CHAPTER 4 SOCIALIZATION AND THE LIFE COURSE CHAPTER OUTLINE THE ROLE OF SOCIALIZATION Social Environment: The Impact of Isolation The Influence of Heredity THE SELF AND SOCIALIZATION Sociological Approaches to the Self Psychological Approaches to the Self AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION Family School Peer Group Mass Media and Technology Workplace Religion and the State SOCIALIZATION THROUGHOUT THE LIFE COURSE The Life Course Anticipatory Socialization and Resocialization ROLE TRANSITIONS THROUGHOUT THE LIFE COURSE The Sandwich Generation Adjusting to Retirement SOCIAL POLICY AND SOCIALIZATION: CHILD CARE AROUND THE WORLD Boxes Sociology on Campus: Impression Management by Students Research Today: Rum Springa: Raising Children Amish Style Taking Sociology to Work: Rakefet Avramovitz, Program Administrator, Child Care Law Center Sociology on Campus: Unplugging the Media: What Happens? LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 4 1. Explain the role of socialization in shaping human behavior and attitudes. 2. Describe the effects of isolation on the social development of young children. 3. Explain what twin studies suggest about the effects of heredity and environment on social development. 4. Summarize the contributions of Cooley, Mead, and Goffman regarding the role of social interaction in the development of the sense of self. 5. List and summarize seven major agents of socialization. 6. Explain how culture, race, and gender can influence the way families socialize their children. 7. Compare and contrast the conflict and functionalist explanations of the role of schools as socializing agents. 8. Summarize the influence of peer groups on socialization. 9. Describe the increasing impact of media and technology on socialization. 10. Summarize the socializing roles of religion and the state. 11. Explain the role of socialization through the life course. 12. Analyze through a sociological lens the impact of child care on socialization. • Opening excerpt, “The Challenge,” by military journalist Jim Garamone • Updated and expanded coverage of Romanian orphans, with photo • Updated discussion of the effect of young people’s use of social media on their socialization • Sociology on Campus box, “Unplugging the Media: What Happens?” with figure, “Responses to a Day without Media” • Discussion of the cost and availability of broadband Internet service in developing countries • Updated discussion of the life events marking the passage to adulthood, with new Use Your Sociological Imagination exercise • Discussion of the recent reversal of the trend toward early retirement and the reasons for it • Discussion of the pressing need for day care in Japan • Expanded discussion of the public policy perspective on day care CHAPTER SUMMARY Socialization is the process whereby people learn the attitudes, values, and behaviors appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture. Socialization occurs through human interaction and helps us to discover how to behave properly. It provides for the transmission of culture from one generation to the next. Socialization ensures the long-term continuance of a society. Human development is greatly influenced by socialization. Under normal circumstances, environmental factors interact with hereditary factors. Case studies—such as those of Isabelle and the Romanian orphans—and primate studies support the necessity of socialization in development. Conversely, twin studies have addressed the influence of hereditary factors on personality development. The self is a distinct identity that sets us apart from others. It continues to develop and change throughout our lives. Sociologists Charles Horton Cooley, George Herbert Mead (pioneers of the interactionist approach), and Erving Goffman have all furthered our understanding about development of the self. Cooley’s looking-glass self suggests that our sense of self results from how we present ourselves to others, how others evaluate us, and how we internalize or assess those evaluations. Mead outlined a process by which the self emerges in early childhood: the preparatory stage, in which children merely imitate those around them; the play stage, in which children become aware of symbols and begin to act out the roles of other people; and the game stage, in which children become involved in complex social situations involving multiple positions or roles. Instrumental to Mead’s view are the concepts of the generalized other (attitudes, viewpoints, and expectations of society) and significant others (individuals most important in development of the self). Goffman suggested that many of our daily activities involve attempts to convey impressions (impression management) of who we are. His view has been termed the dramaturgical approach. Psychologists, such as Sigmund Freud, have stressed the role of inborn drives in the development of the self. Child psychologist Jean Piaget identified four stages of personality development in his cognitive theory of development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational). Piaget viewed social interaction as key to development. Lifelong socialization involves many different social forces and agents of socialization. Family is considered the most important of the socialization agents. Schools are another agent of socialization concerned with teaching students the values and customs of the larger society. Peer groups often serve as a transitional source to adulthood. The mass media have an impact on the socialization process that sociologists have also begun to consider. Workplaces can serve as socialization agents by teaching appropriate behavior within an occupational environment. Additionally, social scientists have increasingly recognized the importance of religion and the state as agents of socialization, because of their growing impact on the life course. Sociologists use the life course approach in recognizing that biological changes mold but do not dictate human behavior. Over the course of our lives, we may encounter points at which certain stages are dramatized or validated outwardly; these stages are known as rites of passage. Two types of socialization occur: anticipatory socialization (refers to the process of rehearsing for future roles), and resocialization (refers to discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones). Resocialization is particularly intense when it occurs within a total institution, an institution that regulates all aspects of a person’s life under a single authority. Goffman identified four common traits of total institutions. Goffman suggested people often lose their individuality within total institutions and may undergo what is known as a degradation ceremony. LECTURE OUTLINE Introduction • Excerpt from “The Challenge” by Jim Garamone I. The Role of Socialization • The nature vs. nurture debate has evolved to a general acceptance of interaction between the variables of heredity, environment, and socialization. A. Social Environment: The Impact of Isolation • The need for human interaction is evident in actual case studies. 1. Extreme Isolation: Isabelle • Isabelle lived in seclusion for six years. She could not speak and did not display reactions or emotions typical of humans. After a period of intense language and behavioral therapy, Isabelle became well adjusted. 2. Extreme Neglect: Romanian Orphans • Babies in orphanages lay in cribs for 18 to 20 hours a day, with little care from adults. The children grew up fearful of human contact and prone to antisocial behavior. They have made progress with supervision from attentive caregivers and specialists. 3. Primate Studies • Harry Harlow tested rhesus monkeys for the effects of isolation and concluded that isolation had a damaging effect on the monkeys. B. The Influence of Heredity • Twin studies reveal that both genetic factors and socialization experiences are influential in human development. Example: Oskar Stohr and Jack Yufe • The validity of twin studies has been questioned because of the small sample sizes. II. The Self and Socialization • The self is a distinct identity that sets each of us apart from others. The interactionist perspective is useful in understanding development of the self. A. Sociological Approaches to the Self 1. Cooley: Looking-Glass Self • According to Cooley, the self is a product of social interactions with others. There are three phases in the looking-glass self: (1) We imagine how we present ourselves to others; (2) we imagine how others evaluate us; and (3) we develop a feeling about ourselves. Example: A student’s sense of self is changed after receiving criticism from a teacher. 2. Mead: Stages of the Self • The preparatory stage (also known as the “mimic stage”) consists of children imitating people around them. Gradually, children begin to understand the use of symbols. • The play stage consists of children pretending to be other people, like an actor “becoming” a character. Role-taking is the process of mentally assuming the perspective of another and responding from that imagined viewpoint. Through role-taking, children learn to see the world from the perspectives of other people. • During the game stage, children grasp their own social positions, as well as everyone else’s position around them. Games serve as a microcosm of society. Through this process, children learn to assume their position (or status) relative to the positions of others. • The term generalized other refers to the attitudes, viewpoints, and expectations of others in society that an individual takes into account before acting in particular way. Example: Children behave differently with other children on the playground than they do if they are having Thanksgiving dinner with family members in a formal dining room. 3. Mead: The Theory of the Self • Children picture themselves as the focus of everything around them. As people mature, the self changes and begins to consider the reactions of others. • Mead used the term significant others to refer to those individuals who are most important in the person’s development. 4. Goffman: Presentation of the Self • Impression management involves an individual slanting his or her presentation of the self to create a distinctive appearance and to satisfy particular audiences. • The dramaturgical approach is based on people behaving as actors by putting forth an image believed to be pleasing to others. • Goffman’s face-work involves people trying to maintain or save an image or face. Examples: An individual may feign employment to avoid embarrassment. We may choose to ignore a pedestrian who stumbles on a sidewalk in order to assist that individual in his or her presentation of self. B. Psychological Approaches to the Self • Freud stressed the role of inborn drives. The self has components that work in opposition to each other. Part of us seeks limitless pleasure, while another part seeks rational behavior. • Piaget found that newborns have no sense of a looking-glass self. In his theory of cognitive development, Piaget identified four stages of child development: (1) sensorimotor stage (child uses senses to make discoveries), (2) preoperational stage (child begins to use words and symbols), (3) concrete operational stage (child engages in more logical thinking), and (4) formal operational stage (adolescent is capable of sophisticated abstract thought, and can deal with ideas and values in a logical manner). • Social interaction is the key to development. III. Agents of Socialization A. Family • Family is the most important socializing agent. Parents minister to the baby’s needs by feeding, cleansing, carrying, and comforting. • Parents guide children into gender roles deemed appropriate by society. B. School • Schools have an explicit mandate to socialize children to societal norms. • Functionalists indicate schools fulfill a function by socializing children, whereas conflict theorists suggest schools reinforce divisive aspects of society, especially social class. Example: A teacher praising boys may reinforce sexist attitudes. C. Peer Group • As a child grows older, family becomes somewhat less important in social development, while peer groups increasingly assume the role of Mead’s significant others. D. Mass Media and Technology • Television can be both a negative and a positive influence on children. • Additional impact of the Internet, cell phones, and pagers E. Workplace • We learn to behave appropriately within an occupation. • The U.S. has the highest level of teenage employment of all industrialized nations, with growing concern regarding adverse effects of work on schooling. • Workplace socialization changes when a person shifts to full-time employment. F. Religion and the State • State-run agencies are increasingly influential in life course. • Government and organized religion have reinstituted some of the rites of passage once observed in earlier societies. IV. Socialization throughout the Life Course A. The Life Course • Celebrating rites of passage is a means of dramatizing and validating changes in a person’s status. • The life course approach looks closely at the social factors that influence people throughout their lives, from birth to death, including gender and income. Certain life events like marriage, completion of schooling, and birth of one’s first child mark the passage into adulthood. B. Anticipatory Socialization and Resocialization • Anticipatory socialization refers to a person rehearsing for a role they will likely assume in the future. Example: high school students preparing for college by looking at college websites • Resocialization refers to discarding the former sense of self and behavior patterns and accepting new behavior patterns. Examples: prisons, indoctrination camps, and religious conversions • Goffman suggested resocialization is particularly effective in a total institutional environment (prisons, mental hospitals, and military organizations). • Individuality is often lost in total institutions, as the individual becomes secondary in the environment and experiences the humiliations of degradation ceremonies. V. Role Transitions throughout the Life Course • Role transitions are transitional stages during the life course, i.e. entering adulthood, midlife crisis. A. The Sandwich Generation • This refers to adults who are trying to meet the competing needs of their parents and children. B. Adjusting to Retirement • The retirement stage today is complicated by economic deterioration. 1. Phases of Retirement • Robert Atchley’s phases of retirement: preretirement, the near phase, the honeymoon phase, the disenchantment phase, the reorientation phase, the stability phase, the termination phase. 2. Naturally Occurring Retirement Communities • These involve the congregation of older Americans in areas that have gradually become informal centers for senior citizens. VI. (Box) Social Policy and Socialization: Childcare around the World A. Looking at the Issue • Day-care centers have become the functional equivalent of the nuclear family. Seventy-three percent of employed mothers depend on others to care for their children, and 30 percent of mothers who aren’t employed have regular care arrangements. • Research suggests good day care benefits children. • There are no significant differences between infants who receive extensive non-maternal care vs. those who are cared for solely by their mothers. B. Applying Sociology • Conflict theorists raise concerns about the cost of day care, especially for lower-class families. • Feminist theorists suggest that funded child care is opposed because it would facilitate women’s employment (and thus, their ability to compete with men economically). C. Initiating Policy • Sweden and Denmark subsidize childcare for one-third to one-half of children under age three. • In the U.S., child care workers often only make about $19,605 annually. KEY TERMS Anticipatory socialization Processes of socialization in which a person “rehearses” for future positions, occupations, and social relationships. Cognitive theory of development Jean Piaget’s theory that children’s thought progresses through four stages of development. Degradation ceremony An aspect of the socialization process within total institutions, in which people are subjected to humiliating rituals. Dramaturgical approach A view of social interaction in which people are seen as theatrical performers. Face-work The efforts of people to maintain the proper image and avoid public embarrassment. Gender role Expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females. Generalized other The attitudes, viewpoints, and expectations of society as a whole that a child takes into account in his or her behavior. Impression management The altering of the presentation of the self in order to create distinctive appearances and satisfy particular audiences. Life course approach A research orientation in which sociologists and other social scientists look closely at the social factors that influence people throughout their lives, from birth to death. Looking-glass self A concept that emphasizes the self as the product of social interactions. Midlife crisis A stressful period of self-evaluation that begins at about age 40. Naturally occurring retirement community (NORC) An area that has gradually become an informal center for senior citizens. Personality A person’s typical patterns of attitudes, needs, characteristics, and behavior. Resocialization The process of discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones as part of a transition in one’s life. Rite of passage Ritual marking the symbolic transition from one social position to another. Role taking The process of mentally assuming the perspective of another and responding from that imagined viewpoint. Sandwich generation The generation of adults who simultaneously try to meet the competing needs of their parents and their children. Self A distinct identity that sets us apart from others. Significant other An individual who is most important in the development of the self, such as a parent, friend, or teacher. Socialization The lifelong process in which people learn the attitudes, values, and behaviors appropriate for members of a particular culture. Total institution An institution that regulates all aspects of a person’s life under a single authority, such as a prison, the military, a mental hospital, or a convent. CHAPTER 5 SOCIAL INTERACTION, GROUPS, AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE CHAPTER OUTLINE SOCIAL INTERACTION AND REALITY ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE Statuses Social Roles Groups Social Networks Social Institutions UNDERSTANDING ORGANIZATIONS Formal Organizations and Bureaucracies Characteristics of a Bureaucracy Bureaucracy and Organizational Culture SOCIAL STRUCTURE IN GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE Durkheim’s Mechanical and Organic Solidarity Tönnies’s Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach SOCIAL POLICY AND ORGANIZATIONS: THE STATE OF THE UNIONS WORLDWIDE Boxes Research Today: Disability as a Master Status Taking Sociology to Work: Sarah Levy, Owner, S. Levy Foods Research Today: Social Networks and Obesity Sociology in the Global Community: McDonald’s and the Worldwide Bureaucratization of Society Sociology in the Global Community: Disney World: A Postmodern Theme Park LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 5 1. Explain the relationship between social reality and social interaction. 2. List and summarize the five elements of social structure. 3. Explain how ascribed status and master status can constrain achieved status. 4. Give examples of role conflict, role strain, and role exit. 5. Differentiate among the five different types of groups. 6. Analyze the functionalist, interactionist, and conflict views of social institutions. 7. Describe the pitfalls and benefits of social networks and virtual worlds. 8. Describe Durkheim’s, Tönnies’s, and Lenski’s approaches to classifying forms of social structure. 9. List and describe the five basic characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy according to Weber. • Opening excerpt from “Pathology of Imprisonment” by Philip Zimbardo • Taking Sociology to Work box, “Sarah Levy, Owner, S. Levy Foods” • Discussion of research on the importance of group solidarity following the shootings at Virginia Tech in 2007 • Explanation of the difference between social networks and social media • Discussion of the perceived need to reform the process of bureaucratization in China • Thinking Critically exercise • Sociology in the Global Community box, “Disney World: A Postmodern Theme Park,” with key term treatment of Jean Baudrillard’s concept of hyperconsumerism • Social Policy section, “The State of the Unions Worldwide,” with figure, “Labor Union Membership Worldwide” CHAPTER SUMMARY Social interaction refers to the ways in which people respond to one another. Social structure refers to the way a society is organized into predictable relationships. Both social interaction and social structure are central to understanding how different aspects of behavior are related to one another. Our response to someone’s behavior is based on the meaning we attach to his/her actions. Reality is shaped by our perceptions, evaluations, and definitions. The ability to define social reality reflects a group’s power within a society. Sociologists use the term status to refer to any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society. Sociologically, status does not refer to prestige. Any position, whether deemed good or bad, positive or negative, is a status. A person can hold a number of statuses at the same time. An ascribed status is assigned to a person by society without regard for the person’s unique talents or characteristics, generally at birth. An achieved status is attained by a person largely through his or her own efforts. A master status dominates other statuses and thereby determines a person’s general position within society. A social role is a set of expectations for people who occupy a given social position or status. Role conflict occurs when incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by the same person. Role strain is a term used to describe the difficulty that arises when the same social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations. The process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s self-identity in order to establish a new role and identity is referred to as role exit. A group is any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who regularly and consciously interact. Groups play an important part in a society’s structure. Much of our social interaction takes place within groups and is influenced by their norms and sanctions. Primary groups are small groups characterized by intimate, face-to-face interaction and socialization; secondary groups are more formal, impersonal groups in which there is little social intimacy or mutual understanding. An in-group can be defined as any group or category to which people feel they belong, whereas an out-group is any group or category to which people do not think they belong. Sociologists call any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior a reference group. Group growth can result in coalitions—temporary or permanent alliances geared toward a common goal. Members of different groups make connections through a series of social relationships known as a social network. With advances in technology, we can now maintain social networks electronically; we don’t need face-to-face contact. Social institutions are organized patterns of beliefs and behavior centered on basic social needs. Functionalists view social institutions as necessary for the survival of society in meeting the basic needs of its members. Conflict theorists suggest that social institutions maintain the privileges of the most powerful individuals and groups within a society. Interactionists emphasize that our social behavior is conditioned by the roles and statuses that we accept, the groups to which we belong, and the institutions within which we function. As contemporary societies have become more complex, our lives have become dominated by formal organizations—groups designed for a special purpose and structured for maximum efficiency. Formal organizations fulfill an enormous variety of personal and societal needs, shaping the lives of every one of us. Ascribed statuses such as gender, race, and ethnicity can influence how we see ourselves within formal organizations. A bureaucracy is a component of formal organization that uses rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency. Max Weber was the first theorist to concentrate on bureaucracy, using the concept of ideal type to construct and model specific cases. Weber argued that ideal bureaucracies always have five basic characteristics: division of labor, hierarchy of authority, written rules and regulations, impersonality, and employment based on technical qualifications. An organization’s bureaucracy can also grow over time; sociologists call this process bureaucratization. The conflict theorist Robert Michels argued that bureaucratization eventually reaches a stage in which an oligarchy develops. Sociologists also study organizational and bureaucratic culture. The classical theory of formal organizations (scientific management approach) posits that workers are motivated almost entirely by economic rewards. The more recent human relations approach emphasizes the role of people, communication, and participation in a bureaucracy. Émile Durkheim developed the concepts of mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity to describe the kind of consciousness that develops in societies where there is a simple or complex division of labor, respectively. Ferdinand Tönnies used the term Gemeinschaft to refer to a small, close-knit community, typical of rural life, where people have similar backgrounds and life experiences. Conversely, the Gesellschaft is an ideal type characteristic of modern urban life. Here, most people are strangers who feel little in common with one another. In contrast to Tönnies’s perspective, Gerhard Lenski viewed societies as undergoing change according to a dominant pattern known as sociocultural evolution. His view suggests that a society’s level of technology is critical to the way it is organized. The hunting-and-gathering society, the horticultural society, and the agrarian society are three types of preindustrial societies. An industrial society depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services. A postindustrial society’s economic system is engaged primarily in the processing and control of information. A postmodern society is a technologically sophisticated society that is preoccupied with consumer goods and media images. At the macro-level of analysis, we see society shifting to more advanced forms of technology. The social structure becomes complex and new social institutions emerge to assume some functions previously performed by family. On the micro-level of analysis, these changes affect the nature of social interactions between people. People come to rely more on social networks, rather than solely on kinship ties. LECTURE OUTLINE Introduction • Excerpt from “Pathology of Imprisonment” by Philip Zimbardo I. Social Interaction and Reality • Social interaction refers to the way people respond to one another. • Social structure refers to the way in which a society is organized into predictable relationships. The linkage of social interaction and social structure is central to sociological study. They are closely related to socialization. • Social reality is literally constructed from our social interactions. • The ability to define social reality reflects a group’s power within society. Example: William I. Thomas’s “definition of the situation” II. Elements of Social Structure A. Statuses • Status refers to any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society. A number of statuses can be held at the same time. Examples: U.S. president, son or daughter, dental technician, neighbor 1. Ascribed and Achieved Status • Ascribed status is generally assigned at birth without regard to a person’s unique talents or characteristics. Ascribed statuses are assigned; they are not chosen. Therefore, they are said to be involuntary. Examples: race, gender, age (note, however, that sociologists have long challenged the notion of “race” as a biological category; furthermore, with technological advancements, sex is no longer necessarily ascribed) • Achieved status comes to us largely through our own efforts. Examples: lawyer, pianist, convict, social worker 2. Master Status • A master status dominates other statuses and thereby determines a person’s general position within society. Example: Arthur Ashe, who died of AIDS B. Social Roles 1. What Are Social Roles? • A social role is a set of expectations for people who occupy a given social position or status. Roles are a significant component of social structure. Example: Police are expected to protect us and apprehend criminals. 2. Role Conflict • Role conflict occurs when incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by the same person. Example: newly-promoted worker who carries on a relationship with his or her former workgroup • It may also occur among individuals moving into occupations that are not common among people with their ascribed status. Examples: female police officers and male preschool teachers 3. Role Strain • Role strain refers to a situation in which the same social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations. Example: alternative forms of justice among Navajo police officers 4. Role Exit • Role exit is the process of disengaging from a role that is central to one’s self-identity. • Ebaugh developed a four-stage model: (1) doubt, (2) search for alternatives, (3) action stage or departure, and (4) creation of a new identity. Examples: graduating from high school or college; retirement; divorce C. Groups • A group consists of any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact with one another on a regular basis. Examples: sports team, college sorority, hospital business office, symphony orchestra • Groups play a vital role in social structure. 1. Primary and Secondary Groups • A primary group is a small group characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation. Primary groups play a pivotal role both in the socialization process and in the development of roles and statuses. • A secondary group is a formal, impersonal group in which there is little social intimacy or mutual understanding. • The distinction between primary and secondary groups is not always clear-cut. 2. In-Groups and Out-Groups • A in-group is any group or category to which people feel they belong. Members typically feel distinct and superior; and see themselves at better than those of an out-group. Examples: a teenage clique; an entire society • An out-group is a group or category to which people feel they do not belong. 3. Reference Groups • A reference group is any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior. Example: A high school student who aspires to join a social circle of hip-hop music devotees will pattern his or her behavior after that group. 4. Coalitions • A coalition is a temporary or permanent alliance geared toward a common goal. Example: a community-based organization that has banded together to work for street improvements D. Social Networks • A social network is a series of social relationships that links a person directly to others, and through them indirectly to still more people. Examples: networking for employment, exchanging news and gossip • Influence of the Internet on social networks; during economic downturns, facilitates social networks for job searching and mutual emotional support • Broadly speaking, social networks encompass all the routine social interaction we have with other individuals. E. Social Institutions • Social institutions are organized patterns of beliefs and behavior centered on meeting basic social needs, such as replacing personnel (the family) and preserving order (the government). 1. Functionalist Perspective • Five major tasks or functional prerequisites have been identified: (1) replacing personnel, (2) teaching new recruits, (3) producing and distributing goods and services, (4) preserving order, and (5) providing and maintaining a sense of purpose. Example: Patriotism assists people in maintaining a sense of purpose. • Any society or relatively permanent group must attempt to satisfy all these functional prerequisites for survival. 2. Conflict Perspective • The conflict perspective does not agree with functionalists that the outcome of meeting basic needs is necessarily efficient and desirable for all members of society. • Major institutions maintain the privileges of the most powerful individuals and groups within a society, while contributing to the powerlessness of others. Example: Public schools are financed largely by property taxes, so affluent areas have better-equipped schools and better-paid teachers. • Social institutions have an inherently conservative nature. • Social institutions operate in gendered and racist environments. • Social changes are needed to promote equality. 3. Interactionist Perspective • Behavior is conditioned by roles and statuses that we accept, the groups to which we belong, and the institutions within which we function. Example: The status of a judge is in relation to other statuses. III. Understanding Organizations A. Formal Organizations and Bureaucracies • A formal organization is a group designed for a special purpose and structured for maximum efficiency. Example: the U.S. Postal Service • Formal organizations have a bureaucratic form; and now have enormous influence over our lives and society. B. Characteristics of a Bureaucracy • Bureaucracy is a component of formal organization that uses rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency. Max Weber first noted the significance of bureaucratic structure, emphasizing the basic similarity of structure and process found in the otherwise dissimilar enterprises of religion, government, education, and business. • For analytical purposes, Weber developed the “ideal type”—a construct or model for evaluating specific cases. Weber’s idea bureaucracy had five characteristics: 1. Division of labor • Can produce alienation—a condition of estrangement or dissociation from the surrounding society • Can lead to trained incapacity—workers become so specialized that they develop blind spots and fail to notice obvious problems. 2. Hierarchy of authority 3. Written rules and regulations • Can create goal displacement—overzealous conformity to official regulations 4. Impersonality 5. Employment based on technical qualifications • Laurence J. Peter developed the “Peter principle”—every employee within a hierarchy tends to rise to his or her level of incompetence 1. Bureaucratization as a Process • Bureaucratization is the process by which a group, organization, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic. 2. Oligarchy: Rule by a Few • Theorist Robert Michels developed the iron law of oligarchy, which describes how even a democratic organization will eventually develop into a bureaucracy ruled by a few, called an oligarchy. C. Bureaucracy and Organizational Culture • According to the classical theory of formal organizations, or “scientific management approach,” workers are motivated almost entirely by economic rewards. • The development of unions caused theorists to revise the classical approach and to consider the impact of informal groups of workers. The “human relations approach” emphasizes the role of people, communication, and participation in a bureaucracy. IV. Social Structure in Global Perspective A. Durkheim’s Mechanical and Organic Solidarity • Mechanical solidarity exists in societies with a minimal division of labor. A collective consciousness develops that emphasizes group solidarity. • Organic solidarity exists in societies with a complex division of labor. It emphasizes mutual interdependence among groups and institutions—in much the same way as organs of the body are interdependent. B. Tönnies’s Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft • The Gemeinschaft community is typical of rural life. Social interactions are intimate and familiar. There is a strong feeling of community; persons are not driven by self-interest but by the needs of the whole. Informal sanctions may serve to enforce social norms (since individuals are not protected by anonymity). • The Gesellschaft is an ideal type characteristic of modern life. Most people are strangers and feel little in common with one another. See Table 5-4. C. Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach • Lenski views human societies as undergoing a process of change characterized by a dominant pattern known as sociocultural evolution: long-term trends in societies resulting from the interplay of continuity, innovation, and selection. See Table 5-5. • Technology is critical to the way society is organized. As technology advances, a community evolves from a preindustrial to an industrial and finally a postindustrial society. 1. Preindustrial Societies • Hunting-and-gathering societies rely on available foods; technology is minimal. • Horticultural societies plant seeds and grow crops rather than subsist only on available foods. • Agrarian societies increase crop yields, and technological innovations are more dramatic (e.g., the plow). Their social structure has more carefully defined roles than that of horticultural society. 2. Industrial Societies • Society depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services. • These societies are reliant on new inventions that facilitate agricultural and industrial production, and on new sources of energy. 3. Postindustrial and Postmodern Societies • A postindustrial society is technologically advanced. Its economic system is primarily engaged in processing and controlling information. Its main output is services. • Postmodern society is technologically sophisticated and preoccupied with consumer goods and media images. • Postmodern theorists take a global perspective, noting ways that culture crosses national boundaries. Examples: In the United States, people listen to reggae music from Jamaica, eat sushi and other Japanese foods; and there are Disney Worlds in Paris and Tokyo. V. (Box) Social Policy and Organizations: The State of the Unions Worldwide A. Looking at the Issue • Labor unions consist of organized workers who share either the same skill or the same employer. • They have historically been restrictive and discriminatory in their practices; today in some industries unions help keep wages competitive across races. • Labor union strength varies wildly across countries, but it is declining worldwide for the following reasons: 1. Changes in the type of industry 2. Growth in part-time jobs 3. The legal system 4. Globalization 5. Employer offensives B. Applying Sociology • Compared with their early incarnations, unions have become increasingly bureaucratized under self-serving leadership • Recent declines in private sector union membership have been linked to a widening gap between hourly workers’ wages and managerial and executive compensation. C. Initiating Policy • U.S. law grants workers the right to unionize, but it is unique in allowing employers to actively oppose unionization. Many elected officials are also seeking to reduce union power. • In Europe, unions are powerful and are a key part of the electoral process. • Unions in China are far more likely to listen to the government than would independent unions in other countries. KEY TERMS Achieved status A social position that a person attains largely through his or her own efforts. Agrarian society The most technologically advanced form of preindustrial society. Members engage primarily in the production of food, but increase their crop yields through technological innovations such as the plow. Alienation A condition of estrangement or dissociation from the surrounding society. Ascribed status A social position assigned to a person by society without regard for the person’s unique talents or characteristics. Bureaucracy A component of formal organization that uses rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency. Bureaucratization The process by which a group, organization, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic. Classical theory An approach to the study of formal organizations that views workers as being motivated almost entirely by economic rewards. Coalition A temporary or permanent alliance geared toward a common goal. Formal organization A group designed for a special purpose and structured for maximum efficiency. Gemeinschaft A close-knit community, often found in rural areas, in which strong personal bonds unite members. Gesellschaft A community, often urban, that is large and impersonal, with little commitment to the group or consensus on values. Goal displacement Overzealous conformity to official regulations of a bureaucracy. Group Any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact with one another on a regular basis. Horticultural society A preindustrial society in which people plant seeds and crops rather than merely subsist on available foods. Human relations approach An approach to the study of formal organizations that emphasizes the role of people, communication, and participation in a bureaucracy and tends to focus on the informal structure of the organization. Hunting-and-gathering society A preindustrial society in which people rely on whatever foods and fibers are readily available in order to survive. Hyperconsumerism The practice of buying more than we need or want, and often more than we can afford; a preoccupation of postmodern consumers. Ideal type A construct or model for evaluating specific cases. Industrial society A society that depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services. In-group Any group or category to which people feel they belong. Iron law of oligarchy A principle of organizational life under which even a democratic organization will eventually develop into a bureaucracy ruled by a few individuals. Labor union Organized workers who share either the same skill or the same employer. Master status A status that dominates others and thereby determines a person’s general position in society. McDonalization The process by which the principles of bureaucratization have increasingly shaped organizations worldwide. Mechanical solidarity A collective consciousness that emphasizes group solidarity, characteristic of societies with minimal division of labor. Organic solidarity A collective consciousness that rests on mutual interdependence, characteristic of societies with a complex division of labor. Out-group A group or category to which people feel they do not belong. Peter principle A principle of organizational life according to which every employee within a hierarchy tends to rise to his or her level of incompetence. Postindustrial society A society whose economic system is engaged primarily in the processing and control of information. Postmodern society A technologically sophisticated society that is preoccupied with consumer goods and media images. Primary group A small group characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation. Reference group Any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior. Role conflict The situation that occurs when incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by the same person. Role exit The process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s self-identity in order to establish a new role and identity. Role strain The difficulty that arises when the same social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations. Scientific management approach Another name for the classical theory of formal organizations. Secondary group A formal, impersonal group in which there is little social intimacy or mutual understanding. Social institution An organized pattern of beliefs and behavior centered on basic social needs. Social interaction The ways in which people respond to one another. Social network A series of social relationships that links a person directly to others, and through them indirectly to still more people. Social role A set of expectations for people who occupy a given social position or status. Social structure The way in which a society is organized into predictable relationships. Sociocultural evolution Long-term trends in societies resulting from the interplay of continuity, innovation, and selection. Status A term used by sociologists to refer to any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society. Technology Cultural information about the ways in which the material resources of the environment may be used to satisfy human needs and desires. Trained incapacity The tendency of workers in a bureaucracy to become so specialized that they develop blind spots and fail to notice obvious problems. CHAPTER 6 THE MASS MEDIA CHAPTER OUTLINE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE MEDIA Functionalist Perspective Conflict Perspective Feminist Perspective Interactionist Perspective THE AUDIENCE Who Is in the Audience? The Segmented Audience Audience Behavior THE MEDIA’S GLOBAL REACH SOCIAL POLICY AND THE MASS MEDIA: THE RIGHT TO PRIVACY Boxes Our Wired World: Inside the Bubble: Internet Search Filters Taking Sociology to Work: Lindsey Wallem, Social Media Consultant Sociology in the Global Community: The Global Disconnect Our Wired World: Charity Begins Online LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 6 1. Describe the functions of the mass media, according to the functionalist view. 2. Explain narcotizing dysfunction, according to the functionalist view of the mass media. 3. Summarize how conflict theorists view the mass media as reflecting and exacerbating divisions in our society and world. 4. List and summarize the three problems that feminists believe arise from media coverage. 5. Identify examples of ways in which the media shape our day-to-day social behavior, according to the interactionist theory. 6. Compare and contrast the functional, conflict, interactionist, and feminist views of the mass media. 7. Summarize the various aspects of an audience from both micro-level and macro-level views. 8. Describe the global nature of the media and their effects on society. 9. Analyze the pros and cons of creating social policy that regulates media concentration. • Opening excerpt from Electronic Media by Lynne Gross • Inclusion of IMDb in table, “Status Conferred by the Media” • Description of the Chinese government’s efforts to minimize online dissent • Discussion of the portrayal of homosexuality (or the lack of it) in the mass media from the perspective of queer theory • Discussion of hyper-local media, with key term treatment • Discussion of Rwanda’s effort to develop its economy by encouraging investment in information and communications technologies • Discussion of the mass media as a form of social capital • Discussion of crowdsourcing as a way to encourage mobile giving, with key term treatment • Revised figure, “Who’s On the Internet” • Revised figure, “Media Penetration in Selected Countries,” including cell phones, the Internet, and social networking • Discussion of the monitoring of text messages by public health researchers in Kenya to track the spread of malaria • Thoroughly revised Social Policy section, “The Right to Privacy,” including discussion of (a) Edward Snowden’s revelations about the National Security Agency’s collection of massive amounts of data on ordinary citizens, with key term treatment of Charles Tilly’s concept of big data; (b) the approval of “tower dumps,” or the indiscriminate collection of information from all cell phones in an area, by subpoena only; and (c) the installation of data-recording sensors on appliances, security badges, and other objects CHAPTER SUMMARY The term mass media refers to print and electronic means of communication that carry messages to widespread audiences. The function of the mass media is not limited to entertainment. The mass media also socialize us, enforce social norms, confer status, promote consumption, and keep us informed about our social environment. An important dysfunction of the mass media is that they may act as a narcotic, desensitizing us to distressing events. The functionalist view of the mass media emphasizes the role of the media in reaffirming proper behavior by depicting what happens to people who act in ways that violate social expectations. The media play a critical role in shaping perceptions about the risks of substance abuse. The media are capable of conferring status on people, organizations, and public issues. In addition to its functions, the media can be dysfunctional. They promote consumption, even helping some societies reach the level of hyperconsumerism, in which a population buys more than it needs or even wants. The narcotizing dysfunction refers to the phenomenon whereby the media provide such massive amounts of information that the audience becomes numb and generally fails to act on the information. The conflict view is that the media reflect many of the divisions within society and the world, including those based on gender, race, ethnicity, and social class. The media serve to reinforce dominant views and to justify the position of the powerful. Gatekeeping refers to the idea that media material must travel through a series of checkpoints (or “gates”) before it reaches the public. The conflict view suggests that the gatekeeping process reflects a desire to maximize profits, and that the content that makes it through the gates does not reflect the diversity of the audience. Media monitoring most often refers to the monitoring of media content by interest groups. But with new technologies, it now includes monitoring of individuals’ media usage and choices without their knowledge, raising concerns about the invasion of people’s privacy. The term dominant ideology describes the set of cultural beliefs and practices that helps to maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests. The media transmit images that virtually define what we regard as the real world. Mass media decision makers are overwhelmingly White, male, and wealthy. Media content may create false images or stereotypes of particular groups, which become accepted as accurate portrayals of reality. Queer theorists have long studied the stigmatization of gays and lesbians in the media. U.S. media have a dominant reach into the rest of the world, though foreign media productions have also become more and more successful in the U.S. market. The development of hyper-local media is a recent counter trend, aided by the growth of online media. Feminists continue the argument advanced by conflict theorists that the mass media stereotype and misrepresent social reality. The media provide a powerful influence on how we look at men and women. Feminists suggest that women are underrepresented and traditionally portrayed as over-sexualized, shallow, and less skilled than men. The issue of porn is particularly troubling for feminists. Recent studies on the use of the Internet by women and men suggest that the use of websites differs by gender in fundamental ways. Interactionists like to view mass media in the context of social capital, which is the collective benefit of social networks. The development of online social networks is of particular interest, as they offer us near constant connectivity with others. They have been shown to promote consumption, develop new friendship networks, and help in philanthropy. However, they also have negative consequences, like allowing coordination among extremists or terrorists and facilitating the sexual exploitation of minors. The media can target certain groups by identifying and segmenting the audience. An opinion leader is someone who, through day-to-day personal contacts and communication, influences the opinions and decisions of others. Increasingly, the media are marketing themselves to a particular audience—segmenting populations through targeted advertising. The global reach of the media has indeed begun to create a global village in terms of communication. Consumer goods are vigorously marketed worldwide, and national boundaries are crossed effortlessly with a mere keystroke. Even though media and technology saturation is powerful in much of the world, many developing countries still lack widespread access to the Internet or even personal televisions. LECTURE OUTLINE Introduction • Excerpt from Electronic Media by Lynne Gross I. Sociological Perspectives on the Media A. Functionalist Perspective • The media entertain us, socialize us, enforce social norms, confer status, and promote consumption. • A dysfunction of the media is that, over time, too much information is disseminated and viewers become desensitized. The media essentially act as a narcotic. 1. Agent of Socialization • The media increase social cohesion by presenting a standardized view of culture. Example: Robert Park’s study of newspapers and immigrants. • The showing of media events can bring people together. • Many worry about the media’s socialization function, particularly their impact on adolescents; some simply blame the media for anything that goes wrong in society. But the media can also have positive effects on young people. 2. Enforcer of Social Norms • Media reaffirm proper behavior by showing what happens to people who violate societal expectations. Example: Criminals are captured and thrown in jail on the popular program CSI. • The media also play a critical role in human sexuality. 3. Conferral of Status • Media confer status on people, organizations, and public issues. See Table 6-1. 4. Promotion of Consumption • Postmodern societies are characterized by hyperconsumerism, which refers to the practice of buying more than we want or need. • Advertising has become more and more prominently embedded in the media. • Media advertising includes the following functions: supporting the economy, providing information about products, underwriting media costs. • Sociologists are concerned that it contributes to a consumer culture that creates “needs” and raises unrealistic expectations of what is required to be happy, and that advertising has an inappropriate influence on the media content. 5. Dysfunction: The Narcotizing Effect • Paul Lazarsfeld and Robert Merton created the term narcotizing dysfunction, which refers to the media providing such massive amounts of information that the audience becomes numb. Example: Coverage of natural disasters may create viewer fatigue and desensitize viewers to the actual suffering. B. Conflict Perspective • The conflict perspective emphasizes that the media reflect the many divisions of society and the world, including those based on gender, race, ethnicity, and social class. 1. Gatekeeping • Media constitute a form of big business in which profits are more important than the quality of the programming. • A small number of people control what eventually reaches the audience (gatekeeping). • In many countries, the government plays a gatekeeping role. • Gatekeeping is not as dominant within the Internet. • Gatekeeping is less powerful on the Internet, as users are able to view and send almost any kind of web page or message they wish. Yet many governments try to control political dissent by restricting access to certain aspects of online activity. 2. Media Monitoring • In the past, media monitoring referred to the monitoring of media content by interest groups. With new technologies, it now includes monitoring of individuals’ media usage and choices without their knowledge. • Critics are concerned about the invasion of people’s privacy. Example: The federal government has been criticized for authorizing wiretaps of U.S. citizens’ telephone conversations without judicial approval. 3. Dominant Ideology: Constructing Reality • Conflict theorists argue that mass media serve to maintain the privileges of certain groups. • Dominant ideology is a set of cultural beliefs and practices that helps maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests. • Media transmit images that define what we regard as reality. • Decision makers are overwhelmingly White, male, and wealthy. • Media tend to ignore the lives of some groups and help to create stereotypes through portrayal of false images. Example: underrepresentation of minorities • TV distorts the political process. Candidates with the most money are able to buy exposure and saturate airwaves with messages attacking their opponents and promoting their own agendas. 4. Dominant Ideology: Whose Culture? • Globalization projects the reach of the U.S. media into the rest of the world. Todd Gitlin notes American popular culture is something that “people love, and love to hate.” • Many popular U.S. television shows originated in other countries. Examples: Survivor; Who Wants to be a Millionaire? • Unlike motion pictures, television is moving away from U.S. domination and is more likely to be locally produced. • In 2005, UNESCO passed a measure to combat cultural homogenization and protect threatened cultures, especially in developing nations. The United States was one of two dissenters. • A related trend is the growth of hyper-local media, which refers to reporting that is highly local. 5. The Digital Divide • Advances in communications technology are unequally distributed, with low-income groups, racial and ethnic minorities, rural residents, and citizens of developing nations significantly trailing the privileged. • The digital divide is most evident in developing countries, though some countries, like Rwanda, are working hard to try to remedy the gap. C. Feminist Perspective • Media influence how we look at men and women, communicating unrealistic, stereotypical, and limiting images. • Feminists see several major problems with popular media: Women are often depicted as shallow or obsessed with beauty, and are more likely than men to be presented unclothed, in danger, or even physically victimized. • Pornography is a continuing issue of debate; feminists tend to support freedom of expression, but porn is particularly bad about portraying women as sex objects. • There are fundamental differences in the way the Internet is used by men and women. D. Interactionist Perspective • From this perspective, the media are examined on the micro level to see how media shape day-to-day social behavior. • Researchers talk about mass media in the context of social capital—the collective benefit of social networks, which are built on reciprocal trust. The Internet generally, and social media in particular, offer us almost constant connectivity with others. • Online social networks have become a new way of promoting consumption. • Online philanthropy has also benefitted from online social networks. • The Internet has facilitated new forms of communication and social interaction. • One troubling issue is that the Internet may be used as a platform for extremists and pornographers. • Internet has given people greater control over what they see and hear. Legal scholar Cass Sunstein refers to this as egocasting. The downside of this may be a less tolerant society, as people reduce their exposure to other people and different ideas. • Disparities in usage of the Internet: see Figure 6-3 for breakdown by gender, age, race, income, and education II. The Audience A. Who Is in the Audience? • The audience can be a primary group or a secondary group and can be examined from the micro level or macro level. B. The Segmented Audience • Increasingly, the media are marketing themselves to particular audiences. To some degree this is driven by advertisers who want to maximize appeal to specific market segments. Thus, content is geared toward special interests. Example: The Republican Party placed ads at college football games and on America’s Funniest Home Videos. • Marketing research can be extremely precise. Specialized targeting of audiences has led some to question the “mass” in mass media. • Segmentation of audiences may reduce the collective nature of an audience. C. Audience Behavior • An opinion leader is someone who, through day-to-day personal contacts and communication, influences the opinions and decisions of others. • Lazarsfeld et al. pioneered a study of opinion leaders in research on voting behavior in the 1940s. They found opinion leaders encouraged relatives, friends, and coworkers to think positively about a particular candidate or situation. • Interpretations of the audience vary. Example: Race, age, income, education, etc., may influence the response of audience members. III. The Media’s Global Reach • The mass media have created a global village, as predicted by Canadian linguist Marshall McLuhan nearly 50 years ago, although not all countries are equally connected. • Consumer goods are marketed worldwide, which contributes to brand loyalty. Examples: Nike, Coca-Cola • The capacity to send audio and video via the Internet will increasingly reach into every part of the world. IV. (Box) Social Policy and the Mass Media: The Right to Privacy • Recent advances in computer technology have made it increasingly easy for business firms, government agencies, and even criminals to retrieve and store information about private individuals. As these technologies increase the power to monitor our behavior, they raise fears of their misuse for criminal or even undemocratic purposes. A. Looking at the Issue • The major challenge to privacy comes from “big data”: In public places, at work, and on the Internet, surveillance devices track our every move, whether it is a keystroke or an ATM withdrawal. In short, they threaten not just our privacy, but our freedom from crime and censorship as well. • Conflicting feelings about this relatively new-found ability are exemplified by WikiLeaks, who in 2010 released thousands of classified U.S. foreign policy documents on its website, causing some people to condemn the action as treasonous and others to praise it as a blow against government censorship. • Many invasions of privacy are subtle, such as the use of “cookies” online by companies wishing to identify demographics and preferences of consumers. B. Applying Sociology • From a sociological point of view, the complex issues of privacy and censorship can be considered illustrations of culture lag. • Functionalists take a generally positive view of the Internet, pointing to its manifest function of facilitating communication. • Conflict theorists stress the danger that the most powerful groups in a society will use technology to violate the privacy of the less powerful. • Interactionists observe that making our web profiles and other information about ourselves publicly available may affect our future social interactions, and not necessarily for the good. C. Initiating Policy • In 1986, the federal government passed the Electronic Communications Privacy Act, which outlawed the surveillance of telephone calls except with the permission of both the U.S. attorney general and a federal judge. Telegrams, faxes, and e-mails did not receive the same degree of protection, however. • In 2001, one month after the terrorist attacks of September 11, Congress passed the Patriot Act, which relaxed existing legal checks on surveillance by law enforcement officers. Federal agencies are now freer to gather data electronically, including people’s credit card receipts and banking records. • Paradoxically, in a time when the need for online privacy only seems to be increasing, the public in general seems to be less concerned and less vigilant about their online privacy. • Coming technological innovations will only continue to redefine the limits of surveillance. KEY TERMS Big data The rapid collection and analysis of enormous amounts of information by supercomputers. Crowdsourcing Use of the Internet to seek assistance from the general public in the form of financing, services, or even ideas. Cultural convergence The flow of content across multiple media, and the accompanying migration of media audiences. Culture lag A period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is still struggling to adapt to new material conditions. Digital divide The relative lack of access to the latest technologies among low-income groups, racial and ethnic minorities, rural residents, and the citizens of developing countries. Dominant ideology A set of cultural beliefs and practices that help to maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests. Gatekeeping The process by which a relatively small number of people in the media industry control what material eventually reaches the audience. Hyperconsumerism The practice of buying more than we need or want, and often more than we can afford; a preoccupation of postmodern consumers. Hyper-local media Reporting that is highly local and typically Internet-based. Mass media Print and electronic means of communication that carry messages to widespread audiences. Narcotizing dysfunction The phenomenon in which the media provide such massive amounts of information that the audience becomes numb and fails to act on the information, regardless of how compelling the issue. Opinion leader Someone who influences the opinions and decisions of others through day-to-day personal contact and communication. Social capital The collective benefit of social networks, which are built on reciprocal trust. Stereotype An unreliable generalization about all members of a group that does not recognize individual differences within the group. Instructor Manual for Sociology: A Brief Introduction Richard T. Schaefer 9780078027109, 9781259374630, 9781259252242, 9781259912436
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