Chapter 7 Attitudes and Attitude Change What Do You Think Polling Question It’s pretty hard to change my attitude about products that I dislike. _____ Strongly disagree _____ Disagree _____ Somewhat Disagree _____ Neither Agree nor Disagree _____ Somewhat Agree _____ Agree _____ Strongly Agree Have students access Course Mate at www.cengagebrain.com to answer the polling questions for each chapter of CB. Ask them to take the online poll to see how their answers compare with other students taking a consumer behavior course across the country. Then turn to the last page of the chapter to find the “What Others Have Thought” box feature. This graph is a snapshot of how other consumer behavior students have answered this polling question so far. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the student should be able to: 7-1 Define attitudes and describe attitude components. 7-2 Describe the functions of attitudes. 7-3 Understand how the hierarchy of effects concept applies to attitude theory. 7-4 Comprehend the major consumer attitude models. 7-5 Describe attitude change theories and their role in persuasion. 7-6 Understand how message and source effects influence persuasion. Lecture Example Increasing gas prices have had a significant impact on consumer behavior. Consumers have realized that the only way to counter the rise in gas prices is to drive less and opt for fuel-efficient cars. They have also started making less frequent trips to retail stores to save on gas. This demonstrates the knowledge aspect of consumer attitude, which allows consumers to simplify their decision-making processes. Source: Brad Tuttle, “With High Gas Prices, Americans are Already Driving Less, Buying Better MPG Cars,” Time Moneyland, March 1, 2012, http://moneyland.time.com/2012/03/01/with-high-gas-prices-americans-are-already-driving-less-buying-better-mpg-cars/ Lecture Outline with PowerPoint® Slides LO: 7-1. Define attitudes and describe attitude components. I. Attitudes and Attitude Components Attitudes are relatively enduring overall evaluations of objects, products, services, issues, or people. Attitudes play a critical role in consumer behavior. They are particularly important because they motivate people to behave in relatively consistent ways. It shouldn’t be surprising that attitudes are among the most researched topics in the entire field of consumer research, and in fact, in all of social sciences. Attitudes and value are closely related. In general, consumers have positive attitudes toward products that deliver value. A. Components of Attitudes According to the ABC approach to attitudes, attitudes possess three important components: affect, behavior, and cognitions. Affect refers to feelings about an object. Cognitions refer to the beliefs that the consumer has about the object. Behavior refers to the overt behaviors that consumers exhibit as well as their intentions to behave. [Instructor PPT Slide 4] Q: Assume that you own the latest tablet computer with the most advanced features available in the market. Now explain the different components of attitudes with respect to this scenario. A: If the consumer states that he likes his tablet, he would be expressing his feelings about the tablet and this would portray the affect component. If the individual states that the tablet lets him surf the Internet, the cognition component is reflected. The behavior component is displayed when the individual states that he buys upgraded versions of the tablet manufactured by that company. LO: 7-2. Describe the functions of attitudes. II. Functions of Attitudes According to the functional theory of attitudes, attitudes perform four functions. The four functions are the utilitarian function, the knowledge function, the value-expressive function, and the ego-defensive function. These functions are summarized in Exhibit 7.1. [Instructor PPT Slide 5] A. Utilitarian Function The utilitarian function of attitudes is based on the concept of reward and punishment. This means that consumers learn to use attitudes as a way to maximize rewards and minimize punishment. Consumers can reap social rewards through expressing attitudes, and they often express their attitudes as an attempt to develop or maintain relationships. B. Knowledge Function The knowledge function of attitudes allows consumers to simplify decision-making processes. Attitudes perform the important function of helping consumers avoid undesirable situations and approach more desirable situations. They also help consumers select objects that they do like. C. Value-Expressive Function The value-expressive function of attitudes is found in a number of consumer settings. This function enables consumers to express their core values, self-concept, and beliefs to others. Accordingly, this function of attitude provides a positive expression of the type of person a consumer perceives herself to be and the values that she holds. D. Ego-Defensive Function The ego-defensive function of attitudes works as a defense mechanism for consumers. There are couple of ways in which this function works. First, the ego-defensive function enables consumers to protect themselves from information that may be threatening. Another example of the ego-defensive function is when consumers develop positive attitudes toward products that enhance their self-image. Q: Have students provide examples for the ego-defensive function of attitudes. How does this function enhance a consumer’s self-image? A: A consumer will develop a positive attitude toward the product if the use of the product makes the individual feel in-shape, active, and good about him/her. In this way the product enhances the self-image and protects the ego. LO: 7-3. Understand how the hierarchy of effects concept applies to attitude theory. III. Hierarchy of Effects Research indicates that the three components of attitudes may be formed in a sequential pattern. This process is known as the hierarchy of effects. According to this approach, affect, behavior, and cognitions (beliefs) form by following one of four hierarchies. High-involvement (or “standard learning”) hierarchy Low-involvement hierarchy Experiential hierarchy Behavioral influence hierarchy These hierarchies are presented in Exhibit 7.2 A. High-Involvement Hierarchy The high-involvement, or standard learning, hierarchy of effects occurs when a consumer faces a high-involvement decision or addresses a significant problem. High-involvement decisions are important to a consumer and often contain significant risk. In this hierarchy, beliefs about products are formed first. Next, feelings or evaluations about the product are formed. Finally, after beliefs and feelings are formed, the consumer decides to act in some way toward the product. Here, a purchase decision is made. B. Low-Involvement Hierarchy When low-involvement purchases are made, consumers often have basic beliefs about products without necessarily having strong feelings toward them. C. Experiential Hierarchy Many purchases are based on feelings, and consumers often purchase products or try products simply because they “feel good” or “feel right.” Impulse purchases can be explained from the experiential perspective. These purchases are often motivated by feelings. Impulse purchasing means that a consumer buys a product spontaneously and with little concern for consequences. D. Behavioral Influence Hierarchy The behavioral-influence hierarchy suggests that some behaviors occur without either beliefs or affect being strongly formed beforehand. Strong environmental pressures lead to behaviors without belief or affect formation. Behavior is influenced by environmental cues. This means that there are times when behaviors may be performed in the absence of strong beliefs or feelings. [Instructor PPT Slides 6, 7] Q: Give an example each for high-involvement and low-involvement hierarchies. A: High-involvement hierarchy examples could include the purchase of a car, the selection of a college, the purchase of an apartment, and so on. Low-involvement hierarchy examples could include purchase of stationery items, groceries, and so on. LO: 7-4. Comprehend the major consumer attitude models. IV. Consumer Attitude Models A major approach to measuring attitudes developed by Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen, the attitude-toward-the-object model. This model is known as a multiattribute attitude model because it combines information about a number of beliefs and evaluations pertaining to an object’s attributes. A. Attitude-Toward-the-Object Model The attitude-toward-the-object (ATO) model (sometimes simply referred to as the Fishbein model) proposes that three key elements must be assessed to understand and predict a consumer’s attitude. The first element consists of the salient beliefs that a person has about the attributes of an object. The second element is the strength of the belief that a certain object under consideration does indeed have the attribute. The third element is an evaluation of the attribute in question. These elements are combined to form the overall attitude toward the object (referred to as “Ao”, or “attitude toward the object”). The formula for predicting attitudes is as follows: Where A0 = attitude toward the object in question (or Abrand), bi = strength of the belief that the object possesses attribute i, ei = evaluation of the attractiveness or goodness of attribute i, and N = number of attributes and beliefs. The formula states that belief (b) and evaluative ratings (e) for product attributes are combined (multiplied), and the resulting product terms are added together to give a numerical expression of a consumer’s attitude toward a product. This model can be used both for predicting a consumer’s attitude and for understanding how beliefs, strength of beliefs, and evaluations influence attitude formation. Using the ATO Approach To understand this model, first consider how the various elements are measured. The belief ratings (b) can be measured on a 10-point scale, such as: How likely is it that the Sony television will give you a clear picture? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Extremely unlikely Extremely likely An example may help to clarify the use of this formula. Think of the situation that Jamal is facing concerning the selection of an apartment. How could you predict his attitude? This information is presented in Exhibit 7.3. Q: Have students think about a gym that they would want to join, but in this scenario, they are the marketer for the gym. How do members of their target segment feel about the amenities offered in gyms? What is their opinion about the equipment in the gym? What is their opinion about the trainers at the gym? A: Students’ answers will vary. The focus of this exercise is to conduct a discussion related to the ATO approach. The ATO approach is known as a compensatory model. With compensatory models, attitudes are formed holistically across a number of attributes, with poor ratings on one attribute being compensated for by higher ratings on another attribute. [Instructor PPT Slide 8] Implications of the ATO Approach Information obtained from this model has important marketing implications. First, attitude research is most often performed on entire market segments rather than on individuals. Finally, consumers will combine their beliefs with evaluations and make a decision. Overall, the attitude-toward-the-object model has value from both an academic and practical viewpoint. However, one difficulty with the model is that the weights that are associated with the various attributes do not necessarily remain constant over time, and the list of relevant attributes may indeed change. Do Attitudes Always Predict Behavior? Marketing managers and researchers alike realize that just because a consumer has a positive attitude toward a product does not mean that he will always purchase the product. Attitude-behavior consistency refers to the extent to which a strong relationship exists between attitudes and actual behavior. Because attitudes don’t always predict behavior, other approaches, including the behavioral intentions model, have been developed to improve upon the ATO approach. B. Behavioral Intentions Model The behavioral intentions model, sometimes referred to as the theory of reasoned action, has been offered as an improvement over the attitude-toward-object model. This model differs from the attitude-toward-object model in a number of important ways. First, rather than focusing explicitly on attitudes, the model focuses on intentions to act in some way. Second, the model adds a component that assesses the consumer’s perceptions of what other people think they should do. This is referred to as the subjective norm. Finally, the model explicitly focuses on the consumer’s attitude toward the behavior of buying rather than the attitude toward the object. The formula for the behavioral intentions model is as follows: where B = behavior, BI = behavioral intention, Abehavior = attitude toward performing the behavior, SN = subjective norm, and w1 and w2 = empirical weights. This model states that a consumer’s behavior is influenced by the intention to perform that behavior (BI), and that this intention is determined by the attitude toward performing the behavior (Abehavior) and subjective norms (SN). The aspects of the behavioral intentions model are presented in Exhibit 7.4. Two major differences are found in the attitude toward the behavior and subjective norm components. For marketers, a clear understanding of the perceived consequences of product selection is crucial. Researchers must determine the consequences that are highly valued by their targeted consumer segments. Consumers don’t always select products for the most predictable reason. Factors that Weaken Attitude-Behavior Relationship Although attitude models are very popular in consumer research, researchers note that a number of factors can detract from the accuracy of this approach. As the length of time between attitude measurement and overt behavior grows, the predictive ability of attitudinal models weakens. The specificity with which attitudes are measured also has an impact on accuracy. Strong environmental pressures can also keep consumers from performing intended behaviors. Attitude-behavior models tend not to perform very well in impulse-buying situations. [Instructor PPT Slides 8, 9] Alternative Approaches to Attitude One small variation of this theory is the theory of planned action, which expands upon the behavioral intentions model by including a perceived control component. This component assesses the difficulty involved in performing the behavior and the extent to which the consumers perceive that they are in control of the product selection. Expanding the Attitude Object Research has shown that there is generally a positive relationship between a consumer’s attitude toward an advertisement and her attitude toward a particular product. A growing area of research interest has also focused on attitude toward the company. What consumers know or believe about a company (sometimes referred to as corporate associations) can influence the attitude they have toward its products. The study of consumer beliefs toward companies is therefore gaining considerable attention from consumer researchers. Attitude Tracking Attitude tracking refers to the extent to which a company actively monitors its customers’ attitudes over time. What is important to understand is that even though attitudes are relatively enduring evaluations of objects, products, services, issues, or people, these attitudes should be monitored over time to gauge changes that may occur. LO: 7-5. Describe attitude change theories and their role in persuasion. V. Attitude Change Theories and Persuasion An important issue in the study of consumer behavior is how attitudes are changed. The term persuasion refers to specific attempts to change attitudes. Usually, the hope is that by changing beliefs or feelings, marketers can also change behavior. There are many different persuasive techniques. These include the ATO approach, the behavioral influence approach, the schema-based affect approach, the elaboration likelihood model, the balance theory approach, and the social judgment theory approach. A. Attitude-Toward-the-Object Approach According to the ATO model, both beliefs about product attributes and evaluations of those attributes play important roles in attitude formation. To change attitudes according to this approach, marketers can attempt to change beliefs, create new beliefs about product features, or change evaluations of product attributes. Changing Beliefs Marketers may attempt to change consumers’ beliefs. In this case, managers would need to focus more on this attribute in advertisements. With each effort, the focus is on improving the belief rating for attribute that is evaluated positively. Another approach would be to focus on decreasing the strength of belief regarding a negatively evaluated attributes. Adding Beliefs about New Attributes Another strategy for changing attitudes under the ATO approach is adding a salient attribute to the product or service. Like the changing beliefs approach, this may require a physical change to the product itself. At other times, the new beliefs may not be tied to an actual new attribute. Rather, they may simply emphasize something that consumers had previously not considered. Changing Evaluations Marketers may also attempt to change the evaluation of an attribute. Here, the marketer tries to convince consumers that an attribute is not as positive (or negative) as they may think. Changing evaluations of an attribute is usually more difficult than changing the strength of a belief regarding that attribute. Quite simply, consumers know what they like, and they make selections accordingly. B. Behavioral Influence Approach Another strategy commonly applied by marketers follows the Behavioral Influence hierarchy. Marketers may use this approach in many ways. Behavioral conditioning can also be very effective. Consumers respond to marketing stimuli in certain ways, and behaviors frequently result without either beliefs or affect changing first. Q: The owner of Tracy’s Diner decided to revamp the entire place over a weekend. The new décor included warm colors, such as red, which are thought to increase hunger, and softer lighting, which is thought to encourage customers to linger over their food, and thus purchase more. His intention was to surprise his regular customers who visit his diner during the weekdays and improve the volume of customer purchases. In this scenario, which kind of approach is the owner using? Explain. A: The owner is using the behavioral influence approach. He is directly attempting to influence change in consumers’ behaviors without first attempting to change their beliefs or feelings. C. Changing Schema-Based Affect From an attitude perspective, schema-based affect refers to the idea that schemas contains affective and emotional meanings. If the affect found in a schema can be changed, then the attitude toward a brand or product can change. D. The Elaboration Likelihood Model Another popular approach for conceptualizing attitude change is found in the elaboration likelihood model. The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) illustrates how attitudes are changed based on differing levels of consumer involvement. Numerous research studies have examined the usefulness of the ELM in explaining the attitude change process. This model is shown in Exhibit 7.5. According to the ELM, a consumer begins to process a message as soon as it is received. Depending on the level of involvement and a consumer’s ability and motivation to process a message, the persuasion process then follows one of two routes: a central route or a peripheral route. [Instructor PPT Slide 8–11] The Central Route If consumers find that the incoming message is particularly relevant to their situation (and thus highly involved), they will likely expend considerable effort in comprehending the message. In this case, high-involvement processing occurs, and the central route to persuasion is activated. Here, the consumer develops a number of thoughts (or cognitive responses) regarding the incoming message that may either support or contradict the information. Contradicting thoughts are known as counterarguments. Thoughts that support the main argument presented are known as support arguments. In the central route, the consumers rely on central cues. Central cues refer specifically to information found in the message that pertains directly to the product, its attributes, its advantages, or the consequences of its use. This is an important aspect of the central route to persuasion: Attitude change tends to be relatively enduring when it occurs in the central route. The Peripheral Route If consumers are not involved with a message or lack either the motivation or ability to process information, the peripheral route to persuasion will be followed. In this route, consumers are unlikely to develop cognitive responses to the message, and are more likely to pay attention to things like the attractiveness of the person delivering the message, the number of arguments presented, the expertise of the spokesperson, and the imagery or music presented along with the message. These elements of the message are referred to as peripheral cues. Low-Involvement Processing in the Consumer Environment Vast majority of advertisements to which consumers are exposed to are processed with low-involvement processing. Consumers are simply not motivated to carefully attend to the thousands of ads that they are exposed to each day! Therefore, advertisers tend to rely heavily on the use of peripheral cues—attractive models, enticing imagery, upbeat music—when developing advertisements. E. Balance Theory The balance theory approach was introduced by social psychologist Fritz Heider. The basic premise of balance theory is that consumers are motivated to maintain perceived consistency in the relations found in mental systems. Accordingly, this approach is based on the consistency principle. This principle states that human beings prefer consistency among their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. An example is shown in Exhibit 7.6. The system (composed of observer, person, and object) is referred to as a triad because it consists of a set of three elements. Sentiment relations are the relations between the observer (consumer) and the other elements in the system. The object-person relation is referred to as a unit relation. [Instructor PPT Slide 12] F. Social Judgment Theory Social judgment theory is yet another theory for explaining attitude change. This theory proposes that consumers compare incoming information to their existing attitudes about a particular object or issue. The initial attitude acts as a frame of reference, or standard, against which the incoming message is compared. Around these initial reference points are latitudes of acceptance and latitudes of rejection. For a message to fall within the latitude of acceptance, the information presented must be perceived as being close to the original attitude position. A message that is perceived as being far away from, or opposed to, the original attitude position will fall within the latitude of rejection. These aspects of the theory are presented in Exhibit 7.7. According to the theory, when the incoming message falls within the latitude of acceptance, assimilation occurs If the message is perceived as falling in the latitude of rejection, an opposite affect occurs. In fact, the message will be viewed as being even more opposed to the original attitude than it really is, and the message will be rejected. In this way, a contrast effect occurs. [Instructor PPT Slide 13] LO: 7-6. Understand how message and source effects influence persuasion. VI. Message and Source Effects and Persuasion An important part of understanding persuasion is comprehending how communication occurs. The term message effect is used to describe how the appeal of a message and its construction affect persuasion. Source effects refer to the characteristics of the person or character delivering a message that influence persuasion. A basic communication model is shown in Exhibit 7.8. According to this model, a source encodes a message and delivers the message through some medium. The medium could be personal or impersonal. The receiver (consumer) decodes the message and responds to it in some way. Feedback consists of the responses that the receiver sends back to the source. The noise concept is very important to this model. Noise represents all the stimuli that are present in the environment that disrupt the communication process. [Instructor PPT Slides 14, 15] A. Interactive Communications The one-to-many communications model works well when examining personal communications or traditional advertising media such as television, newspapers, or radio. However, interactive communications have radically changed the communication paradigm. Importantly, information flow is no longer considered a “one-way street,” in which consumers passively receive messages from marketers. Rather, communication is seen as an interactive process that enables a flow of information among consumers and/or firms in what might be referred to as a many-to-many approach. This dramatically changes the communication model, with a newer conceptualization being presented in Exhibit 7.9. B. Message Appeal There are several ways to conceptualize how a message may impact the persuasiveness of an advertisement. A number of appeals are used by advertisers including sex appeals, humor appeals, and fear appeals. Sex Appeals Using sexual imagery in advertisements certainly is popular in many parts of the world. Moderate levels of nudity appear to be most preferred, as highly explicit content tends to direct attention away from the product. Gender plays a role in advertising effectiveness regarding nudity. Finally, research also reveals that including a romantic theme (rather than focusing on the explicit pleasure of sex) may have positive benefits for marketers. Human Appeals Marketers also frequently use humorous ads. One recent study confirmed that humorous ads can attract attention, create a positive mood, and enhance both attitude toward a brand and purchase intentions. However, humor appeals can also decrease the credibility of a message source. The overall effectiveness of a humorous ad depends, in part, on the characteristics of both the individual consumer and the advertisement. High levels of humor can cause consumers to fail to pay attention to the product being advertised, and high levels can also limit information processing. Fear Appeals In addition to using sexual and humor appeals, advertisers also frequently attempt to evoke some level of fear in the target audience as a means of changing attitudes and behaviors. These ads often rely on the relationship between a threat and fear. The product being advertised is often promoted as a type of solution that will remove the threat. As an overall statement, fear appeals appear to be effective when they: Introduce the severity of a threat Present the probability of occurrence Explain the effectiveness of a coping strategy Show how easy it is to implement the desired response Violence Appeals One trend that has been growing over the last few decades is the use of violent scenes in advertisements. The effects on viewers often go beyond marketing-related reactions. It is interesting to note that many violent ads also use elements of humor, seemingly in an attempt to lessen the degree to which the ad is disturbing. Q: Review ten current advertisements on TV and identify the kind of appeal each ad uses. A: Students can give examples of ads with each kind of appeal: sex appeal, humor appeal, and fear appeal. C. Message Construction Advertisers must consider a number of issues when constructing a message. Listed below are a number of questions that marketers must answer. Should an ad present a conclusion or should the consumer be allowed to reach his own conclusion? Advertisements that allow consumers to arrive at their own conclusions tend to be more persuasive when the audience has a high level of involvement with the product. Should comparative ads that directly compare one brand against another be developed? Advertisers generally have three alternatives when developing an ad. They can promote their brands without mentioning competing brands. Advertisers can promote their brands and compare them generically to “the competition.” They can actively compare their products against specific competitors by explicitly naming the competing brands in the advertisement. Where should important information be placed? The placement of information in a special message at the beginning, middle, or end of the message impacts the recall of the information. This is a basic tenet of what is known as the serial position effect. When material presented early in the message is most influential, a primary effect is said to occur. When material presented later in the message has the most impact, a recency effect is said to occur. Should the message be straightforward and simple, or complex? Advertisers must consider both message and source effects. The number of arguments presented in an ad is considered a peripheral cue. Source Effects Another important issue in the study of persuasion is how the source of a message influences consumers’ attitudes. Source Credibility Source credibility plays an important role in advertising effectiveness. In general, credible sources tend to be more persuasive than less credible sources. However, credible sources also influence highly involved consumers, especially if their credentials are clearly communicated early in a message. The credibility of sources also impacts the certainty with which consumer attitudes are held, with lower levels of credibility leading to higher levels of certainty. Credibility consists of two elements: expertise and trustworthiness. Expertise refers to the amount of knowledge that a spokesperson is perceived to have about the product or issue in question. Trustworthiness refers to a perception of the extent to which a spokesperson is presenting a message that he or she truly believes, with no reason to present false information. Source Attractiveness Source Attractiveness is another quality that has received a great deal of attention. Attractive models are often thought to possess desirable qualities and personalities. They also tend to be more persuasive than unattractive spokespeople. Much like the research regarding the use of sex appeals, research into attractiveness reveals that attractive models are more effective when promoting products that have an intimate appeal, whereas unattractive models are more effective when promoting products that have no intimate appeal. Source Likeability Source likeability also affects a spokesperson’s effectiveness. Likeable sources tend to be persuasive. Interestingly, it has been found that source likeability affects persuasion more for consumers with low need for cognition than for those with a high degree of this trait. This again highlights the importance of individual difference variables in persuasion. Source Meaningfulness The dominant characteristics of a source should match the characteristics of the product. This is a key concept that is found in the matchup hypothesis, which states that a source feature is most effective when it is matched with relevant products. Q: Identify a few ads for brands that have been endorsed by celebrities. What is the effect of the celebrity’s attractiveness, likeability and meaningfulness on the customer perception of the brand? A: There are many ads that feature sports personalities. Examples could include Roger Federer for Gillette Mach 3. Attractive models tend to be more persuasive than unattractive spokespeople. Likeable sources tend to be persuasive. The matchup hypothesis states that a source feature is most effective when it is matched with relevant products. Video material for this chapter is starting on page 25 of the IM Instructor Manual for CB Consumer Behaviour Barry J. Babin, Eric G. Harris 9781305403222, 9781305577244
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