CH-11-13 Assessment For Education – Psychological Testing and Assessment : Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 11 to 13 Chapter 11 Assessment For Education THE ROLE OF TESTING AND ASSESSMENT IN EDUCATION Response to Intervention Background The RTI Model Implementing RTI Dynamic Assessment ACHIEVEMENT TESTS Measures of General Achievement Measures of Achievement in Specific Subject Areas APTITUDE TESTS The Preschool Level Checklists and rating scales Psychological tests Other measures The Elementary School Level The MRTs The Secondary School Level The College Level and Beyond The GRE The MAT Other Aptitude Tests DIAGNOSTIC TESTS Reading Tests The WRMT-III Math Tests PSYCHOEDUCATIONAL TEST BATTERIES The KABC The WJ-III OTHER TOOLS OF ASSESSMENT Performance, Portfolio and Authentic Assessment Peer Appraisal Techniques Measuring Study Habits Close-up: Tests of Minimum Competency Everyday Psychometrics: First Impressions Meet an Assessment Professional: Meet Eliane Hack, M.A. Self-Assessment TERM TO LEARN response to intervention (RTI) a multilevel prevention framework applied in educational settings that is designed to maximize student achievement through the use of data that identifies students at risk for poor learning outcomes combined with evidence-based intervention and teaching that is adjusted on the basis of student responsiveness. Some relevant reference citations: Johnson, K. N., Kaase, K. J., Medley, M.B. et al. (2011). The essential elements matrices: Response to intervention as a set of interrelated elements. Journal of Evidence-Based Practices for Schools, 12(1), 5-14. Sulkowski, M. L., Wingfield, R. J., Jones, D., & Coulter, W. A. (2011). Response to intervention and interdisciplinary collaboration: Joining hands to support children’s healthy development. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 27(2), 118-133. White, R.B., Polly, D., & Audette, R.H. (2012). A case analysis of an elementary school’s implementation of response to intervention. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 26(1),73-90. For class consideration: In recent years, there has been a major shift away from conceptualizing specific learning disabilities as a discrepancy between measured intelligence and measured achievement. The shift has been towards the use of an RTI model. Do you agree with this trend? Why or why not? CLASS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Here is a list of questions that may be used to stimulate class discussion, as well as critical and generative thinking, with regard to some of the material presented in this chapter of the text. 1. The response to intervention (RTI) model holds out the promise of improving academic outcomes in the schools, reducing the number of children placed in special education programs, and making the education process more accessible for culturally diverse students. What needs to be done if this model is to live up to such expectations? Answer: To realize the promise of the response to intervention (RTI) model in improving academic outcomes, several key steps must be taken. Firstly, schools need adequate resources, including trained staff and appropriate interventions, to effectively implement RTI practices. This involves investing in professional development for educators to ensure they understand and can implement evidence-based intervention strategies. Additionally, ongoing data collection and analysis are essential to monitor student progress and identify those in need of additional support early on. Collaboration among educators, parents, and community stakeholders is crucial for creating a supportive environment and aligning resources to meet student needs. Moreover, addressing systemic barriers to equity and access is necessary to ensure RTI practices benefit all students, including those from culturally diverse backgrounds. Emphasizing a strengths-based approach and culturally responsive teaching practices can promote inclusivity and address disparities in educational outcomes. Furthermore, ongoing evaluation and refinement of RTI implementation are vital to adapt strategies based on student needs and emerging research. By prioritizing collaboration, equity, and continuous improvement, the RTI model can fulfill its potential to support student success and reduce disparities in academic achievement. 2. In this chapter, an ongoing controversy regarding the distinction between achievement and aptitude is alluded to. How do students feel about this distinction? Do students agree with the view that intelligence and aptitude are synonymous? Answer: Students' perspectives on the distinction between achievement and aptitude may vary, reflecting diverse interpretations of intelligence and academic potential. Some students may perceive achievement as reflecting acquired knowledge and skills, whereas aptitude may be seen as innate abilities or potential for future learning. Others may view intelligence and aptitude as overlapping constructs, recognizing that both encompass cognitive abilities but may differ in emphasis on past versus future performance. Students may disagree with the notion that intelligence and aptitude are synonymous, recognizing that intelligence encompasses a broader range of cognitive abilities and skills beyond those typically assessed by aptitude tests. Through discussion, students can explore the complexities of these constructs and their implications for educational assessment and intervention. Overall, students' perspectives contribute to a nuanced understanding of the ongoing controversy surrounding achievement and aptitude. 3. Questions have been raised regarding how well preschool measures predict future academic performance. From students’ own experiences, what variables might be most predictive of future academic performance? What variables, if any, have been overlooked by those who design preschool-level tools of evaluation? Answer: Drawing from their own experiences, students may identify variables such as early literacy and numeracy skills, socioemotional development, parental involvement, and access to resources as predictive of future academic performance. Additionally, factors like socioeconomic status, cultural background, and home environment may influence academic outcomes. However, preschool-level tools of evaluation often overlook the role of non-cognitive skills, such as self-regulation, executive functioning, and social competence, which play a significant role in later academic success. Furthermore, the emphasis on academic readiness may overshadow the importance of holistic development, including physical health, creativity, and critical thinking skills. Recognizing the multidimensional nature of academic readiness is essential for designing preschool assessments that accurately predict future academic performance and support children's overall development. Through this discussion, students gain insight into the complexities of early childhood assessment and the importance of considering a wide range of factors in evaluating school readiness. 4. Mention is made in this chapter of the different criteria college admissions committees can use to select candidates. What do your students believe is the most important criteria in selecting candidates? What do your students believe is the most equitable way of selecting candidates? Answer: Students' beliefs about the most important criteria in college admissions selection may vary, with some prioritizing academic achievement, standardized test scores, or extracurricular involvement, while others value qualities such as leadership, diversity, or personal character. However, many students recognize the importance of a holistic approach that considers a combination of academic, extracurricular, and personal factors in assessing candidates' potential for success. In terms of equity, students generally advocate for transparent and inclusive admissions processes that consider individual circumstances and provide opportunities for underrepresented groups. They emphasize the need for fair and unbiased evaluation methods that prioritize merit while also addressing systemic barriers to access and opportunity. Through dialogue and reflection, students navigate the complexities of college admissions criteria and advocate for inclusive practices that promote fairness and diversity in higher education. 5. Review selected criteria for sequential and simultaneous learning. Then pose these two questions for individual response or group discussion by your class: (a) Are you a sequential or a simultaneous learner? (b) How might an instructor use this type of information to develop teaching strategies to use in the classroom? Answer: Reviewing selected criteria for sequential and simultaneous learning helps students identify their preferred learning style and understand how it influences their learning experiences. When posed with the question of whether they are sequential or simultaneous learners, students may reflect on their preferences for learning tasks, organization, and processing information. Understanding students' learning styles enables instructors to tailor teaching strategies to accommodate diverse needs and preferences in the classroom. For sequential learners, instructors may emphasize structured, step-by-step instruction, providing clear outlines and sequential explanations. Conversely, for simultaneous learners, instructors may incorporate multi-sensory and interactive activities, allowing for simultaneous exploration and experimentation. By leveraging this type of information, instructors can create inclusive learning environments that cater to the varied learning styles of their students, promoting engagement, comprehension, and academic success. IN-CLASS DEMONSTRATIONS 1. Bring something to class (a) Bring in a test Bring in, for discussion purposes, one of the reading or mathematics tests discussed in this chapter. Discuss why or why not aspects of the test’s manual are exemplary in terms of conforming to professional standards. (b) Bring in a current article in the news Bring in, for discussion purposes, a current article from the popular media on the use of psychological tests in the schools. The article could be in print form (from a local or national newspaper or magazine) or in video form (a clip downloaded from the Internet). 2. Bring someone to class. Invite a guest speaker to class. The guest speaker could be: (a) a school official Invite a teacher, school psychologist, guidance counselor, special education advisor, or other school official qualified to discuss how RTI works in everyday practice, or how psychological tests are used in the schools. (b) a representative from a hospital Invite a representative from a local hospital neonatal unit to discuss the use of infant scales of intelligence in their work. What types of tests are administered to newborn children and young infants? What are the perceived advantages and limitations of such tests? (c) a representative from a local child care agency Invite a representative from a local child care agency or a center that houses exceptional children or teenagers. What types of evaluations are conducted at these agencies and for what purposes? (d) a college admissions committee member Invite a college/university admissions officer to discuss the use of tests (such as the SAT, the ACT, and the MAT) as well as other admissions criteria in the selection process. (e) a fellow faculty member Invite a faculty member (from your university or a neighbouring one) who has expertise to share in the use of preschool tests or the use of tests in educational settings. IN-CLASS ROLE-PLAY AND DEBATE EXERCISES 1. Role Play: RTI in Practice Pairs of students are assigned the task of researching exactly how RTI works in the practice of actually teaching subjects like reading, mathematics, and writing. Then, on an assigned day, one student takes on the role of Teacher and the other takes on the role of Student Learner to demonstrate in front of the class how a typical RTI session might progress. 2. Debate: Achievement-Contingent Pay Raises for Teachers Hold a debate on the issue of whether secondary school teachers should receive pay raises or bonuses based on their students’ scores on achievement tests. All students should read-up on the relevant issues so that they can make informed contributions to the discussion. Divide the class into two groups: “Teachers” and “City Council Members” (the latter group representing not only the municipality, but taxpayers in general, and parents of students). OUT-OF-CLASS LEARNING EXPERIENCES 1. Take a field trip Arrange a trip as a class to a public school, private school, or institution of higher learning where educational tests are employed and discuss with a representative how the tests are used. Use the list of possible in-class guest speakers (above) as a resource for considering this class trip. SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS 1. Critical Thinking: Evaluation of a Published Article One large-scale research study conducted by Rosa Crum and her colleagues (2006) explored the relationship between behavior in school and subsequent problems with alcohol in adulthood. The researchers found, for example, that math achievement among first-grade boys, and self-report of skipping school among adolescent girls both predicted alcohol-use disorder. Students will be assigned this article (see references) to read, and then critically evaluate the study. Additionally, students will discuss the article based on their own knowledge and experiences. 2. Generative Thinking Exercise: “At Risk” In this chapter, reference is made to various definitions of “at risk.” Challenge students to create a list of three other things preschoolers may be “at risk” for. Students will write a paragraph or so describing a new test designed to measure the “at-risk” variables they have listed. 3. Read-then-Discuss Exercise: Student Study Habits How effective are students’ study habits? As a springboard for discussion in responding to this question, all students will read the Loken et al. (2004) research on the online study behavior of students preparing for the SAT, ACT, and GRE. Students will then engage in a discussion of the article. What findings from this study “hit home” for them? What findings do not? How can students study more effectively? 4. Research-then-Report Exercises (a) Learning Disabilities: State by State Federal regulations provide that each state must adopt its own criteria for determining whether a child has a specific learning disability. For this exercise, each student in the class will pick (or be assigned) a state. The student’s assignment is to learn what his or her assigned state’s criteria are for determining whether a child has a specific learning disability. All of the students in the class then meet for a “roundtable” presentation and discussion of the criteria for each of the states. (b) Minimum Competency: State by State Of the states that require minimum competency examinations for graduating high school students, there are many different requirements. Each student will select a state that has a minimum competency examination, and come to class on an appointed day prepared to discuss what those minimal competencies are. After a brief presentation by each student for the state they have selected, a debate follows. The objective of the debate is to decide which state to “crown” as the state with the most reasonable minimal competency examination. (c) Current Status of Syndrome Research In this chapter, the concept of a syndrome was presented in the context of research conducted by Thomas Achenbach and his colleagues (Ivanova et al., 2007a; 2007b). The existence of another possible syndrome, consisting of juvenile fire setting, bedwetting, and cruelty to animals was explored by Faranda et al. (2007). Using Faranda’s study, as well as other sources, a student or a team of students will be assigned to report on the current status of research regarding this latter syndrome. (d) How well is RTI working in the schools? Students will research the current literature and write a brief report to address this question. One resource students may wish to employ is the March 2012 issue of Psychology in the Schools, a special issue devoted to the topic of RTI (see Jones & Ball, 2012). Other resources might include articles such as those by Brown (2012), McAlenney & McCabe (2012), McMaster et al. (2012), Johnson et al. (2011), and Sanger et al. (2012). 5. Other Assignments and Exercises (a) Portfolio Creation Exercise Have students create their own portfolios to illustrate what they have learned to date from their course in psychological testing and assessment. (b) Peer Appraisal Exercise Demonstrate how peer appraisal techniques such as the “Guess Who?” method can be useful by having students “Guess Who?” At the discretion of the instructor, a sociogram could then be developed for the purpose of spring-boarding discussion on the advantages and limitations of this type of evaluation. WEB AND MEDIA RESOURCES On the Web http://www.psychology.org.au/publications/tip_sheets/autism/#s9 Brief text presentation on assessment and treatment of autism spectrum disorder. http://www.4tests.com/ Practice test items various tests such as the GED, ACT, SAT, and TOEFL. http://www.SchoolResults.org Provides comparable educational assessment data on schools, school districts, and states nationwide. The data displayed is required to be publicly reported under the No Child Left Behind law and includes adequate yearly progress, reading, and math assessments by grade. http://www.scn.org/~bk269/94-142.html Discussion of Public Law 94-142 with links to related sites. http://alpha.fdu.edu/psychology/extended_links.htm Provides links to various assessment-related Web site resources. http://www.ets.org/ Homepage for Educational Testing Service with resources related to various types of educational assessment. http://www.interventioncentral.org/cbm_warehouse Discussion of curriculum based measurement. http://www.collegeboard.com/ The official Web site of the College Board. http://www.collegeboard.com/student/testing/psat/about.html Sample questions from the PSAT. http://www.gre.org/splash.html Sample questions from the GRE. http://www.act.org/aap/ The official Web site of the American College Testing Program (ACT). http://www.aamc.org/students/mcat/start.htm Sample questions from The Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT). http://alpha.fdu.edu/psychology/woodcock_index.htm http://assess.nelson.com/test-ind/wj-3.html Both of these Web sites provide information on the Woodcock Johnson Psychoeducational Test Battery-III http://www.eduplace.com/rdg/res/literacy/assess6.html Discussion of portfolio assessment including definitions, types, and advantages of this assessment method. http://maxweber.hunter.cuny.edu/pub/eres/EDSPC715_MCINTYRE/Sociogram.html Discussion of sociograms including definitions and suggestions for use. On DVD, VHS, CD, and Other Media Assessment of Pretend Play: Why It Is Important (CD recorded March 11, 2011, no copyright date or running time listed; SPA). Dr. Sandra Russ of Case Western Reserve University discusses various aspects of pretend play as well as the Affect in Play Scale. The role of pretend play in treatment planning and in the evaluation of treatment effectiveness is discussed. Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory: An Introduction (1994, DVD, 28 minutes, DF) Elena Bodrova, Ph.D. and Deborah J. Leong, Ph.D. illustrate basic concepts of Lev Vygotsky’s work with children. ADHD in the Classroom: Assessment and Intervention (2-DVD set; no copyright date specified, 75 minutes, PT.net) Drs. George DuPaul and Gary Stoner, with an appearance by Dr. Russell Barkley demonstrate their approach to assessing and treating ADHD in the schools. Assessment and Treatment of ASD by Psychologists. (DVD, no copyright date listed, 14 hours, AuPS) Videorecorded at a two-day workshop (7 hours each day) presented by Australian psychologists Tony Attwood and Michelle Garnett, this DVD is a discussion of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). ASD is described in terms of perspective taking, the understanding and expression of emotions, fact orientation, sensory sensitivity, and rigidity in thinking. ABCs of School Testing (1994, VHS, 30 minutes, NCME) Reviews basics of testing in school settings. Intended for viewing by parents. Are We Testing What We are Teaching? Constructing Accurate and Useful Tests (2002, VHS, 90 minutes, BUCK) Presents views on what constitutes accurate and effective tests. Assessing Prelinguistic and Early Linguistic Behaviors (1984, VHS, 117 minutes, PSU) Describes assessment procedures for children from 9 months to 2 years of age. Dyslexia: Diagnosis and Prognosis (1990, VHS, 26 minutes, PSU) Describes dyslexia and approaches to its evaluation. First years together: Involving parents in infant assessment (1993, VHS, 19 minutes, EIU) Describes an early intervention program for high-risk infants and their families. Learning Disabilities (no date specified, VHS, 19 minutes, FHS) Presents the case of a 9-year-old learning-disabled boy emphasizing the importance of early diagnosis and treatment. Why performance assessment? (1998, VHS, 28 minutes, EIU) Advocates the use of performance assessment as a means to help students apply knowledge in a “real-world” context. REFERENCES Brown, E. F. (2012). Is response to intervention and gifted assessment compatible? Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 30(1), 103-116. Crum, R. M., Juon, H.-S., Green, K. M., et al. (2006). Educational achievement and early school behavior as predictors of alcohol-use disorders: 35-year follow-up of the Woodlawn study Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67(1), 75–85. Faranda, D. M., Katsikas, S. L., Lim, N. K., & Fegley, V. M. (2007). The triad of juvenile fire setting, bedwetting, and cruelty to animals: Establishing prevalence and comorbidity. American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 25(1), 51–69. Ivanova, M. Y., Achenbach, T. M., Dumenci, L., et al. (2007a). Testing the 8-syndrome structure of the Child Behavior Checklist in 30 societies. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36(3), 405–417. Ivanova, M. Y., Achenbach, T. M.; Rescorla, L. A., et al. (2007b). The generalizability of the Youth Self-Report syndrome structure in 23 societies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(5), 729–738. Johnson, K. N., Doggett, R. A., Paczak, H.A., et al. (2011). An annotated bibliography of response to intervention studies. Journal of Evidence-Based Practices for Schools, 12(1), 248-274. Jones, R.E., & Ball, C. R. (2012). Introduction to the special issue: Addressing response to intervention implementation: Questions from the field. Psychology in the Schools, 49(3), 207-209. Loken, E., Radlinski, F., Crespi, V. H., et al. (2004). Online study behavior of 100,000 students preparing for the SAT, ACT, and GRE. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 30(3), 255–262. McAlenney, A. L., & McCabe, P. P. (2012). Introduction to the role of curriculum-based measurement in response to intervention. Reading Psychology, 33(1-2), 1-7. McMaster, K.L., Parker, D., & Jung, P-G. (2012). Using curriculum-based measurement for beginning writers within a response to intervention framework. Reading Psychology, 33(1-2), 190-216. Sanger, D., Snow, P. C.; Colburn, C., et al. (2012). Speech-language pathologists’ reactions to response to intervention: A qualitative study. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 14(1), 1-10. Chapter 12 Personality Assessment: an Overview PERSONALITY AND PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT Personality Personality Assessment Traits, Types, and States Personality trait Personality types Personality states PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT: SOME BASIC QUESTIONS Who? The self as the primary referent Another person as the referent The cultural background of the assessee What? Primary content area sampled Test-taker response styles Where? How? Scope and theory Procedures and item formats Frame of reference Scoring and interpretation Issues in personality test development and use DEVELOPING INSTRUMENTS TO ASSESS PERSONALITY Logic and Reason Theory Data Reduction Methods The Big Five Criterion Groups The MMPI The MMPI-2 The MMPI-2-RF The MMPI-A The MMPI and Its Revisions and Progeny In Perspective PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT AND CULTURE Acculturation and Related Considerations Close-up: Assessing Acculturation and Related Variables Everyday Psychometrics: Some Common Item Formats Meet an Assessment Professional: Meet Dr. Eric A. Zillmer Self-Assessment TERM TO LEARN Personality An individual’s unique constellation of psychological traits and states, including aspects of values, interests, attitudes, worldview, acculturation, sense of personal identity, sense of humor, cognitive and behavioral styles, and related characteristics. Some relevant reference citations: Cámara, M., & Calvete, E. (2012). Early maladaptive schemas as moderators of the impact of stressful events on anxiety and depression in university students. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 34(1), 58-68. Kelly, J. F., Pagano, M. E., Stout, R. L., & Johnson, S. M. (2012). Influence of religiosity on 12-step participation and treatment response among substance-dependent adolescents. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 73(6), 1000-1011. McCreery, M.P., Krach, S. K., Schrader, P. G., & Boone, R. (2012). Defining the virtual self: Personality, behavior, and the psychology of embodiment. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(3), 976-983. For class consideration: Personality testing has a long history as part of the psychological assessment enterprise. Why is this so? Why do we need to know about personality? What applications do students envision for personality testing in the future? CLASS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Here is a list of questions that may be used to stimulate class discussion, as well as critical and generative thinking, with regard to some of the material presented in this chapter of the text. 1. Much like intelligence, the word personality can and has been defined in a myriad of ways. In preparation for delving into the topic of personality assessment, some time exploring students’ understanding of the subject matter would seem well spent. Accordingly, here are some class discussions that can be raised to introduce the topic: —How do you define personality? —Which famous person is an example of someone with a “good personality”? —Who has a “bad personality”? —Who has “no personality”? Answer: Exploring students' understanding of personality can be an insightful precursor to delving into personality assessment. By asking students to define personality, educators can uncover a range of perspectives, from traits and behaviors to individual uniqueness and identity. Discussing examples of individuals with "good" or "bad" personalities prompts reflection on qualities such as kindness, charisma, integrity, or arrogance, showcasing the subjective nature of personality judgments. Similarly, considering individuals perceived as having "no personality" challenges students to contemplate the role of personality in shaping perceptions and interactions. Through these discussions, students gain awareness of the multifaceted nature of personality and the influence of societal norms and personal biases in evaluating others' personalities. Overall, engaging in these discussions fosters critical thinking and sets the stage for deeper exploration of personality assessment methods and theories. 2. Why measure personality? Answer: Measuring personality serves several crucial purposes in psychology and related fields. Firstly, it enables researchers to understand individual differences in behavior, cognition, and emotion, contributing to the development of theories and models of personality. Secondly, personality assessment facilitates the prediction and explanation of various outcomes, including academic and occupational success, interpersonal relationships, and mental health outcomes. Moreover, assessing personality supports clinical diagnosis and treatment planning, aiding mental health professionals in identifying personality disorders and providing tailored interventions. Additionally, personality measurement is valuable in organizational settings for personnel selection, team building, and leadership development, enhancing workforce efficiency and effectiveness. Furthermore, understanding personality traits can inform educational practices, guiding educators in adapting teaching methods to students' individual learning styles and preferences. Overall, measuring personality provides valuable insights into human behavior, fostering personal growth, interpersonal understanding, and societal advancement. 3. How best can personality be measured? Answer: Personality measurement is best achieved through a combination of self-report inventories, observer ratings, and behavioral assessments. Self-report inventories, such as the Big Five Inventory or Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, rely on individuals' self-perceptions and trait descriptions to assess personality traits. Observer ratings involve gathering assessments from others who are familiar with the individual's behavior, providing a more objective perspective. Behavioral assessments involve direct observation of an individual's actions and reactions in various situations, offering insights into personality traits as expressed through behavior. Additionally, integrating multiple methods and sources of assessment enhances the validity and reliability of personality measurement, capturing a comprehensive view of an individual's personality. Moreover, considering contextual factors and cultural differences is essential to ensure the relevance and accuracy of personality assessment across diverse populations. Through thoughtful selection and integration of assessment methods, researchers and practitioners can obtain a nuanced understanding of personality traits, facilitating informed decision-making in various domains. 4. What qualities are ideal in a “good” personality test? How are these qualities the same or different with respect to achievement tests? intelligence tests? Answer: Ideal qualities in a "good" personality test include reliability, validity, standardization, and practicality. Reliability ensures consistent results over time and across different contexts, while validity ensures that the test accurately measures the intended constructs. Standardization involves consistent administration and scoring procedures to facilitate comparison of scores. Practicality encompasses factors such as ease of administration, scoring efficiency, and accessibility of the test. Similar qualities are valued in achievement and intelligence tests, including reliability, validity, and standardization. However, achievement tests focus on measuring specific knowledge or skills related to academic subjects, while intelligence tests assess cognitive abilities and problem-solving skills. Both achievement and intelligence tests aim to provide objective and accurate assessments of individuals' abilities and aptitudes, guiding educational and career decisions. Through adherence to these qualities, personality, achievement, and intelligence tests serve as valuable tools for understanding and assessing individual characteristics and capabilities. 5. Some have strongly advocated that one person assessing the personality of another person from another culture must be culturally informed with regard to the assesses culture. To what extent is this true? How “culturally informed” is enough to assess? Answer: It is crucial for individuals assessing the personality of someone from another culture to be culturally informed to accurately interpret behavior and traits within the context of the assesses' culture. Being culturally informed involves understanding cultural norms, values, beliefs, and communication styles that influence personality expression. However, the extent of cultural knowledge required varies depending on the complexity and diversity of the culture being assessed. Ideally, assessors should possess a deep understanding of the cultural nuances and intricacies relevant to the individual being assessed. This includes familiarity with cultural practices, historical context, and social dynamics that shape personality expression within the culture. Moreover, ongoing learning and engagement with cultural communities can enhance cultural competence and sensitivity in personality assessment. Ultimately, while no one can claim complete cultural expertise, continual efforts to deepen understanding and respect for diverse cultural perspectives are essential for conducting fair, accurate, and culturally sensitive personality assessments. 6. Review the different types of personality assessment items in the Everyday Psychometrics feature. Which item types are the students most and least comfortable with? Why? Which item types do students believe are most effective in obtaining a valid personality assessment? Answer: Reviewing the different types of personality assessment items in the Everyday Psychometrics feature reveals varying levels of student comfort and perceived effectiveness. Students may feel most comfortable with Likert scale items, as they are straightforward and familiar, allowing for easy expression of opinions or preferences. Likewise, multiple-choice items may also be well-received due to their structured format and clear response options. Conversely, students may feel less comfortable with open-ended or projective items, as they require more subjective interpretation and may feel ambiguous or intrusive. However, some students may appreciate the flexibility and depth of insight offered by these items, recognizing their potential for eliciting nuanced responses. In terms of effectiveness, students may believe that Likert scale and multiple-choice items are most effective in obtaining a valid personality assessment due to their reliability, standardization, and ease of analysis. These item types provide quantifiable data that can be easily compared and analyzed, enhancing the validity and reliability of the assessment process. However, students may also acknowledge the value of open-ended and projective items in capturing individual nuances and subjective experiences, despite their challenges in scoring and interpretation. Overall, students' perceptions of item effectiveness may vary based on their preferences, experiences, and understanding of personality assessment principles. 7. In order to prevent attacks by fellow students on campus, should personality assessment be a routine part of the college admissions process? Answer: Personality assessment as a routine part of the college admissions process to prevent attacks by fellow students on campus raises ethical and practical considerations. While personality assessment can provide insights into individual characteristics and behaviors, it may not reliably predict violent or harmful tendencies. Additionally, implementing such assessments could raise concerns about privacy, fairness, and discrimination, as well as the potential for misinterpretation or misuse of assessment results. Furthermore, focusing solely on personality assessment may overlook broader factors contributing to campus safety, such as campus culture, mental health support services, and community engagement. Instead, colleges should prioritize comprehensive approaches to campus safety that include proactive prevention measures, risk assessment protocols, and supportive interventions for students in need. Collaboration among students, faculty, administrators, and mental health professionals is essential for creating a safe and inclusive campus environment where individuals feel supported and empowered to seek help when needed. 8. In order to prevent attacks by fellow workers in the workplace, should personality assessment be a routine part of pre-employment screening? Answer: Introducing personality assessment as a routine part of pre-employment screening to prevent workplace attacks warrants careful consideration. While personality assessment can offer valuable insights into candidates' traits and behaviors, its effectiveness in predicting violent or harmful tendencies is limited. Moreover, relying solely on personality assessment for threat mitigation overlooks broader factors contributing to workplace safety, such as organizational culture, policies, and security measures. Additionally, implementing mandatory personality assessments raises concerns regarding privacy, fairness, and potential discrimination, as well as the accuracy and interpretation of assessment results. Instead, employers should adopt comprehensive approaches to workplace safety that encompass thorough background checks, behavioral interviews, and risk assessment protocols. Moreover, fostering a supportive work environment, promoting conflict resolution strategies, and providing mental health resources are essential for preventing workplace violence and ensuring the well-being of employees. IN-CLASS DEMONSTRATIONS 1. Bring something to class (a) Bring in test manuals. Bring in the test manuals for two personality tests that were developed using different means of test construction. Contrast the ways the two different tests were developed, and solicit students’ opinions regarding which is a better approach. (b) Bring in a sample, computerized narrative report. bring in for discussion a sample, computerized, narrative report. Discuss the pros and cons of having a computer score the report versus doing it oneself. 2. Bring someone to class. (a) Invite a practicing clinician. Invite a colleague specializing in clinical or school psychology to class to discuss personality assessment. The guest speaker could be asked to provide personal insights regarding some of the instruments mentioned in the chapter such as the MMPI-2-RF, MMPI-A, NEO-PI-R. How are these and other instruments of personality assessment used in a clinical context? The guest speaker may also address issues of personality assessment with individuals from culturally and linguistically diverse populations. Follow-up discussion can focus on the advantages and limitations for the use of these personality assessment approaches in clinical practice. (b) Invite a colleague knowledgeable about personality test construction. Invite a colleague to serve as a guest speaker and discuss the method of test construction employed in developing a tool of personality assessment for use in research. Ask the guest speaker to bring in for discussion a sample copy of an instrument used in their work—perhaps even administering this test, or a portion of it, to the class. (c) Invite a corporate Human Resources specialist Invite a Human Resources specialist or other corporate representative with responsibility for using personality tests in the context of employee selection. What tests are used and how are they used? IN-CLASS ROLE-PLAY AND DEBATE EXERCISES 1. Role Play: Students Play a Personality Theorist Students are asked to select a personality theorist that they would like to learn more about. After researching this theorist, the student then role-plays the theorist in a five-minute talk show like interview conducted by another student who plays the interviewer. Interview questions should focus on how aspects of the theorist’s theory can be measured through tests and other tools of assessment. 2. Debate Exercises (a) Debate: On the Utility of Built-In Validity Scales in Tests Tests such as the MMPI (in all of its forms) have used validity scales from their inception. However, some personality test developers, such as Costa and McCrae (developers of the NEO-PI-R) have argued against the use of validity scales. Divide the class into three groups (one arguing in favor of validity scales, one arguing against, and one to serve as the “informed” judges) to debate the issues. All students will have read up on the subject in preparation for the debate. (b) Debate: Developing Personality Tests that are Atheoretical or Theory Saturated? Some instruments used to assess personality could be characterized as “theory-saturated” while others are relatively atheoretical. Divide the class into three groups (one arguing in favor of personality theory as a guide to test development, one arguing against, and one to serve as the “informed” judges). All students will have read up on the subject in preparation for the debate. OUT-OF-CLASS LEARNING EXPERIENCES 1. Take a field trip. Arrange a trip as a class to: (a) the local offices of a major corporation. Arrange a trip to the human resources department of a local business or large corporation that employs personality assessment to hear about how these tests are used in a corporate setting. (b)a local governmental agency. Arrange a trip to a local governmental agency, such as a local or state police facility, that employs personality testing to hear about how these tests are used in this setting. SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS 1. Critical Thinking Exercises (a) The situational dependence of psychological traits To what extent are psychological traits situationally dependent? Students are asked to write an essay on this subject expressing their opinions, supported by research. (b) Bias in rater judgment Students are asked to critically examine the notion of bias in rate judgments. Can biasing factors such as the halo effect, the leniency effect, the severity error, and the error of central tendency actually have beneficial effects? Students are asked to write an essay on this subject expressing their opinions, supported by research. 2. Generative Thinking Exercises (a) Create a test Each student in the class selects a personality trait and then develops a 5-item true/false test to measure that trait. Students should include a scoring key for their test. (b) Impression management in everyday life Students are asked to share two or three examples of their own attempts at impression management. For example, they may draw on attempts to manage particular impressions during a job interview or a first date. How might such information related to impression management efforts be helpful to researchers developing a personality test? 3. Read-then-Discuss Exercise: Reviews of the MMPI All students will read critical reviews of the MMPI, the MMPI-2, and the MMPI-2-RF. Based on a reading of these reviews, students will write a brief description of what they believe the “next generation” MMPI will look like. How will it be different than the MMPI-2-RF? What additions may be foreseen? What deletions may occur? A roundtable discussion considers these issues. 4. Research-then-Report Exercises (a) The personality of terrrorists In this chapter’s Meet a Test User feature, Dr. Eric Zillmer made reference to the use of personality assessment in helping to identify potential terrorists. Students are assigned the task of conducting their own survey of published research in this area and writing a report summarizing the research they reviewed. (b) Comparing two widely used measures of personality Students are asked to write a report comparing the relative strengths and weaknesses of the MMPI-2-RF and the NEO-PI-R. They are reminded to include in their reports, a personal opinion as to which test would be preferable for use in different settings (including, for example, a college counseling center, a personnel office of a large corporation, etc.). 5. Other Assignments and Exercises (a) Celebrity personalities Students select two celebrities to report on. Then, based on (responsible) reports in the press, including recent newspaper articles and entertainment magazines, students write a brief, one-paragraph description of the personalities of these celebrities. Students are encouraged to try and make their paragraph as psychologically sophisticated as possible. (b) Comparative pros and cons in methods of personality test development Students are assigned the task of preparing a table that summarizes the advantages and limitations of various methods of constructing personality tests. Students are reminded to include in their table these methods: logical or content test construction, factor-analytic methods, empirical criterion keying, and the theoretical approach. (c) Group collaboration on a measure of personality. Davidson (1987) described an exercise in which students working in groups constructed, administered, and evaluated their own personality measure. MEDIA RESOURCES A number of websites, some of which are listed here, contain “personality tests” that may or may not be psychometrically sound. If assigned for self-administration for practice purposes, the possible limitations of the assigned test should be discussed. On the Web http://www.outofservice.com/bigfive/ Fifty-two item personality test based on trait theory. This test is called the Big 5 Personality Test, and consists of responding to items both about one’s self and another person. http://psychology.about.com/library/jv/bljv_pers.htm?once=true& Navigate to tests, and find numerous online assessments, including personality assessments. http://www.personal.psu.edu/~j5j/IPIP/ The IPIP-NEO (International Personality Item Pool Representation of the NEO PI-R™) big 5 personality test. Test is 300 items and takes approximately 40–60 minutes to complete. http://www.pearsonassessments.com/tests/mmpi_2.htm Information for online scoring of the MMPI-2 and MMPI-2-RF http://www.falseallegations.com/mmpi-bw.htm Information for attorneys related to the MMPI-2. http://www.pearsonassessments.com/tests/mmpia.htm Information on the MMPI-A. http://alpha.fdu.edu/psychology/horror_evaluation.htm Provides actual case report interpreting personality assessment results. On DVD, VHS, CD and Other Media Five-Factor Model Assessment of Personality Disorder (CD recorded March 6, 2009, no running time listed, SPA). Dr. Thomas A. Widiger of the University of Kentucky (Lexington) presents a four-step procedure for the diagnosis of personality disorder. Detecting Malingering on Personality Tests: Impossible Dream or Glorious Quest? (CD recorded March 5, 2009, no running time listed, SPA). Dr. John R. Graham of Kent State University focuses on the MMPI as in his discussion of the use of personality tests to detect malingering. Discovering Your Personality: Cherishing and Empowering the Unique You (2005, DVD, 30 minutes, INS) A very rudimentary introduction to personality and personality assessment Personality traits and assessment (no copyright date listed, VHS, 28 minutes, DU) Discusses how psychologists evaluate personality. Describes different personality concepts/theories and assessment methods. American Psychological Association Conversation Series-Social Emotional Assessment (1993, VHS, 120 minutes, PSU) Features five psychologists discussing social-emotional assessment issues related to children and their education. Contemporary Trends in the Assessment and Treatment of the Personality Disorders: Developments in the DSM-IV (1998, VHS, 240 minutes, PSU) Theodore Millon discusses theoretical principles concerning personality and its development from behavioral, cognitive, intrapsychic, and evolutionary perspectives. He reviews aspects of established personality assessment tools and describes combinational psychotherapy. Discovering Psychology, Program 15-The Self (1989, VHS, 28 minutes, MOU) A discussion of how society shapes self-image. Evaluating Personality (No date listed, VHS, 45 minutes, INS). This film traces the historical development of personality assessment from astrology and phrenology and discusses several tests including the Rorschach, the TAT, and the MMPI. Evaluating Personality: From Inkblots to Intuition (No copyright date listed, VHS, 45 minutes, HRM). This film provides an overview of different types of personality evaluation. Matching Job Types with Personality Types (No copyright date listed, VHS, 30 minutes, RMI) color,). Discusses the art of matching personalities to careers. REFERENCE Davidson, W. B. (1987). Undergraduate lab project in personality assessment: Measurement of anal character. Teaching of Psychology, 14, 101–103. Chapter 13 Personality Assessment Methods OBJECTIVE METHODS How Objective are Objective Methods of Personality Assessment? PROJECTIVE METHODS Inkblots as Projective Stimuli The Rorschach Picture as Projective Stimuli The TAT Other Tests Using Pictures as Projective Stimuli Words as Projective Stimuli Word Association Tests Sentence Completion Tests Sounds as Projective Stimuli The Production of Figure Drawings Figure Drawing Tests Projective Methods in Perspective Assumptions Situational Variables Psychometric Considerations Objective Tests and Projective Tests: How Meaningful is the Dichotomy? BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT METHODS The Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How of It Who? What? Where? When? How? Varieties of Behavioral Assessment Behavioral observation and rating scales Self-monitoring Analogue studies Situational performance measures Role play Psychophysiological methods Issues in Behavioral Assessment A PERSPECTIVE Close-up: Personality, Life Outcomes, and College Yearbook Photos Everyday Psychometrics: Confessions of a Behavior Rater Meet an Assessment Professional: Meet Dr. Anthony Bram Self-Assessment TERM TO LEARN behavioral assessment an approach to evaluation based on the analysis of samples of behavior, including the antecedents and consequences of the behavior. Some relevant reference citations: Heeren, A., Reese, H. E., McNally, R. J., & Philippot, P. (2012). Attention training toward and away from threat in social phobia: Effects on subjective, behavioral, and physiological measures of anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 50(1), 30-39. Kim, S., Lee, J-S, & Kim, M. (2012). How different are first-time attendees from repeat attendees in convention evaluation? International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31(2), 544-553. Wanzek, J. S., Houlihan, D. D., & Homan, K. J. (2012). An examination of behavioral momentum in girls’ high school volleyball. Journal of Sport Behavior, 35(1), 94-107. For class consideration: Behavioral observation as a tool of assessment may be applied to an exceptionally wide range of settings. What setting do students see this tool as being used more routinely in the future? CLASS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Here is a list of questions that may be used to stimulate class discussion, as well as critical and generative thinking, with regard to some of the material presented in this chapter of the text. 1. As entree to a discussion of the theory and practice of projective testing, you may wish to actually attempt the exercise described at the beginning of this chapter. Quoting from the text, that exercise was described as follows: Suppose the lights in your classroom were dimmed and everyone was told to stare at the clean chalkboard for about a minute or so. And suppose everyone was then asked to take out some paper and write down what they thought they could "see" on the chalkboard— other than the chalkboard itself … Assuming none of your students are extremely oppositional or actively hallucinating (or both), this type of exercise may be quite instructive. One word of caution if you do chance it: Make sure the chalkboard or portion of it you ask the students to focus on is not only clean but free of visible scratch marks; otherwise, students may in essence be associating to line drawings. Answer: Engaging students in the exercise described at the beginning of the chapter can be an effective way to introduce the theory and practice of projective testing. By dimming the lights and asking students to focus on a clean chalkboard before writing down what they perceive, educators can illustrate the concept of projection and the interpretation of ambiguous stimuli. This exercise prompts students to tap into their imagination and subconscious associations, providing insights into the underlying mechanisms of projective tests. Additionally, discussing the variability in responses and the role of individual differences enhances understanding of projective testing's subjective nature. Through this experiential learning approach, students gain a firsthand appreciation for the complexities of projective assessment and its applications in psychology. 2. Students in the class are probably familiar with the television game show, Deal or No Deal. Begin the class session by asking them to play a new game: Sign or Sample. List a number of possible presenting problems and then ask the class whether they think the sign or the sample approach would be more useful in understanding it. Answer: Starting the class session with a game of "Sign or Sample" inspired by Deal or No Deal can be an engaging way to explore the concept of psychological assessment. Presenting various hypothetical presenting problems, such as anxiety, depression, or substance abuse, prompts students to consider whether a sign-based approach (identifying observable indicators) or a sample-based approach (collecting data over time) would be more useful in understanding each issue. Encouraging students to discuss the advantages and limitations of each approach fosters critical thinking and application of assessment principles. Moreover, relating the game to real-world scenarios enhances students' appreciation for the diverse methods and strategies used in psychological assessment. Through this interactive activity, students develop analytical skills and deepen their understanding of assessment techniques and their applications in clinical practice. 3. Has anyone in the class had experience with any of the tools of personality assessment discussed in Chapter 13? If so, would they care to start a discussion about aspects of the test from the perspective of a test-taker? Answer: Opening a discussion about students' personal experiences with the tools of personality assessment discussed in Chapter 13 can offer valuable insights into the test-taking process. Those who have experience with personality assessments may share their perspectives on various aspects of the tests, such as the clarity of instructions, the relevance of the items, the ease of response, and the overall experience of completing the assessment. Students can discuss their impressions of the test format, the types of questions asked, and any challenges they encountered during the assessment process. Additionally, participants may reflect on their reactions to receiving their test results and how the assessment findings resonated with their self-perceptions. By sharing their experiences as test-takers, students contribute to a rich dialogue about the practical implications and real-world application of personality assessment tools. 4. What about personal experience with a polygraph? Alternatively, what have depictions of the polygraph in the popular media led students to believe about it? How do these beliefs jibe with the realities of polygraphy? Answer: Discussing personal experiences with a polygraph or perceptions shaped by popular media portrayals can provide valuable insights into students' understanding of this assessment tool. Students who have undergone a polygraph examination may share their firsthand experiences, including their impressions of the procedure, emotions felt during the test, and perceptions of its accuracy. Alternatively, students may discuss how depictions of polygraphs in popular media, such as movies or television shows, have influenced their beliefs about its reliability and effectiveness. These depictions often portray polygraphs as infallible lie detectors, capable of discerning truth from deception with certainty. However, students may come to realize that the realities of polygraphy are more nuanced, with limitations in accuracy and reliability, and susceptibility to errors and manipulation. By examining personal experiences and media portrayals alongside the scientific principles and ethical considerations of polygraphy, students gain a deeper understanding of its complexities and implications in forensic and security contexts. IN-CLASS DEMONSTRATIONS 1. Bring something to class (a) Bring in the music used in the Peterson et al. (2008) discussed in the text In the text, reference is made to the Peterson et al. (2008) study in which research subjects were exposed to rock music containing suicidal lyrics before completing the TAT (among other tests). Have students read this study in its entirety and come prepared to discuss it. To supplement discussion, bring in the three songs used by the researchers (Dirt, Desperate Now, and Fade to Black) as well, of course, as a laptop or other device to play the music on. (b) Bring in an example of a behavior checklist used with children or adolescents. Bring to class for discussion an example of a commonly used behavior rating scales such as the Behavior Assessment Scale for Children-II (BASC-II), Child Behavior Checklist, Connors Rating Scale, Revised Behavior Problem Checklist, the Behavior Rating Scale and/or the Personality Inventory for Children. Share sample items and then moderate a discussion in which opinions about the test’s pros and cons are shared. What are the strengths and limitations of indirect measures of behavior? (c) Bring to class materials for creating inkblots, a digital camera, and a digital projector. Bring to class the materials necessary to create five inkblots (a bottle of ink and some blank paper). Ideally, it will also be useful to have on hand digital equipment sufficient to project digital photos of the blots onto a screen; this way, both the volunteer subject and the rest of the class can simultaneously see the cards as they will be administered. Alternatively, the stimulus slides could have been prepared in a previous class. The goals of this exercise include: (1) to demonstrate how the Rorschach is administered; (2) to have students experience firsthand what is like to react to ambiguous stimuli; (3) to allow students to experience obtaining test results; (4) to challenge students' implicit methods of evaluating tests., and (5) to provide students with a firsthand experience with the Barnum effect. Allow two class periods for this one. Step 1: Administration Demonstration The instructor develops four inkblots by spreading ink in the center of a white sheet of paper and folding the paper in half. The same blots are used each year, which allows the instructor to establish a set of common responses ("populars") to the blots. The blots are numbered so that they are presented in a particular order, and they are marked as to which side is "up" when presented to the subject. By way of explanation of how the test is administered, the instructor demonstrates the administration to the class. The instructor notes that the actual Rorschach inkblots are not used; this is in conformity with test security precautions noted in the Standards. A volunteer from the class is solicited and the class is informed that the volunteer will have the identical experience as someone in a typical Rorschach test administration—except, of course, for the presence and involvement of the audience. Students in the audience are asked to take out a blank sheet of paper, and write a codename on the top. The student audience members are instructed to record their own responses to each of the inkblots on this paper. The instructor will collect all of the papers at the end of the class and they will be returned by the codename so as to assure anonymity. The subject is invited up and the instructor sits at a right angle to him/her. The instructor points out that this would be the seating arrangement during an actual administration. However, the seating may be slightly modified owing to the fact that this is a group demonstration in which the blots are projected on a screen so that everyone can see them. The instructor assumes the role of the examiner by reciting the following instructions: I am going to be giving you a test in which I will show you some cards. For each card, I want you to tell me what you see. You may see more than one thing. If you do, please make sure to tell me everything you see. Do you understand? The first card is shown on the screen and the examiner asks, "What might this be?" The class is given time to respond. The examiner records the subject’s response. If the subject supplies only one response, the examiner says, "Most people see more than one thing in each card." Administer all four cards, then go back for Exner-style inquiry: "I want to be able to see it like you do." The examiner records all relevant aspects of the inquiry from the subject. The responses are then collected from the class. The demonstration typically is followed by a lengthy discussion about administration, of the "what happens if" type-What if the subject turns the card? What if the subject has no response? Students often note the copious notes the instructor takes during the administration and wonder why. Ask the students about whether there are any skeptics relating to the validity of the test (i.e., that the test does not tell us something valuable about the person). Step 2: Test Results Before the next class period, the instructor attaches to each page of responses received from audience members (and also the volunteer's responses) an "Inkblot Response Profile containing a filled-in codename and test results (see later). The interpretation is attached to the back of the response sheet so those students do not see each other's interpretations. During the following class, the Inkblot Response Profiles are distributed to each of the students in sealed envelopes. Students are asked to read the interpretation sheet and respond to the questions on the bottom. Before initiating the discussion, the instructor polls the students as to their responses to the first question, and typically finds that the students feel the interpretation is quite accurate. A discussion of class reactions follows. At some point in the discussion, it becomes evident that everyone received the exact same feedback; and the students get a good laugh. The class then addresses this question: Why did the feedback seem accurate when it was the same for everyone? Often students have a sense of this in that they note the test interpretations sound like a horoscope. This provides an opportunity to introduce the Barnum effect. The instructor emphasizes that, in deciding about the validity of a test, students should not depend on their subjective opinions about whether or not the test "worked" for them. The instructor may next pose the question: How can test developers and researchers accurately evaluate the validity of a projective test like the Rorschach? This also provides a springboard to a discussion of the specific psychometric characteristics of the Rorschach. The “Inkblot Response Profile” form each of the students receives back reads as follows: Inkblot Response Profile for Codename ______________ PLEASE READ YOUR PROFILE RESULTS PRIVATELY AND ANSWER THE QUESTIONS BELOW. This profile has been scored on four factors: A though D. You have a numerical score on each factor, as indicated below. A brief description follows each factor score. Response profile: #12 Response pattern: 1-5-9-2 Factor A Score = 1. INTERPRETATION: The degree to which the subject is willing/able to experience a satisfying connection with others varies with the social situation. Sometimes the subject is willing to share himself/herself with others, at other times, the subject prefers to maintain emotional distance. Factor B. Score = 5. INTERPRETATION: The subject may be experiencing some intrapsychic stress, but appears to have sufficient intrapersonal resources to cope with the stress. Factor C. Score = 9. INTERPRETATION: The subject's self-image fluctuates. Sometimes the subject experiences him/herself as competent and skilled, but at other times the self-perception is more negative, focusing on experienced deficits in skills and cognition. Most of these experienced deficits are not objectively present in the subject, as the subject is quite intelligent. Factor D. Score = 2. INTERPRETATION: The subject tolerates authority. Because the subject considers him/herself to be a free thinker, the subject notices deficiencies in authority figures and may become frustrated at not feeling able to voice these observations. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ To the subject: Please answer the following questions: To what degree does the above profile fit you own perceptions of yourself? Please circle your response. a very poor fit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a perfect fit Did the profile printed here reveal anything about your personality of which you had not been aware? nothing maybe one or two things several things 2. Bring someone to class. (a) Invite a clinician to class Bring to class a clinical psychologist with experience administering and interpreting the Rorschach in independent practice or other clinical settings. This guest could discuss his or her varied experiences with the method, situations in which it has been most useful, guidelines related to how and when it should be used, and issues related to the administration and interpretation of the test. The guest speaker can also share views about the use and value of other types of projective tests such as picture-story tests, sentence completion tests, and word association tests. (b) Invite a school psychologist to class Bring to class a school psychologist with experience administering and interpreting the Rorschach in school or other education-related settings. This guest could discuss his or her varied experiences with the method, situations in which it has been most useful, guidelines related to how and when it should be used, and issues related to the administration and interpretation of the test. The guest speaker can also share views about the use and value of other types of projective tests such as picture-story tests, sentence completion tests, and word association tests. (c) Invite a panel of psychologists to class Invite a number of psychologists with expertise in projective assessment to class. This panel might include academicians, clinicians, industrial/organizational psychologists, and others. The instructor will serve as the moderator, asking the panel members to respond to questions about projective assessment (e.g., how they are used in different settings, personal experiences with validity, etc.). Adequate time for “questions from the floor” (that is, the student audience) should also be planned. (d) Invite a military psychologist to class to discuss situational stress tests If available, a military psychologist from a local processing center may be able to visit the class to discuss how situational stress tests, and other personality tests, are used in military contexts. (e) Invite a human resources specialist to class If a branch of a large corporation is nearby, you may inquire whether the human resources department has a psychologist or other trained specialist on staff available to discuss with your class the use of personality assessment in the workplace. (f) Invite a clinician trained in behavior therapy to class A clinician trained in behavior therapy can be an excellent guest speaker on the subject of the functional behavior analysis and other behavioral approaches to assessment. IN-CLASS ROLE-PLAY AND DEBATE EXERCISES 1. Role Play: “The Behaviorist” versus “The Traditionalist” Students are all assigned the task of reading up on the differences between traditional approaches to the assessment of personality and behavioral approaches. Next, pairs of students are assigned the task of discussing these differences with one student role-playing the role of a behaviorally-oriented clinician, and the other student role-playing the role of a clinician who uses more traditional tests. 2. Debate Exercises Divide the class into three groups in preparation for a panel debate on the pros and cons of various issues related to the subject of personality assessment. For each of the debates, one group will be designated as Group 1, another group will be designated as Group 2, and the third group will be designated as a panel of judges. All members of all groups will prepare for whichever of the following debate topics are assigned. Group 1 will present first, followed by Group 2. Next the panel of judges will ask alternating questions of the two groups. Debate and discussion will follow. The debate ends with a rendering of an informed judgment by the judges. Here are three possible debate topics: a) Clinical versus Actuarial assessment: Group 1 argues for the continued use of clinically-rooted instruments such as projective, while Group 2 argues against projective and for actuarial-type assessments (such as the use of the MMPI-2-RF) (b) Sign versus Sample approach: Group 1 argues for the “sign” approach to personality assessment while Group 2 argues for the “sample” approach. (c) Analogue versus “Reality-based” assessment procedures: Group 1 argues in favor of analogue-based measures of assessment while the Group 2 argues for more “reality” based assessment. OUT-OF-CLASS LEARNING EXPERIENCES 1. Field trips (a) Take a class field trip to offices where a polygraph is administered Arrange for the class to visit a polygraph administrator—the more credentials, training, and experience, the better. Perhaps you could arrange for a demonstration and an explanation of the findings. Interview the polygraph expert with frank questions about the validity of the test. In this regard, it might be useful in advance to read A Tremor in the Blood (Lykken, 1998), which is highly critical of the use of the polygraph. A polygraph expert might be located from within the judicial system, the local police department, a field office of the FBI, or a private firm. (b) Take a class field trip to offices that employ biofeedback Arrange for the class to visit either a research laboratory or a clinical treatment center that employs biofeedback. Perhaps the host can arrange a demonstration or two of how the equipment works and what can be learned from its use. SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS 1. Critical Thinking Exercises (a) The Rorschach as an icon of psychology The Rorschach has achieved iconic status; in the public eye, it is a symbol of psychology. Why do you think this has happened? (b) Is the Rorschach a test? Some have argued that the Rorschach is more aptly described as a method, a technique, or something other than a test. After researching this for yourself, come to your own (informed) opinion on the matter. (c) The Rorschach: Ahead of its time or outdated tool? Some people believe that the Rorschach is one of psychology’s most useful tools for assessing personality. Others believe that progress in psychology will be gauged by how long it takes for clinicians to phase-out this assessment method. What is your opinion on this controversy? (d) “Faking it” on projective Is it possible to "fake good" on projective tests such as the Rorschach, the TAT, or figure drawings? 2. Generative Thinking Exercises (a) New projective instruments List five types of stimuli that could conceivably be used to create a projective test. Note these stimuli should be ones that are other than those (words, pictures, inkblots, etc.) listed in the textbook. What are the pros and cons of using the stimuli you have listed, in contrast to those that are already in use? (b) New situational stress tests List five types of situational stress tests, other than those listed in the book. Use your own imagination, rather than research, to create these new tests. How might these new tests actually be used in practice or research? (c) New role-play tests List five types of role-play tests, other than those listed in the book. Use your own imagination, rather than research, to create these new tests. How might these new tests actually be used in practice or research? (d) New analogue assessments List five types of analogue assessments, other than those listed in the book. Use your own imagination, rather than research, to create these new tools of assessment. How might these new tools actually be used in practice or research? (e) Self-monitoring of study habits Devise ways to self-monitor student study habits. Discuss the advantages of limitations of your ideas. What factors inherent in self-monitoring will impact reliability and validity of your self-monitoring tools? How would your ideas help university students? (f) New word association test Create your own new version of the Word Association Test. It should consist of 10 “neutral” words and 5 emotionally charged words. Explain how and why this test would be used. In which context would it be most useful? (g) Devising unobtrusive measures. Develop your own unobtrusive measures for learning more about a particular variety of behavior. Discuss how your measures could actually be used in research. 3. Read-then-Discuss Exercises (a) Roundtable on improving the psychometric soundness of projective tests Using the Standards as a guide, students will come to class prepared for a roundtable discussion on how the research community might effectively address issues and controversies regarding the psychometric soundness of projective instruments such as the Rorschach and the TAT. (b) The value of figure drawings Having reviewed research on the use of figure drawings in the assessment of intelligence and personality, students will come to class prepared for a roundtable discussion on the value of this technique. The roundtable will conclude with recommendations as to whether or not the use of figure drawings should be perpetuated or discontinued. It may find, for example, that figure drawings have more value with young children and illiterates than with literate adolescents and adults. 4. Research-then-Report Exercises (a) The Rorschach: Of determinants and determinations Select one Rorschach determinant for study. Next, research how this determinant is defined and, well, determined, in at least three different Rorschach scoring systems. What kinds of determinations are made in these different scoring systems based on this single Rorschach determinant? (b) The reliability and validity of the TAT Research the issues related to reliability and validity determinations for the TAT. What types of reliability and validity estimates are appropriate for use with this test? What types of reliability and validity estimates are inappropriate? Is the TAT reliable? Valid? (c) Comparing, contrasting, and otherwise looking at behavioral approaches to assessment. What are the various types of tools of behavioral assessment? Compare and contrast these different tools on variables such as psychometric soundness and applicability and value in different types of situations either in research or practice. How generalizable are the findings from the use of different behavioral methods? What types of behavioral measures are best for what types of assessments? (f) Rating the rating scales. Research the world of rating scales to provide a brief, written overview of them. Give examples of different types of ratings scales from the research literature and your own experience. Discuss the topic of rating errors, including ways to minimize the halo effect, leniency, generosity, or severity errors, and errors of central tendency. Conclude your report with a description of the “ideal rating scale.” 5. Other Assignments and Exercises (a) Practice with projective In this exercise, students will create their own, ‘home-made” projective test battery consisting of 1 Rorschach-like card (using splattered ink and blank paper), 1 TAT-like card (using an image clipped from a magazine or downloaded from the Net), a 5-item sentence completion test of their own creation, and a 10-item word association test of their own creation. They will administer the test to a friend and write a report of their findings. In advance of “testing,” they should advise the friend serving as a subject that these are all home-made materials created solely for practice purposes and that they are not “real” psychological tests. Students will come to class with their reports, prepared to share their experiences in creating, administering, and “interpreting” their tests. (b) Rating the behavioral raters One or more students will volunteer to serve as the subjects of behavioral observation. The rest of the class will be divided into two groups: (1) a group of Behavioral Raters (BR), and (2) a group of Behavioral Rater Raters (BRR). Everyone in this exercise then heads for the cafeteria during lunch time. The BR group observes the targeted subjects to record their behaviors during lunch. The subjects of this behavioral observation exercise are instructed to “have your lunch as you normally would.” The BR group is instructed to simply “Record what you observe.” The BRR group not only observes the targeted subjects, but the BR group as well. Afterward, everyone returns to class for a discussion of their observations. The BR group reports first. Then, from the perspective of the BRR group, as well as the targeted observers themselves, issues related to the reliability and validity of the BR’s reporting can be raised and discussed. One of the conclusions students may come away from this exercise with is that behavioral observation is not as simple and easy as it might appear to be at first blush. At the conclusion of the class period, it is recommended that everyone adjourn to a Dairy Queen, Carvel, Cold stone, or some such dessert place located near the campus for any further academic debate. One of the things they may come away with from that is a well-deserved “brown bonnet.” MEDIA RESOURCES On the Web A number of Web sites present “personality tests” of questionable psychometric soundness. If they are assigned for practice or any related purposes, the proper caveats regarding the meaningfulness of these “tests” should be given. http://www.phil.gu.se/fu/ro.html Can’t get enough about Hermann Rorschach and his test? Click on this. http://web.utk.edu/~wmorgan/tat/tattxt.htm More on the TAT. http://similarminds.com/word/ Word association test, anyone? http://www.personal.psu.edu/~j5j/IPIP/ Learn more about “the Big 5.” http://www.outofservice.com/bigfive/ Fifty-two item personality test that is misleading in name; it has little to do with Costa and McCrae’s “Big 5” http://skepdic.com/penilep.html In-depth discussion of penile plethysmograph. On DVD, VHS, CD, and Other Media Psychometrics II: Personality and Forensic Assessment (2011, DVD, 25 minutes, INS) This DVD provides an introduction to objective and projective personality assessment, including a discussion of the Big 5. To Catch a Liar: Alternatives to the Polygraph (2006, DVD, 27 minutes, FMG) The war on deception is waged with experimental tools such as thermal imagery of facial blood blow and MRI scanning. Commentators include Dr. Mark George and Dr. Andrew Ryan. The History of the Rorschach Inkblot Method (DVD; no running time or copyright date listed; SPA). Dr. Irving B. Weiner of the University of South Florida discusses not only the life and work of Hermann Rorschach but the efforts of several others (Samuel Beck, Bruno Klopfer, Marguerite Hertz, Zygmunt Piotrowski, David Rapaport, and Roy Schafer) to develop the Rorschach method. The Future of the Rorschach (1998, VHS, 94 minutes, UNFL). In a now somewhat dated (but also somewhat prophetic) video, Dr. John E. Exner, Jr. projects what is in the cards for the Rorschach. Diagnosing Challenging Behavior: Functional Assessment (1999, VHS, 13 minutes, CUHS) Describes, with illustrations, functional behavioral assessment. The Administration of Projective Tests (1998, VHS, 18 minutes, BSU) Students may recognize veteran actor Burgess Meredith as Rocky Balboa’s crusty manager in the Rocky series. In this film, however, Meredith has quite a different role. He is administered a variety of standard projective techniques including the TAT, word association test, and a sentence completion test. American Psychological Association Conversation Series, 1993: 2--Social-Emotional Assessment (1993, VHS, 120 minutes, PSU) Five psychologists discuss their views of social-emotional assessment. Assessment and Prevention of Aggressive Behaviors in Patients (1993, VHS, 30 minutes, FAV) Aggressive behavior is defined and described. Behavioral indicators used to assess a client's potential for aggressive behavior are identified and interventions are discussed. Observation (1993, VHS, 27 minutes, MS). This film presents a rationale for behavioral observation as well as other observational methods. The pros and cons associated with such methods are also discussed. REFERENCES Lykken, D. T. (1998). A tremor in the blood: Uses and abuses of the lie detector. New York: Plenum Press. Peterson, R. J., Safer, M. A., & Jobes, D. A. (2008). The impact of suicidal rock music lyrics on youth: An investigation of individual differences. Archives of Suicide Research, 12, 161–169. Solution Manual for Psychological Testing and Assessment Ronald Jay Cohen, Mark E. Swerdlik, Edward D. Sturman 9780077649814, 9781259870507