CH-5 Social Interaction and Social Structure – Sociology : Book Guide

CHAPTER 5 SOCIAL INTERACTION AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Describe the development of roles in the mock prison experiment. Answer: The development of roles in the mock prison experiment, famously conducted by Philip Zimbardo at Stanford University in 1971, illustrates the powerful impact of social roles and the environment on human behavior. In this experiment, participants were randomly assigned to be either guards or prisoners in a simulated prison setting. Despite their initial equal status, the participants quickly adopted the behaviors and attitudes associated with their assigned roles. Guards began to exercise their authority in increasingly authoritarian and abusive ways, often subjecting prisoners to psychological torture. Prisoners, on the other hand, became passive, submissive, and showed signs of severe emotional distress. This rapid transformation highlighted how situational factors and assigned roles could lead individuals to act in ways that are contrary to their usual behavior and morality. The experiment underscored the power of social structures and roles in shaping individual behavior, demonstrating how quickly and profoundly people can conform to expected roles within a given social framework. 2. Explain the ethical considerations that led to the end of Zimbardo’s prison experiments. Based on what you learned about the sociological code of ethics in Chapter 2, do you believe that it was appropriate to stop this experiment? Answer: The ethical considerations that led to the end of Philip Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment were primarily driven by the extreme psychological distress experienced by the participants. The experiment, intended to last two weeks, was terminated after only six days due to the escalating abuse and emotional breakdowns among the prisoners, as well as the increasingly sadistic behavior of the guards. The experiment raised significant ethical concerns, including lack of informed consent regarding the extent of the potential harm, inadequate protection from psychological and emotional harm, and the researchers' failure to intervene promptly. Based on the sociological code of ethics discussed in Chapter 2, stopping the experiment was not only appropriate but necessary. The code emphasizes the importance of safeguarding participants' well-being, obtaining informed consent, and ensuring the right to withdraw without penalty. Zimbardo's experiment violated these principles, as participants were subjected to severe stress and mistreatment without fully understanding the potential consequences. The decision to end the experiment was crucial to uphold ethical standards in research, prioritizing the health and safety of participants over the pursuit of scientific knowledge. 3. Use the concepts of social interaction and social structure to explain the events that transpired in Zimbardo’s mock prison experiment. Answer: The events that transpired in Philip Zimbardo's mock prison experiment can be understood through the concepts of social interaction and social structure. Social interaction refers to the ways in which individuals act and react in relation to others, while social structure refers to the organized pattern of social relationships and social institutions that together compose society. In the experiment, participants were randomly assigned the roles of guards and prisoners within a simulated prison environment. This assignment created a distinct social structure with a clear hierarchy and power dynamics. The guards were given authority and control over the prisoners, while the prisoners were placed in a subordinate and powerless position. These roles were not merely labels but came with expectations and norms that the participants began to internalize and enact. The social interactions between guards and prisoners were profoundly influenced by this imposed social structure. Guards, feeling empowered by their role, began to exhibit authoritarian and abusive behaviors. They used their authority to enforce rules, often in a harsh and dehumanizing manner. The prisoners, on the other hand, experienced a loss of autonomy and self-worth, leading to passive and submissive behaviors. The social structure of the mock prison created a context where abusive interactions were normalized and escalated. The experiment demonstrated how quickly and intensely social roles and the associated social structure can influence individual behavior. It highlighted the power of social structure in shaping social interactions, showing that when individuals are placed in a structured environment with defined roles, they are likely to conform to the expected behaviors of those roles, often to extreme extents. This dynamic resulted in a rapid and dramatic transformation of the participants' behaviors, illustrating the profound impact of social interaction and social structure. 4. Discuss the work of Herbert Blumer and William I. Thomas with respect to social interaction and reality. Answer: Herbert Blumer and William I. Thomas made significant contributions to the understanding of social interaction and the construction of social reality. Both sociologists emphasized the subjective nature of social life and how individuals' perceptions shape their interactions and societal structures. Herbert Blumer, a key figure in symbolic interactionism, argued that people act based on the meanings they ascribe to objects, events, and behaviors. These meanings are derived from social interaction and are modified through interpretation. Blumer’s work highlights three core principles: 1. Humans act toward things based on the meanings those things have for them. 2. These meanings are derived from social interaction. 3. Meanings are handled and modified through an interpretive process used by the individual in dealing with the things they encounter. Blumer's perspective emphasizes that reality is socially constructed through continuous interaction, where people constantly interpret and redefine their social world. William I. Thomas, known for the "Thomas theorem," famously stated, "If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences." This principle underscores the idea that the subjective interpretation of a situation can shape objective outcomes. According to Thomas, individuals' behavior is influenced by their subjective perceptions of reality, which in turn affects the social structure and interaction patterns. Thomas's work illustrated that social reality is not merely a reflection of objective conditions but is actively constructed through individuals' definitions and interpretations. This concept is crucial in understanding how societal norms, roles, and institutions are created and maintained through social interaction. Together, Blumer and Thomas's contributions highlight the dynamic and interpretive nature of social interaction and reality. Their work underscores that social structures and institutions are not fixed entities but are continuously shaped and reshaped through human interaction and perception. This understanding is fundamental in sociology, offering insights into how individuals and groups construct, negotiate, and change their social world. 5. How do ascribed and achieved statuses serve to identify who a person is in a culture? Answer: Ascribed and achieved statuses play crucial roles in identifying who a person is within a culture by defining their social position and the expectations associated with it. Ascribed Status: Ascribed statuses are social positions assigned at birth or involuntarily later in life, regardless of an individual's actions or desires. Examples include race, gender, age, and family heritage. These statuses are typically fixed and can significantly influence a person's identity and interactions within society. They shape how individuals are perceived and treated by others, often dictating the opportunities and challenges they may face. For instance, in many cultures, gender roles are ascribed and can determine societal expectations and norms regarding behavior, career paths, and social responsibilities. Achieved Status: Achieved statuses are social positions that individuals earn or choose based on their actions, efforts, skills, and accomplishments. Examples include educational attainment, career positions, and personal achievements. These statuses reflect a person's abilities, choices, and efforts, showcasing their individual identity within the cultural context. Achieved statuses can change over time and often highlight personal growth and societal contributions. For instance, becoming a doctor, artist, or community leader are achieved statuses that carry distinct identities and societal recognition. Together, ascribed and achieved statuses create a comprehensive framework for identifying a person within their culture. Ascribed statuses provide a foundational social identity that influences initial interactions and societal expectations. Achieved statuses, on the other hand, reflect personal achievements and the dynamic aspects of an individual's identity. The interplay between these statuses helps define the roles individuals play in society, their social networks, and their overall cultural identity. This combination of fixed and fluid aspects of identity illustrates how people are seen and understood within their cultural context, influencing their interactions and social structure. 6. How does a master status differ from an ascribed status? An achieved status? Answer: A master status differs from ascribed and achieved statuses in its significance and overarching influence on an individual's identity and social interactions. Master Status: A master status is a social position that holds exceptional importance for social identity, often overshadowing other statuses an individual may hold. It becomes the primary defining characteristic of a person in the eyes of others, influencing how they are perceived and treated. For instance, being a celebrity, a disability, or an occupation such as a doctor can serve as a master status, dominating other aspects of one's identity. Master statuses can be either ascribed or achieved but are distinguished by their central role in shaping an individual's social experience and interactions. Ascribed Status: Ascribed statuses are social positions assigned at birth or involuntarily later in life, without regard to an individual's actions or choices. Examples include race, ethnicity, gender, and age. These statuses are typically fixed and imposed by societal norms and structures. While they can be significant, they do not necessarily dominate an individual's identity to the same extent as a master status. Achieved Status: Achieved statuses are social positions that individuals earn or choose based on their actions, efforts, skills, and accomplishments. Examples include educational attainment, professional roles, and personal achievements. These statuses reflect personal abilities and choices, showcasing dynamic aspects of an individual's identity. Achieved statuses are more fluid and can change over time as a person progresses through different stages of life and career. Differences: • Centrality and Influence: A master status holds a central place in an individual's social identity, often shaping their overall social experience more than any other status. In contrast, ascribed and achieved statuses contribute to one's identity but may not dominate in the same way. • Origins: Ascribed statuses are assigned involuntarily, usually at birth, and are not based on personal choice. Achieved statuses are earned or chosen through individual effort and actions. Master statuses can be either ascribed or achieved but are distinguished by their overarching impact on identity. • Impact on Social Interaction: Master statuses significantly influence how individuals are perceived and interact with others, often defining their primary social role. Ascribed and achieved statuses contribute to these perceptions and interactions but usually do not have the same all-encompassing effect. In summary, while ascribed and achieved statuses form the building blocks of an individual's identity, a master status stands out by dominating the social perception and interactions of that individual, significantly shaping their social reality. 7. How is disability a master status? Answer: Disability is considered a master status because it often becomes the primary defining characteristic of an individual, overshadowing other aspects of their identity and significantly shaping their social interactions and experiences. Central Defining Characteristic: A master status is a social position that holds exceptional importance for an individual's identity and influences how they are perceived by others. Disability often functions as a master status because it can dominate social perceptions and interactions. When a person has a visible or known disability, it frequently becomes the first attribute others notice and consider, shaping their assumptions and behaviors towards that individual. Influence on Social Interactions: Disability can profoundly affect how individuals are treated in various social contexts, including education, employment, and personal relationships. People with disabilities might face stereotypes, discrimination, or undue focus on their disability, which can overshadow their other qualities, achievements, and roles. This pervasive focus can lead to social barriers and impact the person's ability to engage fully in societal activities. Impact on Identity and Self-Perception: For individuals with disabilities, the master status of their disability can also influence their self-perception and personal identity. They may find that their experiences and opportunities are often framed through the lens of their disability, affecting how they view themselves and their capabilities. This can result in both positive self-advocacy and negative internalization of societal biases. Societal Structures and Roles: The designation of disability as a master status is reinforced by societal structures and roles that emphasize and often marginalize individuals with disabilities. Accessibility issues, policy decisions, and social attitudes all contribute to the prominence of disability in defining a person's social identity. As a result, the individual's other statuses, such as their professional roles, educational achievements, or personal interests, may be overlooked or undervalued. In summary, disability is a master status because it typically becomes the most salient aspect of an individual's identity in social contexts, shaping perceptions, interactions, and experiences in profound ways. This dominant focus can impact both how others view the individual and how the individual navigates their social world. 8. Distinguish between a medical model and a civil rights model of people with disabilities. Answer: The medical model and the civil rights model of people with disabilities offer distinct frameworks for understanding and addressing disability, each with its own implications for society and individuals. Medical Model: The medical model views disability primarily as a physical or mental impairment that resides within the individual. This model focuses on diagnosing, treating, and managing the disability through medical interventions. Key characteristics of the medical model include: • Pathology and Diagnosis: Disability is seen as a problem that needs to be fixed or cured. Medical professionals are central in defining and treating disabilities. • Individual Focus: The emphasis is on the individual's limitations and impairments, often leading to efforts aimed at rehabilitation or normalization. • Dependence on Medical Expertise: Solutions and support for people with disabilities are heavily reliant on medical knowledge and treatment, positioning individuals as passive recipients of care. • Stigma and Marginalization: This model can contribute to stigma and marginalization by framing disability as an abnormality or deficiency that sets individuals apart from the "normal" population. Civil Rights Model: The civil rights model, also known as the social model, views disability as a social construct rather than an inherent defect within the individual. This model emphasizes the role of societal barriers and discrimination in disabling people. Key characteristics of the civil rights model include: • Social and Environmental Factors: Disability is understood in terms of the interaction between individuals and their environment, focusing on the removal of societal barriers and discriminatory practices. • Equality and Inclusion: The emphasis is on ensuring equal rights, opportunities, and access for people with disabilities. Advocacy for legal protections and policy changes is central to this model. • Empowerment and Agency: Individuals with disabilities are seen as active agents capable of contributing to society. The focus is on empowering individuals and recognizing their rights and autonomy. • Universal Design and Accessibility: Efforts are made to create inclusive environments through universal design principles and accessible infrastructure, benefiting everyone regardless of ability. Distinctions: • Focus of Attention: The medical model centers on the individual's impairment and seeks to address it through medical means. In contrast, the civil rights model emphasizes societal change and the removal of barriers to inclusion. • Role of Individuals: In the medical model, individuals with disabilities are often seen as patients needing treatment. In the civil rights model, they are viewed as rights-bearing citizens advocating for equality and social justice. • Solutions: The medical model seeks solutions through medical intervention and rehabilitation, aiming to "fix" the individual. The civil rights model seeks to change societal structures, promoting accessibility, inclusion, and equal rights. In summary, while the medical model focuses on disability as a personal medical condition requiring treatment, the civil rights model views disability as a result of social barriers and advocates for structural changes to ensure equality and inclusion for people with disabilities. 9. Explain the kinds of dilemmas a person may face in carrying out a social role. Answer: Carrying out a social role involves navigating various dilemmas, including: Role Conflict: When demands from different roles clash, such as balancing work and family responsibilities. Role Strain: When demands within a single role are overwhelming, like a teacher managing diverse student needs. Role Ambiguity: When a role's expectations are unclear, leading to confusion, such as in new job positions. Role Overload: When the demands of a role exceed one's capacity, like a caregiver managing extensive responsibilities. Role Exit: When leaving a significant role causes identity and adjustment challenges, like retiring from a long-term career. Interpersonal Conflicts: When conflicting expectations from different people within a role cause strain, such as a manager balancing team and upper management demands. Ethical Dilemmas: When role expectations conflict with personal values, like a journalist deciding on a controversial story. These dilemmas require balancing multiple demands and expectations to fulfill roles effectively. 10. Define and present an example of role conflict. Answer: Role Conflict: Role conflict occurs when the demands or expectations of two or more roles that an individual occupies are incompatible or contradictory, making it challenging to fulfill those roles simultaneously. Example: A common example of role conflict is experienced by working parents. Consider a scenario where a parent is expected to attend an important work meeting that coincides with their child's school play. The parent may feel torn between their role as a dedicated employee, which requires attending the meeting, and their role as a supportive parent, which involves being present for their child's performance. In this situation, the parent faces conflicting demands from their work and family roles, leading to role conflict. 11. Distinguish between role conflict, role strain, and role exit, and provide an example of each. Answer: Role Conflict: Role conflict occurs when an individual experiences incompatible or contradictory expectations between two or more roles they hold. This conflict arises when fulfilling one role makes it difficult to fulfill another. Example of Role Conflict: A nurse who is also a mother may experience role conflict when her child becomes ill during her shift at the hospital. She may feel torn between her responsibilities as a nurse to remain at work and care for her patients and her role as a mother to be present and care for her sick child. Role Strain: Role strain refers to the stress or tension experienced by an individual when the demands within a single role become overwhelming or conflicting. Example of Role Strain: A high school teacher may experience role strain when trying to meet the diverse needs of their students, prepare engaging lesson plans, and adhere to administrative requirements, all while managing their own personal life and well-being. Role Exit: Role exit involves the process of disengaging from a role that was previously central to one's identity. This can occur voluntarily or involuntarily. Example of Role Exit: An individual who decides to retire from a long-term career may experience role exit. The transition from being actively employed to retired can involve adjustments in lifestyle, identity, and social interactions as the individual exits their role as a professional and enters a new phase of life. 12. What is meant by role exit and how does it relate to the socialization process? Answer: Role Exit: Role exit refers to the process by which individuals disengage from a role that was previously central to their identity. This can involve a significant change in their social identity and may require adjustments in behavior, relationships, and self-concept. Relation to Socialization Process: Role exit is closely related to the socialization process, which is the lifelong process through which individuals learn and internalize the values, norms, and expectations of society. When individuals exit a role, they often undergo a process of socialization related to their new status or identity. Example: Consider a person who decides to retire after a long career. This individual has been socialized into the role of a working professional, with specific expectations, behaviors, and relationships associated with that role. Upon retirement, they must undergo a process of socialization to adapt to their new role as a retiree. This may involve forming new routines, developing new social networks, and adjusting their self-concept to align with their new status. Key Points: 1. Role exit involves disengaging from a role that was central to one's identity. 2. The socialization process is the lifelong process through which individuals learn and internalize societal norms and expectations. 3. Role exit often requires individuals to undergo a process of socialization to adapt to their new role or identity. 13. What part do groups play in a society’s social structure? Answer: Groups play a fundamental role in shaping a society's social structure by organizing individuals into cohesive units based on shared interests, values, norms, and goals. These groups can vary widely in size, from small, intimate groups like families to large, complex organizations like governments or corporations. The part groups play in a society's social structure can be understood through several key aspects: 1. Socialization: Groups are primary agents of socialization, transmitting cultural values, norms, and expectations to their members. Through interactions within groups, individuals learn how to behave in society and internalize its norms and beliefs. 2. Identity Formation: Groups provide individuals with a sense of identity and belonging. Membership in a group helps individuals define who they are and where they fit in society. This identity can be based on factors such as race, ethnicity, religion, or shared interests. 3. Social Control: Groups establish norms of behavior and expectations for their members. They also provide mechanisms for enforcing these norms through rewards and sanctions. This helps maintain social order and cohesion within society. 4. Division of Labor: Groups often specialize in particular tasks or roles, leading to the division of labor within society. This specialization increases efficiency and productivity but also creates interdependence among groups. 5. Power and Influence: Groups can wield significant power and influence in society. This can be through formal organizations like governments or informal groups like peer networks. The distribution of power among groups can shape social hierarchies and inequalities. 6. Social Change: Groups can be agents of social change, advocating for new norms, values, or policies. They can challenge existing social structures and promote alternative ways of organizing society. In summary, groups are essential building blocks of society's social structure, shaping individuals' behaviors, identities, and relationships. They play a crucial role in maintaining social order, transmitting culture, and driving social change. 14. What impact, if any, has computer technology had on group formation? Answer: Impact of Computer Technology on Group Formation: Computer technology has had a significant impact on group formation, facilitating new forms of interaction, collaboration, and community building. Some key impacts include: 1. Online Communities: Computer technology has enabled the formation of online communities where individuals with shared interests or goals can connect and interact. These communities can be based on hobbies, professions, or social causes, allowing people from diverse backgrounds to come together and form meaningful relationships. 2. Global Connectivity: Computer technology has made it easier for groups to form across geographical boundaries. People can now connect with others from around the world, leading to the formation of global communities united by common interests or identities. 3. Enhanced Communication: Computer technology has revolutionized communication within groups. Tools such as email, instant messaging, and social media platforms allow group members to communicate quickly and efficiently, facilitating coordination and collaboration. 4. Group Decision-Making: Computer technology has transformed the way groups make decisions. Online platforms and tools enable groups to gather and analyze data, conduct polls or surveys, and reach consensus more effectively than traditional methods. 5. Virtual Teams: Computer technology has enabled the rise of virtual teams, where members collaborate remotely using digital tools. This has allowed organizations to tap into global talent pools and work across time zones, leading to increased efficiency and innovation. 6. Social Networking: Social networking platforms have become integral to group formation, enabling individuals to create and join groups based on shared interests, affiliations, or identities. These platforms facilitate the formation of both online and offline communities. In conclusion, computer technology has had a profound impact on group formation, enabling the creation of online communities, enhancing communication and collaboration, and transforming the way groups make decisions. These developments have led to greater connectivity and interaction among individuals, fostering the formation of diverse and dynamic groups in society. 15. What is meant by social networks? Answer: Social Networks: Social networks refer to the web of social relationships that individuals have with others. These relationships can be formal or informal, and they connect individuals to various groups, communities, and institutions. Social networks are not limited to personal interactions but also encompass digital connections in the age of social media. Key Elements of Social Networks: 1. Nodes: Nodes are individual actors within the network. Each person, group, or organization is a node in the network, representing a point where connections intersect. 2. Ties: Ties are the connections or relationships between nodes. These ties can be strong (close relationships) or weak (acquaintances or connections). 3. Paths: Paths are the routes or channels through which information, resources, or influence flow between nodes. Paths can be direct or indirect, depending on the structure of the network. 4. Clusters: Clusters are groups of nodes that are densely interconnected within the network. These clusters can form subgroups or communities within the larger network. 5. Density: Density refers to the extent to which nodes in a network are connected to each other. High density indicates a tightly interconnected network, while low density indicates a more loosely connected network. Functions of Social Networks: 1. Information Flow: Social networks facilitate the flow of information between individuals and groups. They serve as channels through which news, ideas, and knowledge are shared. 2. Resource Exchange: Social networks enable the exchange of resources such as money, goods, services, and social support. Individuals within a network can access resources through their connections. 3. Social Support: Social networks provide emotional, instrumental, and informational support to individuals. They serve as a source of companionship, advice, and assistance in times of need. 4. Social Influence: Social networks shape individual behavior, attitudes, and beliefs through social influence processes. People are influenced by the opinions, behaviors, and norms of their network connections. 5. Identity and Belonging: Social networks contribute to the formation of individual identity and sense of belonging. They provide a context for self-definition and affiliation with others who share similar interests or characteristics. In summary, social networks are the interconnected web of relationships that individuals have with others, playing a crucial role in shaping social interactions, information flow, resource exchange, social support, and identity formation. 16. What role do social networks play for women in the business world? Answer: In the business world, social networks play a crucial role for women, impacting various aspects of their professional lives. These networks can be formal or informal and encompass relationships with colleagues, mentors, industry peers, and clients. Social networks are vital for women in the business world as they provide avenues for career advancement, access to resources, and opportunities for professional development. Firstly, these networks offer women access to information and knowledge that can enhance their skills and expertise, aiding in career progression. Through these connections, women can gain insights into industry trends, job opportunities, and best practices, helping them make informed decisions about their careers. Additionally, social networks provide women with mentorship and support, which are crucial for navigating the complexities of the business world. Mentors can offer guidance, advice, and valuable feedback, helping women develop their leadership abilities and overcome challenges they may face in male-dominated industries. Moreover, these networks can also serve as a platform for women to showcase their talents and accomplishments, enhancing their visibility and credibility within their professional circles. Furthermore, social networks can facilitate access to business opportunities and partnerships, enabling women to expand their professional networks and reach new markets. By leveraging these connections, women can form strategic alliances and collaborations that can lead to business growth and success. In conclusion, social networks play a significant role for women in the business world, offering them opportunities for career advancement, access to resources, and support. By actively engaging with these networks, women can enhance their professional lives and contribute to their success in the business world. 17. Distinguish between the functionalist, conflict, and interactionist views of social institutions. Answer: The functionalist, conflict, and interactionist perspectives offer different insights into the role and function of social institutions in society. The functionalist perspective views social institutions as essential for maintaining social order and stability. According to functionalists, institutions such as family, education, religion, and government serve specific functions that contribute to the overall well-being of society. For example, the family provides socialization and emotional support, while education imparts knowledge and skills necessary for societal functioning. In this view, institutions work together in a harmonious manner, each contributing to the smooth operation of society. In contrast, the conflict perspective sees social institutions as sites of struggle and inequality. According to conflict theorists, institutions are not neutral entities but rather serve the interests of the powerful and dominant groups in society. Institutions can perpetuate and reinforce existing inequalities based on factors such as class, gender, and race. For example, the education system may reproduce social inequalities by providing better opportunities for children from privileged backgrounds compared to those from disadvantaged backgrounds. The interactionist perspective focuses on how individuals interact within social institutions and how these interactions shape society. Interactionists are interested in the symbolic meanings attached to institutions and how these meanings influence behavior. For example, the institution of marriage is not just a legal and social contract but also carries symbolic meanings of love, commitment, and partnership. Interactionists also study how individuals interpret and negotiate roles within institutions, highlighting the dynamic nature of social interactions. In conclusion, the functionalist perspective emphasizes the role of institutions in maintaining social order, the conflict perspective highlights the role of institutions in perpetuating inequality, and the interactionist perspective focuses on how individuals interact within institutions and the meanings they attach to them. Each perspective offers valuable insights into the complex relationship between social institutions and society. 18. What are the five functional prerequisites that a society must satisfy if it is to survive? Answer: The concept of functional prerequisites, introduced by sociologist Talcott Parsons, suggests that for a society to survive and function effectively, it must fulfill certain basic needs or requirements. These five functional prerequisites are adaptation, goal attainment, integration, latency, and pattern maintenance. 1. Adaptation: Society must be able to adapt to its environment, including economic, technological, and ecological changes. This involves ensuring that the necessary resources, such as food, shelter, and employment, are available and that the society can adjust its practices and institutions to meet new challenges. 2. Goal Attainment: Society must have mechanisms in place to set and achieve collective goals. This includes the ability to make decisions, allocate resources, and coordinate activities to achieve desired outcomes. For example, governments play a crucial role in goal attainment by establishing laws and policies that guide the behavior of individuals and groups. 3. Integration: Society must have mechanisms for maintaining social order and cohesion. This involves establishing norms, values, and institutions that regulate behavior and promote solidarity among members. Social integration ensures that individuals feel connected to the larger society and are willing to cooperate with others. 4. Latency: Society must fulfill the basic needs of its members, including psychological and emotional needs. This includes providing opportunities for personal development, creativity, and self-expression. Latency functions are related to the maintenance of the individual's motivation to participate in social life. 5. Pattern Maintenance: Society must maintain its cultural and social patterns over time. This involves preserving traditions, values, and institutions that are central to the society's identity. Pattern maintenance ensures continuity and stability in social life. In conclusion, these five functional prerequisites are essential for the survival and functioning of a society. They represent the basic requirements that must be met to ensure that a society can adapt to its environment, achieve its goals, maintain social order, fulfill the needs of its members, and preserve its cultural and social patterns over time. 19. Discuss social institutions from the viewpoint of feminists. Answer: Feminist perspectives offer critical insights into social institutions, highlighting how these institutions can perpetuate gender inequalities and oppressions. From a feminist viewpoint, social institutions are seen as structures that reflect and reinforce patriarchal norms and values, thereby perpetuating gender inequalities. Feminists argue that many institutions, such as family, education, religion, and the economy, are organized in ways that privilege men and disadvantage women. For example, traditional gender roles within the family often assign women the primary responsibility for caregiving and domestic work, limiting their opportunities for education and employment outside the home. Feminists also critique how institutions like the media and the legal system can reinforce stereotypes and discriminatory practices. The media, for instance, often portrays women in stereotypical roles, such as caregivers or sexual objects, which can contribute to the marginalization of women in society. Similarly, the legal system may fail to adequately address issues like domestic violence and sexual harassment, further perpetuating gender inequalities. Moreover, feminists highlight how institutions can intersect with other forms of oppression, such as race, class, and sexuality. Women of color, for example, may face unique challenges within institutions due to the intersection of gender and race-based discrimination. In response to these issues, feminists advocate for changes in social institutions to promote gender equality and justice. This may include advocating for policies that address pay equity, childcare, and reproductive rights, as well as challenging discriminatory practices and stereotypes within institutions. By challenging the existing structures of social institutions, feminists aim to create a more inclusive and equitable society for all genders. 20. Describe the differences between organic solidarity and mechanical solidarity. Answer: The concepts of organic and mechanical solidarity were introduced by the sociologist Emile Durkheim to describe the types of social cohesion found in different types of societies. Mechanical solidarity is characteristic of traditional, pre-industrial societies, where social cohesion is based on the similarity and shared values of its members. In such societies, individuals perform similar tasks, have similar beliefs, and are strongly connected to their communities. Social norms are highly enforced, and deviance is often met with severe punishment. The cohesion in these societies is akin to the cohesion of the parts of a machine, hence the term "mechanical." Organic solidarity, on the other hand, is characteristic of modern, industrial societies. In these societies, social cohesion is based on the interdependence and specialization of roles among individuals. Rather than everyone performing similar tasks, individuals have specialized roles and professions. This interdependence creates a sense of solidarity based on the need for each other's skills and contributions. Social norms are more flexible, and there is greater tolerance for individual differences. In summary, mechanical solidarity is based on similarity and shared values, typical of traditional societies, while organic solidarity is based on interdependence and specialization, typical of modern industrial societies. 21. Distinguish between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. Answer: The concepts of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft were developed by the sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies to describe two ideal types of social relationships and communities. Gemeinschaft refers to a type of community characterized by strong personal ties, shared values, and a sense of social solidarity. In Gemeinschaft societies, social relationships are based on kinship, tradition, and a sense of belonging to a close-knit community. Interaction in Gemeinschaft is often face-to-face and personal, and individuals are closely connected to one another. Examples of Gemeinschaft societies include traditional rural communities and close-knit families. Gesellschaft, on the other hand, refers to a type of society characterized by impersonal, formal, and utilitarian relationships. In Gesellschaft societies, social relationships are based on rationality, self-interest, and the pursuit of individual goals. Interaction in Gesellschaft is often mediated by formal institutions and roles, and individuals are connected to each other based on their roles and functions in society. Examples of Gesellschaft societies include modern urban societies and large-scale organizations. In summary, Gemeinschaft is characterized by close personal ties and a sense of community, while Gesellschaft is characterized by impersonal, formal relationships based on individual self-interest. 22. How does Ferdinand Tönnies use ideal types? (Note: Ideal type is discussed in Chapter 1). Answer: Ferdinand Tönnies uses ideal types as a conceptual tool to understand and analyze different forms of social organization. Ideal types are abstract models that represent the essential characteristics of a particular social phenomenon, such as a type of society or social relationship. Tönnies uses ideal types to highlight the fundamental differences between two idealized forms of social organization: Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. Gemeinschaft is characterized by close-knit, traditional communities based on personal ties, shared values, and a sense of belonging. Tönnies uses this ideal type to illustrate the characteristics of premodern, rural societies where social relationships are based on kinship, tradition, and a sense of community. Gesellschaft, on the other hand, is characterized by modern, urban societies where social relationships are more impersonal, formal, and based on self-interest. Tönnies uses this ideal type to highlight the characteristics of societies where social relationships are based on rationality, contractual agreements, and individual goals. By using ideal types, Tönnies is able to compare and contrast these two forms of social organization, highlighting their essential differences and helping to analyze the transition from traditional to modern societies. Ideal types allow sociologists to simplify complex social realities and identify key features that help in understanding and analyzing social phenomena. 23. Outline Gerhard Lenski’s discussion of sociocultural evolution. Answer: Gerhard Lenski's theory of sociocultural evolution outlines the process through which societies change and develop over time. Lenski's theory of sociocultural evolution suggests that societies evolve through stages as they adapt to their environment and develop new technologies. He identifies four main stages of sociocultural evolution: 1. Hunting and gathering societies: The earliest and simplest form of human society, characterized by small, nomadic groups that rely on hunting, fishing, and gathering for survival. These societies have relatively simple technology and social organization. 2. Horticultural and pastoral societies: The development of agriculture marks a significant advancement, allowing for more settled communities and the development of more complex social structures. Horticultural societies cultivate plants using simple tools, while pastoral societies rely on the domestication of animals for food and resources. 3. Agrarian societies: The invention of the plow and other agricultural technologies leads to the rise of agrarian societies, characterized by large-scale farming and the development of cities and civilizations. These societies have more complex social hierarchies and economic systems. 4. Industrial societies: The Industrial Revolution marks the transition to industrial societies, characterized by the use of machinery and technology to mass-produce goods. This leads to urbanization, the rise of a wage labor system, and significant social and economic changes. Lenski's theory suggests that each stage of sociocultural evolution brings about new challenges and opportunities for societies, leading to further development and change. He also acknowledges that not all societies progress through these stages at the same rate, and some may skip stages altogether. In conclusion, Lenski's theory of sociocultural evolution provides a framework for understanding how societies change and develop over time, emphasizing the role of technology and environmental factors in shaping social progress. 24. Compare and contrast the approaches to social structure introduced by Émile Durkheim, Ferdinand Tönnies, and Gerhard Lenski. Answer: Émile Durkheim, Ferdinand Tönnies, and Gerhard Lenski each contributed unique perspectives to the study of social structure, highlighting different aspects of how societies are organized and function. Here's a framed answer comparing and contrasting their approaches: Émile Durkheim: • Durkheim focused on the role of social facts and collective consciousness in shaping social structure. • He emphasized the importance of shared norms, values, and beliefs in maintaining social order. • Durkheim's concept of mechanical solidarity described traditional societies where individuals were united by similarities and shared values. • He also introduced the concept of organic solidarity, where individuals are interdependent and specialize in different roles, typical of modern societies. Ferdinand Tönnies: • Tönnies distinguished between Gemeinschaft (community) and Gesellschaft (society) to describe different types of social relationships. • Gemeinschaft refers to close-knit, traditional communities based on personal ties and shared values. • Gesellschaft refers to modern, urban societies characterized by impersonal, formal relationships based on self-interest. • Tönnies highlighted the shift from traditional to modern societies and the impact on social relationships and structures. Gerhard Lenski: • Lenski's theory of sociocultural evolution focused on the role of technology in shaping social structure. • He identified stages of societal development, from hunting and gathering to industrial societies, based on technological advancements. • Lenski emphasized the impact of technology on social organization, economic systems, and cultural values. • He also highlighted the role of technology in facilitating social change and progress. Comparison: • All three theorists recognized the importance of social structure in shaping individual behavior and societal functioning. • They each highlighted different aspects of social structure, including norms and values (Durkheim), types of social relationships (Tönnies), and technological development (Lenski). • Durkheim and Tönnies focused more on the cultural and normative aspects of social structure, while Lenski emphasized the role of technology and material culture. Contrast: • Durkheim and Tönnies focused more on qualitative aspects of social structure, such as norms, values, and relationships, while Lenski's approach was more quantitative, focusing on technological advancements and their impact. • Durkheim's emphasis on collective consciousness and social integration contrasts with Lenski's focus on technology as a driver of social change. • Tönnies' distinction between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft provides a different perspective on social relationships compared to Durkheim and Lenski's focus on broader social structures and systems. In conclusion, Durkheim, Tönnies, and Lenski each contributed valuable insights to the study of social structure, highlighting different dimensions of how societies are organized and evolve over time. Their approaches provide complementary perspectives that help deepen our understanding of social life. 25. What role does technology play in the sociocultural evolution approach to understanding societies? Answer: In the sociocultural evolution approach, technology plays a crucial role in shaping societies by influencing their development and organization. Technology is central to the sociocultural evolution approach as it is seen as a driving force behind societal change and development. According to this perspective, advances in technology lead to changes in social organization, economic systems, and cultural values, ultimately shaping the trajectory of societies. Technological advancements can lead to the development of new tools, techniques, and infrastructure, which in turn can lead to changes in how societies produce goods, communicate, and organize themselves. For example, the invention of the steam engine during the Industrial Revolution revolutionized manufacturing processes, leading to the rise of factory-based production and urbanization. Moreover, technology can also influence social interactions and cultural norms. For instance, the advent of the internet and social media has transformed how people communicate and interact, blurring traditional boundaries of time and space. In summary, technology plays a significant role in the sociocultural evolution approach by driving changes in societal organization, economic systems, social interactions, and cultural values. It is seen as a key factor in understanding how societies evolve and adapt to new environments and challenges. 26. What are the differences among industrial, postindustrial, and postmodern societies? Answer: Industrial, postindustrial, and postmodern societies represent different stages of societal development, each characterized by distinct features and dynamics. Industrial Society: • Industrial societies emerged during the Industrial Revolution, characterized by the widespread use of machinery and the mechanization of production. • These societies are marked by urbanization, as people migrated from rural areas to cities in search of work in factories. • Industrial societies are typically characterized by a hierarchical social structure, with clear divisions between workers and owners, and a focus on mass production and economic growth. Postindustrial Society: • Postindustrial societies are characterized by a shift from manufacturing to service-based industries and the increasing importance of information and knowledge-based economies. • In postindustrial societies, technology and information play a central role in economic, social, and cultural life. • These societies are often characterized by a more flexible and decentralized organizational structure, with a greater emphasis on innovation and creativity. Postmodern Society: • Postmodern societies are characterized by a rejection of grand narratives and a skepticism towards metanarratives of progress and truth. • In postmodern societies, there is a greater emphasis on diversity, pluralism, and individualism, with an emphasis on personal choice and identity. • Postmodern societies are also characterized by rapid technological advancements, globalization, and the blurring of boundaries between different cultures and societies. In summary, industrial societies are characterized by industrialization and urbanization, postindustrial societies by a shift to service-based economies and information technology, and postmodern societies by a rejection of grand narratives and an emphasis on diversity and individualism. Each of these stages represents a different phase in societal development, shaped by economic, technological, and cultural changes. 27. Discuss reasons why big business is in favor of the concept of net neutrality. Answer: Big businesses often support the concept of net neutrality for several reasons related to their operations, market competitiveness, and customer relationships. 1. Equal Access: Net neutrality ensures that all internet traffic is treated equally by internet service providers (ISPs). Big businesses benefit from this principle as it guarantees that their online services or content have the same access speed and quality as their competitors, preventing ISPs from prioritizing certain content over others based on financial incentives. 2. Innovation: Net neutrality fosters an environment where new startups and innovative businesses can compete on a level playing field with established companies. This benefits big businesses indirectly by encouraging a dynamic and competitive market that drives innovation and creates new opportunities for growth and collaboration. 3. Customer Satisfaction: Big businesses rely heavily on the internet to reach and interact with customers. Net neutrality ensures that customers have access to a diverse range of online services and content without restrictions, enhancing their overall internet experience. This can lead to increased customer satisfaction and loyalty. 4. Regulatory Stability: Net neutrality regulations provide a clear framework for how ISPs should manage internet traffic. Big businesses prefer regulatory stability as it reduces uncertainty and allows them to plan their investments and strategies with more confidence, particularly in the digital space where internet access is critical for their operations. 5. Protecting Freedom of Expression: Net neutrality principles protect freedom of expression online by preventing ISPs from blocking or throttling access to certain websites or content. Big businesses often support these principles to ensure that their content and services can reach audiences without interference or censorship. In conclusion, big businesses support the concept of net neutrality because it promotes equal access to online services, fosters innovation, enhances customer satisfaction, provides regulatory stability, and protects freedom of expression, all of which are beneficial to their operations and competitiveness in the digital economy. 28. List the types of information about private individuals, including teenagers as well as college students, that is increasingly available online. Consider how growing acceptance of Internet profiles, personal web pages, etc., may affect this generation’s view of personal privacy as compared to that of their parents. Answer: The types of information about private individuals, including teenagers and college students, that are increasingly available online include: 1. Personal Information: This includes names, addresses, phone numbers, and other contact details. 2. Social Media Activity: Posts, comments, photos, and videos shared on social media platforms. 3. Educational History: School and college information, academic achievements, and transcripts. 4. Employment History: Previous and current job positions, companies worked for, and professional achievements. 5. Financial Information: Bank account details, credit card information, and financial transactions. 6. Health Information: Medical history, prescriptions, and health-related activities. 7. Location Information: GPS data, check-ins, and location-based services. 8. Preferences and Interests: Likes, dislikes, hobbies, and personal preferences. 9. Online Purchases: Products bought online and shopping habits. 10. Communication History: Emails, text messages, and other forms of digital communication. The growing acceptance of Internet profiles, personal web pages, and social media among the younger generation may lead to a different view of personal privacy compared to that of their parents. Younger individuals often share more personal information online, considering it a normal part of their social interactions and self-expression. They may prioritize social connections and self-promotion over privacy concerns, leading to a more relaxed attitude towards sharing personal information online. In contrast, their parents may have a more cautious approach, valuing privacy and being more selective about what they share online. They may be more aware of the risks associated with sharing personal information online, such as identity theft, cyberbullying, and privacy breaches. Overall, the younger generation's view of personal privacy may be influenced by factors such as their digital native status, social norms, and attitudes towards technology. They may be more willing to share personal information online but may also be more aware of privacy settings and measures to protect their information. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Would you have more respect for a person who is born wealthy or a person who becomes wealthy through hard work? Address the differences associated with ascribed and achieved statuses in your answer. Answer: The respect one has for a person who is born wealthy versus a person who becomes wealthy through hard work can be influenced by various factors, including cultural beliefs, personal values, and societal norms. The concepts of ascribed and achieved statuses play a significant role in shaping perceptions of wealth and success. An ascribed status is a social position that is assigned to an individual at birth or based on certain characteristics such as race, gender, or family background. Being born wealthy is an example of an ascribed status. In contrast, an achieved status is a social position that is acquired through individual effort, skills, or accomplishments. Becoming wealthy through hard work is an example of an achieved status. In many societies, there is a cultural belief in the value of hard work and meritocracy, where individuals are rewarded based on their efforts and abilities. In this context, a person who becomes wealthy through hard work may be seen as more deserving of respect because they have overcome challenges and achieved success through their own efforts. On the other hand, there may be a perception that those who are born wealthy have not necessarily earned their wealth through hard work, but rather have benefited from the advantages and privileges that come with their social status. This can lead to a perception that they are less deserving of respect compared to those who have achieved wealth through their own efforts. It is important to note that these perceptions can vary greatly depending on cultural, social, and individual factors. Some may admire the discipline and determination of someone born into wealth who uses their resources to make a positive impact, while others may value the resilience and tenacity of someone who has overcome adversity to achieve success. In conclusion, the respect one has for a person who is born wealthy versus a person who becomes wealthy through hard work can be influenced by perceptions of ascribed and achieved statuses, as well as cultural beliefs and personal values. Both paths to wealth and success can be deserving of respect, depending on the individual circumstances and the values of the society in which they are viewed. 2. Discuss the various ways a person may experience role strain. Give examples to support your answer. Answer: Role strain occurs when there are conflicting demands within a single role a person holds or between multiple roles they have. This can lead to stress and difficulties in fulfilling expectations. 1. Work Role Strain: A person may experience role strain at work when they are expected to meet conflicting demands, such as being a supportive team member while also competing for a promotion. For example, a salesperson may feel strain when they are expected to meet aggressive sales targets while also maintaining good customer relationships. 2. Parenting Role Strain: Parents may experience role strain when they feel torn between fulfilling the demands of work and being present for their children. For instance, a working parent may struggle to balance the demands of their job with attending their child's school events or spending quality time with them. 3. Student Role Strain: Students may experience role strain when they are expected to excel academically while also balancing other responsibilities such as work or family obligations. For example, a student who works part-time to support themselves may feel strained trying to juggle work and study commitments. 4. Caregiver Role Strain: Caregivers, such as those looking after elderly parents or sick family members, may experience role strain when they are faced with the emotional and physical demands of caregiving while also trying to maintain their own well-being. For instance, a caregiver may feel strain when they have to balance their caregiving responsibilities with work and personal life. 5. Gender Role Strain: Individuals may experience role strain related to gender expectations, such as men feeling pressured to be the primary breadwinner or women feeling pressured to balance career and family responsibilities. For example, a man who wants to be actively involved in childcare may feel strain if societal expectations prioritize his role as a provider over his role as a caregiver. 6. Cultural Role Strain: People from minority cultures may experience role strain when they feel pressure to conform to mainstream cultural norms while also maintaining their cultural identity. For example, a second-generation immigrant may feel strain trying to balance the expectations of their family's culture with those of the dominant culture. In conclusion, role strain can manifest in various aspects of life, including work, family, education, and cultural identity. It occurs when individuals feel conflicted between fulfilling the expectations of different roles they hold, leading to stress and challenges in meeting these demands. 3. Describe how the impact of political terrorist attacks is likely to affect various social interactions among groups. Include your own observations of events following the 9/11 terror attacks and the war with Iraq in your answer. Answer: The impact of political terrorist attacks, such as those seen in events like 9/11 and subsequent conflicts like the war with Iraq, can have profound effects on social interactions among groups. 1. Increased Social Division: Terrorist attacks can lead to increased social division as communities may become more polarized along ethnic, religious, or political lines. This can result in heightened tensions and conflicts between different groups within society. 2. Heightened Fear and Mistrust: Terrorist attacks can create a climate of fear and mistrust, leading to suspicion and hostility towards certain groups. This can result in increased discrimination and prejudice, as well as a breakdown in social cohesion. 3. Changes in Social Norms: In the aftermath of terrorist attacks, there may be changes in social norms as communities respond to the threat of future attacks. This can include increased security measures, changes in public behavior, and a shift in societal values. 4. Impact on Social Institutions: Terrorist attacks can also affect social institutions, such as the government, media, and religious organizations. There may be changes in policies and practices, as well as shifts in public opinion and trust in these institutions. 5. Solidarity and Resilience: Despite the negative effects, terrorist attacks can also lead to increased solidarity and resilience within communities. People may come together in support of each other, demonstrating a sense of unity and strength in the face of adversity. 6. Global Impact: The impact of terrorist attacks is not limited to the affected region but can have global repercussions. Events like 9/11 and the war with Iraq led to significant changes in international relations, security policies, and global perceptions of security and terrorism. In my own observations following the 9/11 attacks and the subsequent war with Iraq, I witnessed a significant shift in social interactions and attitudes. There was a heightened sense of fear and uncertainty, as well as increased scrutiny and suspicion towards certain groups, particularly those perceived to be associated with the attackers. There was also a sense of solidarity and patriotism, with communities coming together to support each other and show resilience in the face of adversity. Overall, the impact of these events on social interactions was profound and far-reaching, highlighting the complex and multifaceted nature of terrorism's effects on society. 4. Analyze the importance of social institutions from the three major sociological perspectives. How are the views similar and different? Answer: The three major sociological perspectives—functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism—offer different insights into the importance of social institutions in society. Functionalism: • Functionalists view social institutions as essential for maintaining social order and stability. • They see institutions as fulfilling vital functions, such as socializing individuals, regulating behavior, and meeting the needs of society. • From this perspective, social institutions contribute to the smooth functioning of society by providing structure and organization. Conflict Theory: • Conflict theorists see social institutions as perpetuating inequality and serving the interests of the powerful. • They argue that institutions, such as the government, education system, and media, reflect and reinforce the existing power dynamics in society. • According to conflict theory, social institutions can create and perpetuate social divisions, leading to conflict and struggle between different groups. Symbolic Interactionism: • Symbolic interactionists focus on how individuals interact with and interpret social institutions in their everyday lives. • They emphasize the role of symbols, meanings, and interactions in shaping individuals' experiences within institutions. • Symbolic interactionists are interested in how institutions influence individuals' identities, roles, and behavior through social interactions. Similarities: • All three perspectives recognize the importance of social institutions in shaping society and the behavior of individuals. • They highlight the role of institutions in maintaining social order, albeit with different interpretations of how this is achieved. • Each perspective acknowledges that social institutions play a significant role in shaping individuals' experiences and opportunities in society. Differences: • Functionalists emphasize the positive functions of institutions in maintaining social stability, while conflict theorists focus on the role of institutions in perpetuating inequality and conflict. • Symbolic interactionists focus on the micro-level interactions within institutions, whereas functionalists and conflict theorists often take a macro-level perspective. • Conflict theory and symbolic interactionism both critique the status quo, while functionalism tends to emphasize the importance of maintaining social order. In conclusion, while the three major sociological perspectives differ in their interpretations of social institutions, they all agree on the fundamental importance of these institutions in shaping society and individual behavior. Each perspective offers unique insights into how institutions function and their impact on social life, highlighting the complex and multifaceted nature of social institutions in society. 5. Discuss how social life and interaction would be affected if the Internet permanently disappeared today. Use the sociocultural evolution approach to describe your predictions. Answer: If the Internet permanently disappeared today, social life and interaction would undergo significant changes, reflecting a shift in sociocultural evolution. Immediate Disruption: Initially, there would be widespread confusion and disruption as people rely heavily on the Internet for communication, information, and daily activities. Businesses that depend on online transactions and communication would face challenges, and social media platforms would cease to exist, affecting how people connect and interact. Return to Traditional Communication: In the absence of the Internet, people would likely return to more traditional forms of communication, such as face-to-face interactions, phone calls, and letters. This could lead to a resurgence in local communities and a greater emphasis on personal relationships. Economic Impact: The disappearance of the Internet would have a significant economic impact, affecting industries that rely on e-commerce, online advertising, and digital services. This could lead to a shift in economic priorities and a reevaluation of the role of technology in business. Educational Changes: The education sector would also be affected, as online learning platforms and resources would no longer be accessible. Schools and universities would need to adapt to more traditional teaching methods, potentially leading to changes in how education is delivered and accessed. Cultural Shifts: The disappearance of the Internet would lead to cultural shifts, as online communities and subcultures would disperse. This could affect how people form identities and express themselves, as online platforms are often used for self-expression and identity exploration. Technological Adaptation: Over time, society would likely adapt by developing alternative technologies to replace the functions of the Internet. This could lead to the emergence of new communication platforms and digital technologies, potentially shaping future sociocultural evolution. In conclusion, the permanent disappearance of the Internet would have profound effects on social life and interaction, leading to initial disruption followed by adaptation and potentially new forms of communication and technology. This scenario highlights the interconnectedness of technology and society, and the impact of technological changes on sociocultural evolution. TOPICS AND SOURCES FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Social Structure and Emotion: Have students explore how social structure impacts our emotional life. Bruno S. Frey and Alois Stutzer. Happiness and Economics: How the Economy and Institutions Affect Human Well-Being. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001. 2. Changing Social Roles in the Catholic Church: This book argues that, because of a lack of men willing to serve as celibate priests, the types of social roles available through Catholicism are undergoing major changes. Richard A. Schoenherr. Goodbye Father: The Celibate Male Priesthood and the Future of the Catholic Church. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. 3. Prison Interaction: See Geoffrey Hunt et al., “Changes in Prison Culture: Prison Gangs and the Case of the ‘Pepsi Generation,’“ Social Problems 40 (August 1993): 398–409. 4. Networking Among Men and Women: See Gwen Moore, “Structural Determinants of Men’s and Women’s Personal Networks,” American Sociological Review 55 (October 1990): 726–735. 5. Social Networks in China: See Peter M. Blau, Danching Ruan, and Monika Ardelt, “Interpersonal Choice and Networks in China,” Social Forces 69 (June 1991): 1037–1062. 6. Gerhard Lenski: See Gerhard Lenski and Patrick D. Nolan, “Trajectories of Development: A Test of Ecological-Evolutionary Theory,” Social Forces 63 (September 1984): 1–23; and “Trajectories of Development: A Further Test,” Social Forces 64 (March 1984): 744–795. VIDEO RESOURCE SECTION Breaking Silence: Sisters at Desales Heights (1993, 58m). While the term role exit is not used, this motion picture illustrates the concept as it traces 12 elderly nuns facing the outside world for the first time in their adult lives. Coming Out Under Fire (Fox Lorber, 1994, black & white, 71m). Explores through interviews the roots and impact of the “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy. From Social Interaction to Social Structure (Dallas TeleLearning, 1991, 30m). Explores the ways in which social interaction leads to social relationships and social structures. The program defines social interaction, culture, and socialization. It describes different levels of social structure, from groups to societies, and demonstrates how sociologists study these various levels. Group Influence (Insight Media, 2001, 30m). This video examines the Asch studies and Milgram experiment. The nature of group influence can be used to demonstrate the evolution from mechanical to organic solidarity as argued by Émile Durkheim. Keeping up Appearances: The Culture of Conformity (McGraw-Hill, 25m). Whether following stated procedures or complying with implicit rules of conduct, modern humans willingly modify their behavior dozens of times each day. This program investigates the conformity necessary for mass interactions and the flexibility required to learn and use the behaviors of conformity. In addition to conventions, such as air travel protocol and museum manners, instances of the subversion and even outright abuse of conformity are examined. Social Institutions: Politics and Education (Insight Media, 2002, 30m). This film gives an overview of social institutions, and utilizes interviews with sociologists to show how political and educational institutions are connected to the rest of society. Social Interaction, Conflict, and Change (Dallas TeleLearning, 1991, 30m). Defining social conflict and social change, this program examines how individuals and communities are affected by their surroundings. It demonstrates how social change at the community level results in role conflict and role strain. Social Interaction in Diverse Settings (RMI, 1992, 60m). Describes a model for social interaction that helps to explain the similarities and differences among human beings. It defines the terms culture, cultural scene, propriospect, idiolect, and aggregation. ADDITIONAL READINGS Albom, Mitch. 1997. Tuesdays with Morrie. New York: Doubleday. Social interaction can take place under unusual circumstances, such as that chronicled in the relationship between a young man and his ailing former sociology professor, Morrie Schwartz. Bell, Daniel. 1999. The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting. New York: Basic Books. Updated with a new foreword, this book describes the current economic trend away from growing food or making products for a living and toward the provision of services and information as a livelihood. Ebaugh, Helen Rose Fuchs. 1988. Becoming an Ex: The Process of Role Exit. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Sociologist Ebaugh examines the phenomenon of becoming an “ex”—for example, an ex-convict, an ex-nun, a divorced person, or a mother who lost custody of her children. Kennedy, Dan. 2003. Little People: Learning to See the World through My Daughter’s Eyes. New York: Rodale Press. A “normal” man learns about the master status of dwarfism through his daughter’s experience with the condition. Kephart, William M., and William M. Zellner. 2001. Extraordinary Groups: An Examination of Unconventional Lifestyles, 7th ed. New York: Worth. Among the groups described in this very readable book are the Amish, the Oneida community, the Mormons, Hasidic Jews, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and the Romani (commonly known as Gypsies). Putnam, Robert D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon and Schuster. A public policy scholar considers whether what he calls “social capital”—community activity and group participation—has declined in the last few decades. Shilts, Randy. 1987. And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Shilts, a reporter for the San Francisco Chronicle, offers this devastating critique of the nation’s medical, political, and media establishments for allowing the AIDS epidemic to reach grave proportions before taking it seriously. Skolnick, Jerome H., and Elliot Currie, eds. 2003. Crisis in American Institutions, 12th ed. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. A collection of readings focused on the problems facing social institutions in the United States. Wuthnow, Robert, and John H. Evans, eds. 2002. The Quiet Hand of God: Faith-Based Activism and the Public Role of Mainline Protestantism. Berkeley: University of California Press. This book, edited by a leading researcher of religion, addresses the important but little-known social and political involvements of mainline religious groups. JOURNALS Among the journals that focus on issues of social interaction and social structure are Journal of Contemporary Ethnography (formerly Urban Life, founded 1971), and Symbolic Interaction (1977). Among the journals that focus on the study of groups and organizations are Academy of Management Journal (founded in 1958), Administration and Society (1969), Administrative Science Quarterly (1956), Clinical Sociology Review (1981), Organization: Interdisciplinary Journal of Organization Theory and Society (1994), Organizational Studies (1980), Small Group Research (formerly Small Group Behavior, 1970), Social Psychology Review (1948), and Work and Occupations (1974). Solution Manual for Sociology Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026669