences, potentially encouraging individuals to commit more serious criminal acts. This phenomenon can be explained through several sociological and psychological concepts, such as labeling theory, the criminal justice system's impact on social bonds, and the potential for punitive measures to reinforce deviant identities. Labeling Theory and Deviance Amplification: 1. Labeling Theory: • Labeling theory posits that being labeled as deviant can lead to further deviance. When individuals are labeled as criminals, they may internalize this identity, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy where they engage in more serious criminal behavior. • Example: A teenager caught shoplifting might be labeled a "delinquent" by authorities and society. This label can result in stigmatization and exclusion from conventional social groups, pushing the individual toward association with more deviant peers and potentially more serious crimes. 2. Deviance Amplification: • Punitive measures for minor offenses can create a cycle of deviance amplification. Once labeled and punished, individuals may find it difficult to reintegrate into society, leading to further alienation and engagement in criminal activities. • Example: A person convicted for a minor drug offense might face significant barriers to employment and housing. The resulting marginalization can increase the likelihood of resorting to more serious crimes for survival. Social Bonds and the Criminal Justice System: 1. Impact on Social Bonds: • Punishment can weaken an individual's social bonds with family, friends, and community. According to control theory, strong social bonds discourage deviance, while weakened bonds can lead to increased criminal behavior. • Example: Incarceration for a minor offense can disrupt family relationships and community ties. Upon release, the individual may find it difficult to reconnect, increasing the risk of committing more serious crimes. 2. Reinforcement of Criminal Networks: • Incarceration, even for minor offenses, can expose individuals to more hardened criminals and criminal networks, providing opportunities for learning more serious criminal behaviors. • Example: A young person sentenced to prison for a minor theft might be housed with more experienced criminals. Exposure to criminal subcultures can lead to the acquisition of new skills and contacts for committing more serious crimes upon release. The Death Penalty and Crime Encouragement: 1. Desensitization to Violence: • The death penalty can desensitize individuals to the severity of taking a life, potentially making violent crime seem less consequential. • Example: In a society where the state sanctions killing through the death penalty, individuals might perceive violent acts as less morally reprehensible, potentially leading to an increase in violent crime. 2. Martyrdom and Infamy: • The death penalty can create a sense of martyrdom or infamy, particularly for individuals seeking notoriety or those with extremist ideologies. • Example: Terrorists or ideological extremists might be encouraged to commit heinous crimes with the expectation that they will achieve infamy or be remembered as martyrs if sentenced to death. 3. Lack of Deterrence: • Contrary to its intended purpose, the death penalty may not effectively deter crime. In some cases, individuals may commit crimes with the understanding that they are likely to face severe punishment, including death, potentially viewing it as an inevitable outcome of their actions. • Example: Career criminals or those involved in organized crime might commit murder knowing that their lifestyle already puts them at high risk of facing the death penalty. Conclusion: Punishment for minor criminal acts can unintentionally encourage more serious criminal behavior through mechanisms like labeling, weakened social bonds, and exposure to criminal networks. The death penalty, intended as a deterrent, can also have counterproductive effects by desensitizing individuals to violence, creating a sense of martyrdom, and failing to deter determined criminals. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for developing more effective and rehabilitative approaches to crime and punishment. 6. Describe the public health approach to preventing gun violence as given in your text. Discuss whether the public health approach to gun safety is more likely to be acceptable to those supporting gun control or those who do not support gun control, and why. Answer: The public health approach to preventing gun violence focuses on research, education, community interventions, policy advocacy, and healthcare involvement to address the root causes and reduce risk factors associated with gun violence. Acceptability to Different Groups: Supporters of Gun Control: • Evidence-Based Focus: Aligns with their preference for data-driven, preventive strategies. • Comprehensive Solutions: Emphasizes multifaceted approaches, including policy changes and education. • Risk Reduction: Promotes safe behaviors and responsible gun ownership. Opponents of Gun Control: • Perceived Threat to Gun Rights: Concerns about potential restrictions on Second Amendment rights. • Skepticism of Government Involvement: Fear of government overreach into private lives. • Different Beliefs: Emphasis on personal freedom and responsible ownership without broad regulations. In summary, the public health approach is likely more acceptable to gun control supporters due to its preventive and comprehensive nature, while it may face resistance from opponents concerned about rights and government intervention. TOPICS AND SOURCES FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Obedience—Another Look: What replications have there been of Milgram’s experiment? Students might be interested in examining a Watergate-type replication. See Stephen West, Steven Gunn, and Paul Chernicky, “Ubiquitous Watergate: An Attributional Analysis,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (July 1975): 55–65. These researchers conducted an elaborate experiment to assess the willingness of Americans to engage in crimes at their government’s request. Unsuspecting college students were contacted by a private investigator and presented with a plan for the burglary of a local advertising firm. The students were given various rationales for the crime and were asked to participate in it. Some were told that the firm was defrauding the government of millions of dollars and that the Internal Revenue Service wanted to make microfilm copies of its records. The researchers found that 45 percent of the subjects were willing to participate in a burglary if guaranteed immunity from prosecution. Students may also wish to examine a critical view of the ethical issues raised by this experiment. See Stuart W. Cook, “A Comment on the Ethical Issues Involved in West, Gunn, and Chernick’s ‘Ubiquitous Watergate: An Attributional Analysis,’” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (July 1975): 66–68. 2. Labeling of People with AIDS: See Lawrence J. Ouellet, Matta Kelly, Andrea Coward, and W. Wayne Wiebel, “Developing Community Resources for a Stigmatized Population.” In Gary L. Albrecht (ed.). Advances in Medical Sociology, vol. 6. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1995, pp. 207–230. 3. Labeling: The labeling perspective can be applied to groups other than those that are criminally deviant. See Technique No. 11 in Edward L. Kain and Robin Neas (eds.). Innovative Techniques for Teaching Sociological Concepts. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, pp. 17–18. 4. Community Crime Watch: For a comparison of neighborhood crime watch programs by African-American and White participants, see Theodore Sasson and Margaret K. Nelson, “Danger, Community, and the Meaning of Crime Watch,” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 25 (July 1995): 171–200. 5. Crime and Violence within the Hispanic Community: See Ramiro Martinez, Jr., “Latinos and Lethal Violence: The Impact of Poverty and Inequality,” Social Problems 43 (May 1996): 131–146. 6. Blacks in Prisons: “There are more Blacks in prison than in college.” For a look at this misleading but often-heard statement, see Peter Dreier and Jeffrey Reiman, “Prisoners of Misleading Facts,” Dissent (Spring 1996): 8–10. 7. Race and Criminology: See Jeanette Covington, “Racial Classification in Criminology: The Reproduction of Racialized Crime,” Sociological Forum 10 (December 1995): 547–568. 8. Rape Education Videos: Can visual images effectively teach about sexual violence? See Martha McCaughey and Neal King, “Rape Education Videos: Presenting Mean Women Instead of Dangerous Men,” Teaching Sociology 23 (October 1995): 374–388. 9. White-Collar Crime: For an examination of the current approaches to this concept, begin with the book review essay by Craig B. Little, “Whither White-Collar Crime,” Teaching Sociology 24 (July 1996): 333–337. Then see Sally S. Simpson. Corporate Crime, Law, and Social Control. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002. 10. U.S. Department of Justice: For access to numerous crime statistics, visit the Bureau of Justice Statistics website (http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/). This federal agency also sends, upon request, publications that cover victimization surveys, capital punishment, prisons, firearms, and crime rates. Contact BJS Clearinghouse, P.O. Box 179, Dept. BJS-236, Annapolis Junction, MD 20701-0179. 11. Crime in a Changing Society: How does social change lead to changing levels of criminal activity? Contemporary China provides a fascinating case study. Jianhong Liu, Lening Zhang, and Steven E. Messner, eds. Crime and Social Control in a Changing China. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001. VIDEO RESOURCE SECTION Asylum (1993, 60m). Each year, thousands of Americans commit crimes against society but are judged “not guilty by reason of insanity.” This documentary is a graphic, uncompromising look at patients and caretakers at an institution for the criminally insane. Bioterrorism: The Truth (Insight Media, 2002, 52m). This video explores the impact of September 11, 2001 on the civilian demand for gas masks and increased levels of fear following the attack. Bowling for Columbine (MGM/UA Video, 2003). Academy Award winner Michael Moore uses humor to take a serious look at gun control issues. Cops on Trial (1992, 48m). This 48 Hours program investigates cases of suspected police brutality in Trenton, Hartford, and West Palm Beach. Looking at a training program for rookie cops in Sacramento, California, it shows how the police are being trained to know when force is appropriate. Crime and Punishment: How Intelligent Do You Have to Be to Be Put to Death? (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2002, 22m). The Supreme Court’s landmark decision that it is unconstitutional to execute people who are mentally retarded reverses decades of jurisprudence. In this program, ABC News correspondent John Donvan visits the ongoing legal battle that prompted the initial 1980 ruling. Death Devices (Insight Media, 2001, 50m). This video explores the evolution of capital punishment and presents the current debate about its justification. Deviance and Social Control (Insight Media, 2002, 30m). This video gives an overview of the social mechanisms of deviance and control. It also explores theories that seek to explain deviance. Distance (1991, 30m). Showing the continuum of deviance from minor cultural variations to destructive behaviors, this program analyzes deviance as a social, historical, and cultural reality that embraces a wide range of behaviors. It examines the dimensions of deviance and deviant subcultures and provides various sociological explanations. Primary and secondary types of deviance are distinguished and different types of elite deviance are discussed. Guns USA (Insight Media, 2000, 45m). This CBS-produced video tackles the gun control debate from both sides. A variety of pertinent gun control issues is covered, from school violence to accidental shootings. Men, Sex, and Rape (MPI Home Video, 1993, 75m). Peter Jennings is joined by law enforcement officials and criminal justice experts to examine what causes some men to rape. The program explores men’s views of women, looking at how such widely accepted male rituals as bachelor parties and topless bars affect men’s attitudes. Interviews with both rapists and victims of rape illuminate the motives and the effects of the crime. Moral Development (Insight Media, 1973, 28m). A reenactment of Milgram’s dramatic obedience experiment. Discussion focuses on two differing approaches; one regards the subjects’ behaviors as learned, and one defines their actions as the results of a developmental stage. Not Too Young To Die (2002, 52m). This film explores in detail the criminal and life circumstances of juveniles on death row, and addresses the controversy over whether they should be subject to the death penalty. Obedience to Authority (1997, tape, 55m). Heywood Hale Broun interviews Stanley Milgram (Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View) and Dr. Ernest Van Den Haag. State Sponsored Terrorism (Insight Media, 2001, 60m) This video examines how the ruling elite used different forms of violence to suppress challenges to state authority. Street Gangs of Los Angeles (McGraw-Hill, 1990, 44m). Youth gangs are nothing new. Youth gangs control whole sections of the city, their brutality fueled and financed by drugs, their indifference to life a metaphor for the ease with which they murder. This is what has made Los Angeles’ gangs so frightening an omen of the future of America’s cities. This program looks at the thrills and dangers of life for Black and Hispanic gang members, and at the occasionally successful efforts of parents in gang-run neighborhoods to keep their children safe. Terrorism: Instrument of Fear (Insight Media, 2001, 20m). This video addresses the acts of various terrorist organizations through a discussion of multicultural teens following a viewing of the events of September 11, 2001. It reveals that terrorism is statistically an unlikely cause of death. The Tarnished Shield: When Cops Go Bad (McGraw-Hill, 1994, 46m). In this investigative report, Barbara Walters interviews Frank Serpico. For him, the issues have remained as black and white as they were when he went public with his famous one-man crusade against police corruption in New York. Ms. Walters also talks to the police officer whose arrest for dealing drugs triggered the 1993 investigation into the New York Police Department. This program examines the environment in which cops go bad, why those who have gone bad flourish, why corruption is so hard to root out, and why whistle blowers are the ones made to feel guilty. Waging Peace: Fighting Violence in the Schools (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2001, 47m). This video separates fact from hype as it explores the issue of school aggression. Practical strategies are suggested for making the school environment a safer place. ADDITIONAL READINGS Best, Joel, ed. 2001. How Claims Spread: Cross-National Diffusion of Social Problems. New York: Aldine De Gruyter. Fourteen essays analyze how diverse social issues, such as road rage and gun control, migrate across national boundaries. Blumstein, Alfred, and Joel Wallman, eds. 2001. The Crime Drop in America. New York: Cambridge University Press. A series of essays on the apparent decline in crime, including changes in the drug market in the United States. Clinard, Marshall B., and Robert F. Miller. 2003. Sociology of Deviant Behavior, 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. An overview of the nature and forms of deviance, including drug use, drunkenness, sexual behavior, and suicide. Gamson, Joshua. 1998. Freaks Talk Back: Tabloid Talk Shows and Sexual Nonconformity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. A sociologist looks at the presentation of socially dysfunctional or stigmatized behaviors on television talk shows. Leonard, Elizabeth Dermody. 2002. Convicted Survivors: The Imprisonment of Battered Women Who Kill. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. The author makes use of both quantitative and qualitative interview data to probe the circumstances of women who kill their abusers. McFeely, William S. 2001. Proximity to Death. New York: W.W. Norton. A historian looks at the functioning of the Southern Center for Human Rights, which works on behalf of death row inmates. Miller, Jody. 2001. One of the Guys: Girls, Gangs, and Gender. New York: Oxford University Press. A sociological examination of the causes, nature, and meaning of female gang involvement. Ross, Jeffrey Ian, and Stephan C. Richards. 2002. Behind Bars: Surviving Prison. Indianapolis: Alpha Books. This book gives practical information to those imprisoned, and, in doing so, illuminates the prison experience for others. Walker, Samuel, Cassia Spohn, and Miriam DeLone. 2003. The Color of Justice: Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America, 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Overview of research on racial and ethnic discrimination in the U.S. criminal justice system. JOURNALS Among the journals that focus on issues of social control, deviance, and crime are Crime and Delinquency (founded in 1955), Criminology (1961), Deviant Behavior (1979), Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency (1964), and Law and Society Review (1966). Solution Manual for Sociology Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026669