CH-11-12 Teams: Characteristics and Diversity – Organizational Behavior: Improving Performance and Commitment in the Workplace : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 11 to 12 Instructor’s Manual: Ch. 11: Teams: Characteristics & Diversity CHAPTER OVERVIEW Teams – two or more people who work interdependently to accomplish some task related purpose– are an important part of organizational life. This chapter describes teams in terms of team types, interdependence, and composition. Relationships between team interdependence, performance, and commitment are also described. Finally, the practical issue of how to compensate employees who work in teams is considered. LEARNING GOALS After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 11.1 What is a team, and how are teams different than groups? 11.2 What are the five general team types, how are those team types distinct from one another, and what factors make it difficult to provide an exact team classification? 11.3 What are the three general types of team interdependence? 11.4 What factors are involved in team composition? 11.5 How do team characteristics influence team effectiveness? 11.6 How can team compensation be used to manage team effectiveness? CHAPTER OUTLINE Team Characteristics and Diversity A team consists of two or more people who work interdependently over some time period to accomplish common goals related to some task-oriented purpose Teams differ from groups in two primary ways Interactions in teams involve greater dependence than interactions in groups Interactions within teams occurs with a specific task-related purpose in mind Teams are widely used in organizations today OB at the Bookstore: Engines of Change. The author of this book describes how teams have been used in the development of automobiles over the last century. There are very interesting examples throughout the book of challenges faced by automobile companies and how teams came together in a way that overcame these challenges. One topic of conversation can focus on why it takes a team to develop a new car. Students will quickly point out that cars are made of up different systems—suspension, engine, transmission, body, braking, electrical, heating and cooling, and so forth, so it follows that designing cars requires people who are experts in these different systems. You can then follow up with the question of why it’s necessary for the team to work together as team. Why not just let the experts work by themselves and then have someone in charge of putting everything together? Students should conclude that the various systems have to function well together, and this likely requires that the various experts work together to solve problems that crop up. Students may also come to realize that if team members can build off each other’s ideas and suggestions, the team can produce outcomes that are truly synergistic. That is, car designs are not only something that no single team member could have produced—but they also require interaction and collaboration among team members. It’s much more than just combining the efforts of the individual team members. What Characteristics Can Be Used To Describe Teams? 1. Team Types (Table 11-1) Work teams – produce goods or services Management teams – integrate activities of subunits across business functions Parallel teams – provide recommendations and resolve issues Project teams – produce a one-time output (product, service, plan, design, etc.) Action teams – perform complex tasks that are short in duration and take place in highly visible or challenging circumstances Note that teams often fit into more than one category Try This! If students are working in teams, it is interesting to ask them to categorize their teams using the taxonomy. Because student teams often complete a series of discrete assignments, many will suggest that their teams are project teams. However, because they work together for a series of projects over an extended time period—maybe a semester— others will suggest that their teams are work teams. This can lead to a good discussion about the complexity of teams, and that perhaps the most important aspect of the team taxonomy is that it helps to clarify the underlying characteristics. This discussion can provide a good segue to the topics that follow. B. Variations Within Team Types One general way that teams vary is the degree to which they have autonomy or are self-managed. There is no single best level of self management. Rather the appropriate level of self-management depends on a variety of factors. Virtual teams – are teams in which members are geographically dispersed, and interdependent activity occurs through electronic communications Team Development Stages Standard stages of team development i. Forming ii. Storming iii. Norming iv. Performing v. Adjourning Not all teams go through the same stages in the same order Punctuated equilibrium (Figure 11-2) – Patterns of behavior develop, and are continued because of inertia until a process revision takes place, leading the team to higher levels of performance. C. Team Interdependence OB Assessments: Interdependence. This assessment can be an eye-opener for students who are required to work in teams. While most professors expect students to work on assignment as a group together, many student teams function as small groups of individual contributors—members split up the work and then stick it together right before the assignment is due. Ask students to characterize both structures in terms of task interdependence. After this, ask students about reasons why different teams choose different strategies. What are the benefits and costs of high task interdependence? Please see the Instructor PowerPoints for a Bonus Assessment on Team Viability. Please see the Connect assignments for this chapter for assessments on Deep-Level Diversity and Team Building Role Tendency. Please email me at [email protected] if you have any questions about using these assessments in your teaching. Task interdependence – refers to the degree to which team members interact with and rely on other team members for the information, materials, and resources needed to accomplish work for the team (Figure 11-3) Pooled interdependence – group members complete their work assignments independently, and then this work is simply “piled up” to represent the groups output Sequential interdependence – different tasks are done in a prescribed order, and the group is structured such that the members specialize in these tasks Reciprocal interdependence – members are specialized to perform specific tasks, and members interact with a subset of other members to complete the team’s work Comprehensive interdependence – each member has a great deal of discretion in terms of what they do and with whom they interact in the course of collaborating on the team’s product Goal Interdependence Goal interdependence exists when team members have a shared vision of the team’s goal and align their individual goals with that vision as a result To create goal interdependence: ensure that the team has a formalized mission statement that team members accept (Table 11-2) Outcome Interdependence Outcome interdependence exists when team members share in the rewards that the team earns D. Team Composition 1. Member Roles (Table 11-3) a. Role – the behaviors a person is expected to display in a given context Leader-staff roles – leader makes decisions for the team and provides direction and control over members who perform assigned tasks Team task roles refer to behaviors that directly facilitate the accomplishment of team tasks Team building roles refer to behaviors that influence the quality of the team’s social climate Individualistic roles reflect behaviors that benefit the individual at the expense of the team Asset Gallery (Groups and Teams/Self-Assessment): Team Roles Preference Scale. This self-assessment asks students how they typically behave in teams, eventually giving them feedback on the degree to which their adhere to four of the roles in Table 11-3: initiator, encourager, harmonizer, and gatekeeper. 2. Member Ability In disjunctive tasks, the member who possesses the highest level of ability relevant to the task will have the most influence on the effectiveness of the team In conjunctive tasks, the team’s performance depends on the ability of the “weakest link” In additive tasks, the contributions from every member of the team add up to determine team performance 3. Member Personality a. Many personality characteristics affect team performance i. Conscientiousness ii. Agreeableness iii. Extraversion Member Diversity The extent to which team members differ from one another Two different theories related to diversity in teams Diversity is valuable because different people have different approaches to solving problems Diversity is detrimental because people are more attracted to those who are like them than they are to those who are not like them Must consider both type of diversity and length of time team has known each other to understand real impact of diversity Surface-level diversity – diversity based on observable attributes. Can leads to problems initially because people may have difficulty communicating with others who are perceived to be different, however, these problems tend to fade over time as members gain experience with one another. OB on Screen: 42. The clip referenced in the book begins around the 19:42 mark of the film, continuing until about the 23:20 mark (note that at 23:25 an offensive word is uttered by one of the actors). The clip depicts a spring training scene where Jackie Robinson takes the field for the first time with his coaches and teammates. The scene hints at some of the trouble Jackie will have being accepted by his teammates. The scene also highlights Jackie’s baseball skill. Class discussion can focus on the way that diversity plays out in the scene. If you preface the conversation with the historical context (there were no African American major league baseball players at the time and in many parts of the country there was racial segregation) students should be quick to point out that by including Jackie on the team, there was greater surface level diversity. You can then ask students to consider elements of the clip that support the idea that this type of diversity may have created some problems initially. Some students may note that because the problems center on interactions between Jackie and few individuals on his team, team effectiveness won’t be significant harmed. If you redirect the issue to the students, some will point out that Jackie might not be as effective as he could be (because he may be distracted by the conflict) and that team members are likely to take sides (thus hurting teamwork and cohesion). From there you can ask how Jackie’s great catch and throw in the scene foreshadow the long-term effects of the team’s surface level diversity. Here the students should comment that once teammates realize that Jackie is a great player, he'll be treated as an equal, and the team could then experience success. Try This! Use the 42 clip for another chapter. The clip provides a good forum for discussing the distinction between task performance, citizenship behavior, and counterproductive behavior from Chapter 2 on Job Performance. Branch Rickey has no doubts about Jackie Robinson’s task performance—he knows he will hit, field, and steal bases. His focus is on Jackie avoiding (understandable) counterproductive behavior while engaging in the kind of citizenship behavior that will help the Dodgers during this transition. Bonus OB on Screen (from 3rd ed): Inception. The clip referenced in the book begins around the 51:10 mark of the film, continuing until about the 1:01:18 mark. The clip shows the members of the team planning for an inception (planting an idea in someone’s mind during a dream within a dream) and discussing their roles and how they relate to each other and the overall success of the mission. The discussion conveys a strong sense that if anyone makes a mistake, the team is doomed to failure. A good opening for discussion would be to have students identify the type of team in the clip. Students should be able to identify the team as an action team. If you ask why, they should explain that this team performs a very complex task in a very challenging circumstance. A second topic for discussion can focus on the stage of this teams development depicted in the clip. Students will likely respond by saying the scene depicts early stages of group life—most notably forming. There appears to be some norming, but not much storming. The reason why the team may skip this stage may relate to the fact that the members have pre-defined roles—they were brought onto the team to do specific things. Students may also note that the punctuated equilibrium model might not apply because of the importance of the task. The members should be engaged right from the start, they don’t need a calendar midpoint to signal that it’s time to start making progress. A third topic for discussion can focus on the type of task and interdependence that characterizes this team and the work it does. Students should be able to identify the task as one that is conjunctive (the team will be as strong as a weakest link). The team also has high levels of interdependence. The members clear depend on one another, and they appear to share a common goal and the outcomes of achieving (or not achieving) the goal. Bonus OB on Screen (from 2nd ed): We are Marshall. The clip begins around the 1:01:08 mark of the film, continuing until about the 1:07:36 mark. The clip depicts how Marshall University football coach Jack Lengyel tries to reestablish the team after most of the team’s players and coaches die in a plane crash. The scene shows that the new players don’t have the capabilities needed for the team to be successful, and how Coach Lengyel tries to overcome the team’s limitations by using a simplified offensive scheme. A good topic for class discussion could center on additional factors or characteristics that could be emphasized or designed into the team to help it perform more effectively. For example, the motivational benefits from a sense of “oneness” and an emphasis on achievement of a common goal might be more important for a team that has limited capabilities relative to a team that can rely on the talent of its players to get by. What could Coach Lengyel do to create these types of feelings and beliefs among the team’s players? Bonus OB on Screen (from 1st ed): Ocean’s Eleven. The clip begins around the 28:24 mark of the film, continuing until about the 39:34 mark. The clip opens with a team meeting where Danny Ocean reveals his plan to pull off a heist of a Las Vegas Casino. In this meeting, Danny describes some significant challenges to the team and the tasks that need to be done (reconnaissance, power, surveillance, construction, intelligence, transportation). Maybe most important, however, he describes the reward—$150 million, which will be split evenly 11 ways. Class discussion could begin by asking students whether or not Ocean’s 11 is a team in the true sense of the word, and if so, which type? Discussion could then shift to interdependence. Ask students to characterize the team in terms of the three types of interdependence and provide examples from the film. The discussion could then shift to how interdependence promotes the effectiveness of the team. Could this particular team function effectively with a lower task, goal, or outcome interdependence? ii. Deep-level diversity – diversity based on attributes that are inferred with experience. Differences with respect to attitudes, values, and personality may not cause problems initially, but it they can lead to problems over time OB Internationally. Virtual teams in global organizations face special challenges. Advanced communications technology make it possible for people who are physically located around the globe to work together on projects, but differences in time zones make it difficult to coordinate their work. IBM and other companies are using “follow the sun” practices, where teams hand off projects to teams in other time zones when their work day ends. Although this type of practice makes is possible to accomplish work 24/7, care needs to be taken that the systems used by the virtual teams are detailed and well-understood so that the handoffs go smoothly. 5. Team Size a. Larger teams are good for management and project teams, but not for teams engaged in production tasks E. Summary: What Characteristics Can Be Used to Describe Teams? (Figure 11-5) Asset Gallery (Groups and Teams/Hot Seat): Working in Teams: Cross-Functional Dysfunction. This Hot Seat feature shows a manager struggling to get a new team to focus on its tasks. The video can be used to demonstrate a number of topics, including team types (e.g., project teams), team development (e.g., forming and storming), and member roles (e.g., initiator-contributor, coordinator, orienter, blocker, slacker). How Important Are Team Characteristics? Two aspects of team effectiveness Team performance – may include metrics such as quantity and quality of goods or services produced, customer satisfaction, the effectiveness or accuracy of decisions, victories, completed reports, etc. Team viability – the likelihood that the team can work together effectively into the future. Low viability implies less commitment to the team. Relationship between task interdependence and team performance is moderately positive Relationship is significantly stronger for teams involved in complex, knowledge work, rather than simple tasks Relationship between task interdependence and team commitment is positive, but weak Application: Team Compensation Many companies use hybrid outcome dependence, where members receive rewards for their own work, while at the same time, sharing a team performance reward Although it is not likely to be universally effective, hybrid outcome dependence solves two problems It links performance to team goals, allowing people to be compensated for being part of the team It allows high-performing individuals to still be compensated for their individual levels of performance DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 11.1 Prior to reading this chapter, would have you made a distinction between groups and teams? After reading this chapter, has your position changed, and if so, how? Answer: Groups are distinguished from teams by the presence of a group goal related to some task, or the existence of something that all of the team members are working towards together. Groups may come together for many reasons, but they do not have this type of common goal and task interdependence. Before reading the chapter, I might not have clearly distinguished between groups and teams, often viewing them as interchangeable. After reading, I now see teams as more structured with a shared goal and interdependence, whereas groups can be loosely connected without a common objective. This understanding has clarified the differences for me. 11.2 In which types of teams have you worked? Were these teams consistent with the team types discussed in this chapter, or were they a combination of types? Answer: Most teams will be a combination of types. For example, many students who work at banks will have both a work team and a management team. A person on a team in an organization may also be a part of a parallel team, project team, or action team, while at the same time being part of a production or management team. 11.3 Think about your student teams. Which aspects of both models of team development apply the most and least to teams in this context? Answer: Most student teams spend little time forming and storming, but move directly into the norming phase. This is particularly true when assignments are well outlined and expectations of students are fairly clear. The development that occurs typically centers on norms for group members. Only if the team is very skilled or very lucky, do they get to the performing stage. Of course, it often happens that a student team will form and then hit a period of inertia where very little gets done until the calendar midpoint of a project. Then, a state of punctuated equilibrium occurs when the team realizes it needs to change its strategy if it is going to be successful. In student teams, the most applicable aspects of team development models are the "forming" stage (where members get to know each other) and the "storming" stage (where conflicts or differing opinions may arise). The least applicable aspect might be the "adjourning" stage, as many student teams disband without much formal closure once the project or assignment is completed. 11.4 Think about a highly successful team with which you are familiar. What types of task, goal, and outcome interdependence does this team have? Describe how changes in task, goal, and outcome interdependence might have a negative impact on this team. Answer: For example, take an airline flight crew that has been flying together for an extended period of time. While the pilots have very different tasks than the attendants, all of them rely on each other for information to keep the flight going smoothly. Goal interdependence is high, because all members of the flight crew want their plane to get where it is going safely. Outcome interdependence may seem to be low, since attendants and pilots belong to different unions and are compensated differently, but if the airline gives a bonus for on-time arrival, for example, outcome interdependence might be higher. 11.5 What type of roles do you normally take on in a team setting? Are there task or social roles that you simply don’t perform well? If so, why do you think this is? Answer: Answers will vary by student. Introverted students may find that they are not good at social roles, while students who do not have skills in a particular technical area may not take on task roles. I typically take on task-oriented roles, such as organizing and managing the project timeline. I may struggle with certain social roles, like mediating conflicts, because I tend to focus more on efficiency and outcomes rather than navigating interpersonal dynamics. This could be due to a natural inclination towards structure and productivity over social interaction. 11.6 Do you think student teams function best in an additive, disjunctive, or conjunctive manner? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each structure? Answer: Student teams typically function best on additive or disjunctive tasks. When student performance is based on the weakest member in the group, students with low motivation or low skills can significantly impact team performance. Student teams often function best in an additive manner, where each member's contributions are combined to achieve the final outcome. • Additive: • Advantages: Utilizes the strengths of all members, ensuring collective progress. • Disadvantages: Can lead to uneven contribution levels and potential free-riding. • Disjunctive: • Advantages: The team benefits from the best idea or solution. • Disadvantages: Success relies heavily on the most capable member, which can marginalize others. • Conjunctive: • Advantages: Promotes interdependence and collaboration, ensuring all tasks are completed. • Disadvantages: Progress can be slowed by the weakest link, affecting overall performance. 11.7 What is the most important team composition factor in your student teams? If a student team has limitations in its composition, what can it do to improve? Answer: The most important team composition factor for student teams is making sure that there are people on the team who can play both task and team building roles, and being sure that individualistic roles are minimized. This can be accomplished by making sure that everyone on the team has a job that plays a significant part in accomplishing team objectives, and by agreeing early in the formation process how social roles will be handled. CASE: FORD Questions: 11.1 With what general type of diversity does Ford seem most concerned? Why? Describe how teams composed with this type of diversity are likely to function. Which team characteristics would influence the effects of this type of diversity? Answer: From the case it appears that Ford is mostly concerned with diversity in cultural or ethnic backgrounds. The chapter suggests that this is surface level diversity, and accordingly, although the teams may have problems functioning early in their experience together, these problems will go away as members begin to understand the different capabilities each member brings to the team. So one important team characteristic that plays a role in the effect of team diversity is the team’s stage of development or experience/time together. 11.2 Describe how Ford’s approach to diversity accounts for both the “value in diversity problem-solving” and “similarity-attraction” approaches. Answer: Ford recognizes that by combining the ideas of employees who differ in their perspectives, they can achieve extraordinary results. This is the value in diversity perspective. At the same time, they recognize the similarity-attraction principle that people who are different in surface level characteristics may not gel together quickly, and thus, they sought to create a culture of inclusion. 11.3 Is an employee resource group a team? If so, what type is it? How might employee resource groups inadvertently create faultlines? What could Ford do to mitigate this possibility? Answer: It is probably not the case that the employee resource groups are teams. There are no specific outcomes for which the teams are responsible. Moreover, there is little if any task, goal, or outcome interdependence among the members. One could argue that the ERGs are a parallel team, but this would be a stretch. It is more likely that members of ERGs form smaller teams to accomplish specific initiative mentioned in the case. ERGs could create faultlines if the members become privy to information that they do not shared with others in the organization. To anticipate this issue, Ford should ensure that ERGs do not become insular. BONUS CASE (from 2nd ed): LOGITECH When’s the last time you used a computer mouse or keyboard? What about a universal remote for your home entertainment system, external speakers for your iPod, or a controller or racing wheel for your PlayStation 3? If you’ve used any of these things recently, chances are good that it was designed and manufactured by Logitech, a Swiss company known for highly innovative and reasonably priced “personal peripherals” involved in computer navigation, Internet communications, digital music, home entertainment control, and gaming. Founded in 1981, the company has experienced double-digit growth in sales each year for the past decade, with revenues of almost $2.5 billion per year. Logitech’s success can be attributed to its ability to bring a large number of highly innovative products to market. In a recent year, for example, Logitech introduced 130 new products, many of which were honored with industry awards for superior innovation and design. Today, it ships approximately 165 million products to customers in more than 100 countries. So what gives Logitech the ability to offer such a large number of innovative products? Logitech’s success in bringing a large number of innovative products to market can be attributed to the type of teams they use to accomplish product development and manufacturing. The teams consist of members who are highly specialized in a given functional area and who are geographically dispersed across different countries and continents. Additionally, Logitech manages these teams in such a way that they can accomplish work continuously. Specifically, work in these teams is accomplished on an on-going basis as members in one location use electronic communications to coordinate their efforts and to hand off their work to members in other locations. Consider, for example, the team that developed and manufactured Logitech’s mouse, the Revolution. Product design and mechanical engineering took place in Ireland, electrical engineering took place in Switzerland, tooling took place in Taiwan, manufacturing took place in China, and software engineering and quality assurance took place in California. Although you might be inclined to believe that time zone differences would be a hindrance to this sort of team, Logitech turned it into a competitive advantage by letting the work follow the sun. Specifically, work was accomplished continuously because members of a team who finished their workday in one country electronically handed off the work to team members in another country who had just arrived at the office. Because these electronic hand-offs occurred continuously, product development and other work needed to bring the mouse to market was completed much more quickly. Although “follow the sun” teams are gaining attention in many companies that operate globally, there are some issues that need to be considered. As one example, imagine how difficult it must be for members of this sort of dispersed team to find convenient times to communicate with one another. If a team member in California needed to meet virtually with the team on Friday at noon (Pacific Standard Time), it would be 8:00 p.m. Friday evening in Ireland and 4:00 a.m. Friday morning in Taiwan. More important, perhaps, language and cultural differences among team members can create misunderstandings that prevent work from being accomplished effectively. Peter Sheehan, a creative director from Ireland, noted that people tend to approach the work very differently based on their functional areas, which is a problem because the members of the Logitech teams are very specialized. Although all members may understand that the ultimate goal is to develop a successful product, members from different areas may have different ideas about what “successful” means and what processes and outcomes need to be achieved to get there. Because of the geographical separation, inconsistencies in the way different members are approaching the work may not become apparent until significant problems occur. Other companies in the electronics industry that use the “follow the sun” approach are struggling with similar issues. For example, IBM uses the approach in its chip design business, whereby design changes made during the day in North America get sent to India for additional work and physical implementation. As noted by Mike Gruver, an IBM program manager, it’s often difficult to tell whether someone from a different culture really understands what you’re saying, and it’s uncomfortable to keep on asking if they want you to restate something that you said. As another example, Kathleen Gillam, a manager from Intel, noted that despite the positives from the use of globally distributed virtual teams, there are very simple things, such as having different holidays and working days, that make the process difficult. In the end, the follow the sun approach to accomplishing work appears to have advantages, but there are also significant challenges having to do with managing differences among members in their functional and cultural backgrounds. Sources: Godinez, V. “Sunshine 24/7: As EDS’ Work Stops in One Time Zone, It Picks Up in Another.” Knight Ridder Tribune Business News, January 2, 2007, ProQuest database (February 12, 2007). Logitech, “Annual Report 2008,” http://ww3.ics.adp.com/streetlink_data/dirLOGI/ annual/HTML2/default.htm (accessed June 20, 2009). Logitech, corporate Web site, http://www.logitech.com/index.cfm/175/481&cl=us,en (accessed June 23, 2008). Schiff, D. Global Teams Rock around the Clock. Electronic Engineering Times, 1435, (August 7, 2006), pp. 12-20. Treinen and Miller-Frost, “Following the Sun: Case Studies in Global Software Development.” IBM Systems Journal 45 (2006), pp. 773–83. Questions: 11.1 Describe the teams that Logitech uses to develop new products in terms of the characteristics outlined in this chapter. Do these teams fit into one of the “types” from the taxonomy presented in this chapter? If so, which one? If not, why? Answer: From the information provided in the case, the teams appear to conduct work with either sequential or reciprocal interdependence. There are low to moderate levels of goal interdependence, and the level of outcome interdependence is unclear. The other characteristic discussed is diversity in terms of functional expertise and cultural background. These teams appear to function as project teams, but they work together virtually. 11.2 In what ways are the teams at Logitech diverse? Describe the potential advantages and disadvantages to these types of diversity. Why might the advantages of these types of diversity outweigh the disadvantages in the context of the follow the sun teams? Answer: From the information provided in the case, the teams are diverse in terms of functional expertise and cultural background. These characteristics reflect surface rather than deep level diversity. The types of problems that these teams have (e.g., communication, stereotypes) fade as they gain experience working together, and at some point they can take advantage of their diversity to deliver the type of innovations that are important in the high tech industries. Although people from different functional and cultural backgrounds may differ in terms of values and beliefs, there is not enough information in the case to predict how this will play out. However, the members the members may be quite similar in terms of their beliefs about the importance of producing high quality deliverables. 11.3 If you were charged with creating a follow the sun team to develop a new product, what characteristics would you include in your design to ensure that the team is effective? Answer: I would implement practices to increase the level of goal and outcome interdependence. The physical distance between members might reduce the level of accountability members feel towards each other, and goal interdependence might enhance members’ perceptions that they are in fact a team working towards a common goal, and outcome interdependence might serve as an incentive for cooperation. INTERNET CASE: HIRING IN THE AGE OF BIG DATA By Aki Ito http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-10-24/new-way-to-assess-job-applicants-online-games-and-quizzes Questions: 11.1 In what ways are traditional job interviews problematic? How are these problems especially relevant in the context of staffing teams? Answer: Interviews may not focus on issues that are clearly linked to effectiveness. As noted in the case, questions such as “Did you go to Stanford” and “Did you work at this company” might have very little to do with effectiveness in the particular job for which the applicant is being considered. The case also refers to bad recruiter assumptions, and notes that human beings are pretty bad at evaluating other human beings. These problems may be especially relevant when trying to staff teams because effectiveness depends on many different competencies. Team members not only have to do their jobs well, but they also have to collaborate, communicate effectively, deal with conflict, and so forth. It might be difficult to get at all of these issues in an interview. Even if an interview was able to get at all these issues, there is still a problem of how to combine the responses so that good decisions can be made about which applicants to hire. 11.2 How might the use of “big data” address the weaknesses of interviews for hiring team members? What types of player attributes would a game such as Wasabi Waiter need to track in order for it to be useful to select members of a work team? Answer: By coding data of actual behavior of job applicants and then analyzing it using algorithms that are able to capture the complexity involved, it may be possible to develop a more accurate prediction of what the applicants are likely to do on the job. The algorithms in Wasabi Waiter could weight the importance of conscientiousness (and other personality characteristics that are believed to be important in team settings) and emotional recognition (and other aspects of emotional intelligence) and make recommendations about which applicants to hire. EXERCISE: PAPER PLANE CORPORATION Preparation: The Paper Plane Corporation Exercise requires that you supply students with enough paper so that they can progress through three five minute rounds of paper airplane folding. Recycled paper works well for this exercise – just let students know that whatever is printed on the paper is irrelevant to the exercise. You may have to start saving paper a few weeks in advance in order to have enough for your class, especially if you are teaching a large lecture section. You will also want to re-familiarize yourself with the fine art of airplane folding, since you will be demonstrating this for the class! Be sure that your airplane meets the following quality standards. Plane is symmetrical. All corners must match evenly. Both wings must be exactly the same size, and tailfins must be the same height. • Plane must be able to fly at least five feet. In Class: Prior to starting the exercise, have students get together in teams and pick a team manager and a team inspector. Ask all of the team inspectors to come to the front of the room, and provide each inspector with a summary sheet. Team inspectors will be responsible for distributing the supplies to the team, and keeping track of bids, along with evaluating final products. Then send each inspector to a team that is different from their original team. This ensures that inspections are being done fairly. Next, show students how to fold a paper airplane, as it is not always easy to visualize how this is done from the instructions in the text. Be sure that you explain the quality standards listed above to the class, and demonstrate how your plane meets those standards. Again, remind the class that they must Time the rounds of airplane building carefully – they should not be longer than five minutes, and all rounds should be the same. If you are pressed for time in the class, you can eliminate the final round of folding. Questions: In the discussion part of this exercise, point out that if all members of the team have relatively high skills, sequential interdependence is going to be more effective in this task than pooled interdependence. This is because, even in a five minute period, people will quickly learn to specialize at a task, and they will be more efficient at doing a single task than they are at trying to fold an entire airplane by themselves. However, one slow member will slow down the entire group in sequential interdependence, as this is a conjunctive task. OMITTED TOPICS The field of organizational behavior is extremely broad and different textbooks focus on different aspects of the field. A brief outline of topics that are not covered in this text, but which the professor might want to include in his or her lecture, is included below. In cases where these topics are covered in other chapters in the book, we note those chapters. In cases where they are omitted entirely, we provide some references for further reading. Sociotechnical Theory – Modern perspectives on small groups and teams can be traced to research conducted in the early 1950 in the British coal mining industry. For a review of a classic study from this perspective see: Trist, E. L., G. I. Susman, and G. R. Brown. “An Experiment in Autonomous Working in an Underground Coal Mine. Human Relations, 30 (1977). Pp. 210-236. Team Based Organizations—Team based organizations are different than traditional “job-based” organizations in several important ways. For a discussion of these differences, and also factors that need to be taken into account in designing a team based organization, see: Mohrman, S. A., S. G. Cohen, & A. M. Mohrman, Jr. Designing Team-based Organizations: New Forms of Knowledge Work. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. (1995). Designing Work Teams – There are many different characteristics of teams that influence team processes and outcomes. For a discussion regarding how to take these characteristics into account when designing teams see: Hackman, J. R. “The Design of Work Teams. In J. W. Lorsch (Ed.) Handbook of Organizational Behavior. Englewood Cliffs. N. J.: Prentice-Hall. pp. 315-342. (1987). Team Leadership – Effectiveness in the leader role is an important factor for team success. For more information about leadership, see Chapters 13 and 14 in this text. For information regarding the particulars of leading teams, see: Hackman, J. R. Leading teams: Setting the Stage for Great Performances. Boston: Harvard Business School Press (2002). Majority and Minority Influence -- Members of groups who hold a minority or majority position may have an important influence on group functioning and effectiveness. For more information see: Moscovici, S. “Social Influence and Conformity.” In G. Lindzey and E. Aronson (eds.), The Handbook of Social Psychology (Vol. 2). New York: Random House. pp. 347-412 (1985). Nemeth. C. J., & B. M. Staw. “The Trade-offs of Social Control and Innovation in Groups and Organizations”. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 22(1989), pp. 175-210. Instructor’s Manual: Ch. 12: Teams: Processes & Communication CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter explores team processes – the communication, activities, and interactions that occur within teams as they pursue their goals and accomplish their tasks. Some processes are directly related to core team tasks. Other processes integrate or support accomplishment of core tasks. Finally, other processes result in difficult to observe team states, including cohesion, potency, mental models, and transactive memory. To improve team process, organizations may include training in areas such as team building and team competencies. LEARNING GOALS After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 12.1 What are taskwork processes, and what are some examples of team activities that fall into this process category? 12.2 What are teamwork processes, and what are some examples of team activities that fall into this process category? 12.3 What factors influence the communication process in teams? 12.4 What are team states, and what are some examples of the states that fall into this process category? 12.5 How do team processes affect team performance and team commitment? 12.6 What steps can organizations take to improve team processes? CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Team Processes and Communication A. Team process is a term that reflects the different types of communication, activities, and interactions that occur within teams that contribute to their ultimate end goals Asset Gallery (Groups and Teams/Mgmt Video DVD): What Airline Workers Learned at NASCAR. This NBC News clip shows United Airlines ramp workers attending “Pit Crew U” to learn about efficiency from NASCAR teams. The clip ties into the United Airlines case that opens and closes this chapter. One topic for discussion is whether teams that are not doing vehicle upkeep and maintenance sorts of tasks would still benefit from the “Pit Crew U” experience. Might white collar teams even benefit? And if so, how? II. Why Are Some Teams More Than The Sum of Their Parts? Process gain – similar to “synergy”, the term refers to the fact that some teams perform at a level which is higher than the level of their combined individual members Process loss is the opposite of process gain – you get less from the team than you would expect, based on the team’s individual members Coordination loss – when integrating team activities consumes more time and energy than the activity itself Coordination loss is driven by production blocking – when team members have to wait on one another before they can do their part of the team task Motivational loss – when team members don’t work as hard as they could, due to the reduced accountability of being in the team Motivation loss is driven by social loafing - where members exert less effort due to the presence of others OB on Screen: Avengers. The clip referenced in the book begins around the 1:39:10 mark of the film, continuing until about the 1:42:10 mark. The clip depicts a conversation between Iron Man Tony Starks and Loki, an exiled god who has a plan to subjugate earth. Starks puts himself in a situation where he is completely defenseless against Loki in order to convey that he is confident in his team of super heros (The Avengers). He admits to Loki that although it has taken his team a while to “get traction”, they will come together to defeat him. One topic for class discussion could center on the idea of synergy. You could begin by asking students why synergy is necessary. The Avengers are up against an insurmountable force—Loki is not only extremely powerful himself, but he is receiving help from a race of aliens who wish to take over the Galaxy. The Avengers clearly need to become more than the sum of the parts if they want to accomplish this feat. The conversation can then turn to how the Avengers can achieve synergy. One part of the solution involves leveraging the strengths of each of the individual team members. Starks mentions these strengths in the conversation. The other element is getting the team members to work with each other so that process gain can occur. Students should be able see that the motivation for working together is the common goal of defeating Loki and saving Earth. Bonus OB on Screen (from 3rd ed): Glory Road. The clip referenced in the book begins around the 1:09:39 mark of the film, continuing until about the 1:14:52 mark. The clip begins at the start of a 1966 basketball game where the Texas Western Miners (the first NCAA team to start an all African American line-up) were up against the University of Seattle Chieftains. The Miners were undefeated, and should have been able to handle the Chieftains handily, however, were struggling with racism outside the team as well as some unspoken resentment that had built-up among the players. As a consequence, the team lost the game due to poor play and a general lack of teamwork and motivation. After the game, members reveal their feelings and Coach Haskins and the team trainer refocus the players on the goal of winning the NCAA championship (which they do, beating Kentucky 72-65). A good opening for discussion would be to have students provide examples of specific team processes, both during and after the game. Taskwork interactions related to playing the game obviously were not very good. Teamwork also wasn’t good—players weren’t really helping each during the game, and there were obvious problems with interpersonal processes during and after the game. Students will also note that cohesion, a team state, was also low. A second topic for discussion can focus on how Coach Haskins managed the conflict. The conflict was relationship focused which is detrimental to team effectiveness. Coach Haskins’ presence helped keep things under control. Haskins also created a climate where the players felt they could discuss their positions openly and honestly. Coach Haskins was able to manage the situation by focusing the players on the team’s mission. He turned the conflict into a rallying point, which inspired the players. Please email Jason Colquitt ([email protected]) if you have any questions about using OB on Screen in your teaching. Bonus OB on Screen (from 1st and 2nd ed): 300. The clip begins around the 40:45 mark of the film, continuing until about the 51:40 mark. The clip depicts reveals how an army of 300 can achieve the type of process gains that allow it to effectively fight against an army of over 100,000. The scene opens with King Leonidas explaining to Ephialtes why it is necessary for a Spartan soldier to be able to lift his shield over his head. The King’s rationale is that employment of the shield is an essential part of the phalanx strategy, and the failure of even one soldier to do so skillfully in battle could jeopardize the entire army. The scene then vividly depicts a battle in which the phalanx is effectively employed against the Persian conquerors. Class discussion could begin by asking students to identify factors that allowed the small group of Spartans to fight effectively against a numerically superior force. Students should be able to identify factors that relate to several of the processes discussed in the chapter. The scene shows that the Spartans were not only exceptionally well-trained in the task of fighting, but they also employed an effective strategy (they fought the battle in a narrow pass, and thus the phalanx could not be out flanked), their actions were highly coordinated (they raised and lowered their shields in unison), they had confidence in themselves, they were very cohesive, and they had a shared vision of what they needed to do to achieve a common goal. These examples cover many of the processes discussed in the chapter (taskwork, teamwork, and emergent states). C. Taskwork Processes – the activities of team members that relate directly to the accomplishment of tasks 1. Creative behavior – activities focused on generating novel and useful ideas and solutions a. Brainstorming A creative process guided by four rules Express all ideas that come to mind, no matter how strange Go for quantity of ideas rather than quality Don’t criticize or evaluate the ideas of others Build on the ideas of others Brainstorming rarely works as well as individual idea generation People tend to social loaf in groups Members may be hesitant to express ideas that are not well developed Production blocking occurs when members have to wait their turn to give ideas iii. IDEO brainstorming b. Nominal Group Technique i. Bring team together ii. Have members of team write down their ideas iii. Each member shares his or her ideas with the team iv. After recording ideas, they are discussed for clarification v. Members rank order ideas individually vi. Facilitator tabulates scores to get winning idea Try This! To illustrate the limitations of brainstorming, split the class in half. Identify a brainstorming problem (e.g., how to encourage recycling on campus), and give one half of the class 10 minutes to brainstorm (assign a facilitator from the group to write the ideas on the board). When the group is finished, outline a modified nominal group procedure that will be used by the other group. Members write down as many ideas as they can, and after three minutes, they’ll take turns sharing the non-redundant ideas with the facilitator who writes them down on the board until 7 minutes is up (NOTE: The other students in this group can also share their ideas with the class, but keep these ideas separated). Then count up the number of ideas each group unidentified in their allotted ten minutes. The nominal group will always generate more ideas. Class discussion can focus on why this happened. Students will recognize coordination loss, motivation loss, and self-censuring as the major issues. Decision Making In a team context, decision making requires that multiple members gather and consider ideas relevant to their specializations, then make recommendations to a team leader who is ultimately responsible for a final decision Three factors account for team’s ability to make effective decisions: Decision informity – do members possess adequate information about their own task responsibilities? Staff validity – do members make good recommendations to the team leader? iii. Hierarchical sensitivity – does the leader effectively weigh the ideas of the members? OB Internationally. This text box discusses the use of group decision support systems to help multinational teams overcome problems with communicating and making effective decisions. If students have experience using electronic meeting system software, then they may be able to identify strengths and weaknesses of these types of systems. Boundary Spanning Activities with individuals and groups who are not part of the team. Activities include: Ambassador activities – communications intended to protect the team, persuade others to support the team, or obtain important resources for the team Task coordinator activities – involve communications that are intended to coordinate task-related issues with people or groups in other functional areas Scout activities – things that team members do to gain information about technology, competitors, or the broader marketplace D. Teamwork Processes Teamwork processes are the interpersonal activities that facilitate the accomplishment of the team’s work, but are not directly related to task accomplishment Transition Processes a. Teamwork activities that focus on preparation for future work. Such activities can include mission analysis, strategy formulation, and goal specification. These processes can take place before the team begins to do taskwork, or between identifiable periods of taskwork (e.g., parts of a project). Action Processes a. Action processes are important as taskwork is being completed, and can include things such as monitoring progress toward team goals and coordination 4. Interpersonal Processes a. Interpersonal processes relate to the manner in which team members manage their relationships. They include processes such as motivating and confidence building, and conflict management i. Types of team conflict Relationship conflict – based on incompatibilities with respect to personal values or preferences, these almost always harm the team Task conflict – based on disagreements about the team’s task, these can be beneficial to team Try This! Ask students to share an example of task conflict that occurred in one of their student teams. What exactly did the disagreement revolve around, and did the task conflict ultimately have a positive or negative effect on the group’s performance? Then ask students to share an example of relationship conflict, so long as it involves a person or team that is not also in the class. Was that instance more detrimental to the team’s effectiveness than the task conflict? Why exactly? OB at the Bookstore: Team of Rivals. The book provides a thorough overview of how President Abraham Lincoln managed his cabinet, which consisted of some of his fiercest political rivals. One topic of class discussion can center on the question of why Lincoln assembled his cabinet this way. Most students will comment on the value of having different points of view on a team. From there the discussion can turn to the challenges of managing such a team. Students will likely mention conflict and the inability to get anything done. You can redirect these types of comments by asking students to describe the challenges in terms of team processes. Some of the challenges include task and relationship conflict, as well as problems with communication, decision making, cohesion, potency, and mental models. Another topic for discussion can center on how Lincoln was able to successfully manage his team of rivals. Some students will comment that the team had to come together to help the country get past a very difficult time. This is a valid point—an important common goal can bring a team together. But it’s also possible that the rivals could have become dogmatic and refused to move in Lincoln’s direction on issues. You can ask how Lincoln avoided this. Lincoln made his rivals feel like he was listening and he want out of his way to minimize interpersonal conflict. From here you can ask students for examples where this approach has worked for them in the past. Communication Communication refers to the process by which information and meaning gets transferred from a sender to a receiver. The communication process involves both a sender, who encodes a message, and a receiver, who decodes the message. That process can be hindered by: Communicator issues. i. Low communication competence – a lack of skills in encoding, transmitting, and receiving messages. ii.Problematic emotions and emotional intelligence of members – inability to regulate emotions and understand the emotions of others while encoding, transmitting, and receiving messages. Noise - factors in the environment that interfere with the message Low information richness - messages transmitted through less rich media, such as computers, lack cues such as body language, tone of voice, and facial expressions Inappropriate network structures or use of technology - the pattern of communication occurring in the team should match the complexity of the task, with more centralized structures (the wheel, the Y) being more appropriate on simple tasks and less centralized structures (all channel, circle) being more appropriate on complex tasks Team States Team states refer to the specific types of thoughts and feelings that coalesce in the minds of team members as a consequence of working together. Team states include: Cohesion – the emotional attachment that bonds team members together May lead to groupthink To leverage benefits of cohesion, teams should: Acknowledge that cohesion can be detrimental Formally institute the role of devil’s advocate OB Assessments: Cohesion. This scale allows students to determine exactly how cohesive their teams are. Ask the students to complete the assessment relative to their current team in the course, or to a team from another class. If their current team is the focus, it’s best to skip the typical showing of hands for who scores high or low. It may be a bit uncomfortable for classmates to admit to low cohesion scores in front of their team members. Please see the Instructor PowerPoints for Bonus Assessments on Relationship Conflict and Transactive Memory. Please see the Connect assignments for this chapter for assessments on Potency and Task Conflict. Please email me at [email protected] if you have any questions about using these assessments in your teaching. Potency – the degree to which team members think that the team can be effective across a variety of situations and tasks Strong potency has a strong positive impact on team performance Mental Models – the level of common understanding among team members with regard to important aspects of the team and its task Transactive Memory – refers to how specialized knowledge is distributed among members in a manner that results in an effective system of memory for the team Summary: Why Are Some Teams More Than the Sum of Their Parts? How Important Are Team Processes? Teamwork processes have a moderate positive impact on team performance, especially for teams involved in complex knowledge work Teamwork processes have a strong positive effect on team commitment, especially for teams involved in complex knowledge work Application: Training Teams Transportable Teamwork Competencies Organizations may try to help individual members gain individual competencies such as conflict resolution and communications skills, that are related to effective team processes Cross-Training Organizations may train team members in the duties that are normally performed by their teammates. This helps people to learn how the jobs of the individuals on the team come together Three levels of cross training Personal clarification – members receive information regarding the roles of other team members Positional modeling – team members observe how others do their jobs Positional rotation – members actually do the work of other team members Team Process Training Team process training is an experience that helps the team work together more effectively, for example action training, where a team is given a real problem, and then is held accountable for solving the problem Team Building Typically facilitated by a consultant, these activities are intended to improve goal setting, interpersonal relations, problem solving, and role clarification. Sample activities include ropes courses, laser tag, paintball and scavenger hunts. Team building may or may not be effective – one meta analysis shows that it does not have a positive effect on team performance, but it may have a positive effect for smaller teams and when the exercise emphasizes the importance of clarifying role responsibilities. Asset Gallery (Groups and Teams/Mgmt Video DVD): Teamwork: Team Activities for Coworkers. This NBC News clip shows corporate employees going through a wide variety of team building exercises, from games to cooking to rodeo-style tasks. Focus discussion on the taskwork, teamwork, communication, and team states concepts that could be increased through these kinds of activities. Then ask the class why it might be that few team building activities actually improve the performance of work teams. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 12.1 Before reading this chapter, how did you define teamwork? How did this definition correspond to the definition outlined in this book? Answer: This chapter emphasizes the role of group processes in teamwork. While most students will have already considered task processes, they may not be as familiar with the way interpersonal processes affect teamwork outcomes. Before reading the chapter, I defined teamwork as the collaborative effort of a group to achieve a common goal, with each member contributing their skills. This aligns with the book’s definition, which emphasizes coordinated action, mutual support, and a shared objective, but the book also highlights the importance of interdependence and complementary roles within the team. 12.2 Think of a team you worked in that performed poorly. Were any of the causes of the poor performance related to the forces that tend create process loss? If so, which force was most particularly problematic? What steps, if any, did your team take to deal the problem? Answer: Answers will vary from student to student, but many students may identify interpersonal processes as the source of their team difficulties. An additional problem is that often, teams take no action at all when dealing with interpersonal processes. In a poorly performing team I worked with, coordination loss was a significant issue, leading to missed deadlines and duplicated efforts. This process loss was particularly problematic due to unclear roles and ineffective communication. To address the problem, the team eventually tried to clarify responsibilities and set up regular check-ins, but the damage from early miscoordination had already impacted our performance. 12.3 Think of a team you worked in that performed exceptionally well. What type of taskwork process did the team engage in? Which teamwork processes did the team seem to depend on most to produce the exceptional results? Answer: Typically, teams will perform exceptionally well when they are working on a conjunctive task, and all team members have high levels of ability and respect one another. 12.4 Think about the team states described in this chapter. If you joined a new team, how long do you think it would take you to get a feel for those team states? Which states would you be able to gauge first? Which would take longer? Answer: Some states might be very easy to see immediately – for example, the group’s cohesion might be readily apparent at first meeting. Other states would take longer to discern, especially things like mental models and transactive memory, since they are so heavily based on group history. If I joined a new team, I would likely get a feel for team cohesion and task commitment relatively quickly, often within the first few meetings or interactions. These states are usually evident through initial group dynamics and the enthusiasm for tasks. Team trust and interpersonal relationships might take longer to gauge, as they develop over time through repeated interactions and shared experiences. 12.5 Describe boundary-spanning activities in the context of a student team. Have student teams you worked in done any of these effectively? Are there boundary-spanning activities that you could engage in that would promote your learning, grades, or overall satisfaction? Answer: In student teams, boundary spanning may involve reaching out to the professor, to other teams, to resources such as the reference librarian, the school AV operators, etc. All of the boundary spanning activities mentioned would be likely to improve a student’s overall grade. Boundary-spanning activities in the context of a student team involve interactions and collaborations with individuals or groups outside the immediate team, such as other student teams, professors, industry professionals, or external stakeholders. These activities can include seeking advice, gathering external resources, networking, or collaborating on projects with outside groups. In my experience, some student teams have effectively engaged in boundary-spanning activities, such as consulting with professors for guidance or working with other teams on joint projects. These activities enriched our learning and provided diverse perspectives that improved our work quality. Engaging in more boundary-spanning activities, like reaching out to industry professionals for insights or collaborating with other student teams, could further enhance my learning experience, improve our project outcomes, and lead to higher grades and overall satisfaction. 12.6 Which types of teamwork training would your student team benefit most from? What exactly would this training cover? What specific benefits would you expect? What would prevent a team from training itself on this material? Answer: Answers to this question will vary by student, depending on their team experiences. My student team would benefit most from collaborative problem-solving and communication training. This training would cover effective strategies for brainstorming, decision-making, and managing conflicts, along with improving clarity and efficiency in communication. The specific benefits would include enhanced teamwork, better conflict resolution, and a more organized approach to tasks. A team might struggle to train itself on this material due to a lack of structured guidance, expertise in delivering the training, or time constraints. CASE: NASA Questions: 12.1 Which team processes do you believe are most important to the crew of astronauts traveling to Mars? Why? Are there specific team processes you feel are relatively unimportant? Explain. Answer: The case seemed to emphasize conflict, and although this process is certainly important, there are reasons to believe that all types of team processes are important. In terms of specific types of taskwork behaviors, creativity and decision making may be quite important for solving problems that happen while in space. Boundary spanning will likely be unimportant since the crew will be isolated from other teams and individuals. Of the specific types of teamwork processes, action and interpersonal processes are important while in space. Transition processes, such as goal specification and mission analysis may be less important in space. However, these processes likely serve as a vital function before and between missions. 12.2 Describe additional types of information that could be collected by the psychologists to help crews better understand their interactions and how they influence crew effectiveness. Answer: From the case it does not seem that information regarding the content of the communication among team members is being collected. Without this information, it is difficult to infer much about the crew’s effectiveness with regard to specific types of taskwork and teamwork processes. It would be unknown, for example, if communication among team members was focused on creative problem solving, decision-making, goal specification, or something completely unrelated to the mission. 12.3 Discuss how team training could be used to build effective processes for the crew traveling to Mars? Answer: Once the data from the technology pinpoints the source of problems, training could be designed to address the issues. Members of the crew could receive training in transportable teamwork skills in areas such as conflict resolution, collaborative problem solving, and communication. Team process training could also be used to help teams diagnose and fix problems with their interactions. Action learning could be especially useful in this regard. BONUS CASE (from 2nd ed): UNITED AIRLINES Even if you’ve never flown on United Airlines, chances are that you’re familiar with the company—it’s one of the oldest airlines in the world, with roots going back to the 1920s. With its nearly 50,000 employees and a fleet of almost 400 aircraft that make more than 3,000 flights a day to over 200 domestic and international locations, it’s also one of the world’s largest airlines. If you’ve gone online to a Web site like Expedia, Priceline, or Travelocity to find a flight, United Airlines was likely one of your options, especially if you needed to fly through San Francisco, Denver, Chicago, or Washington, DC, where United has major hubs. Of course, you also might be familiar with United Airlines because it’s been in the news so much in the past decade. The most memorable news stories focused on the events of September 11, 2001, when terrorists hijacked two United Airlines jets—Flight 175, which crashed into the South Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City, and Flight 93, which crashed into a field in Pennsylvania. In part because of these hijackings, but also due to competition from low-cost rivals like Southwest, United Airlines filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in 2002. United emerged from this bankruptcy in 2006 after taking some drastic and highly publicized steps to cut costs. For instance, United eliminated unprofitable routes and costly services such as free meals. The company also terminated its employees’ pension plan, and many United employees were laid off, furloughed, or forced to take pay cuts. To improve its competitive position, United was faced with the difficult challenge of looking for ways to cut costs and improve services without further alienating its employees, whose efforts were needed to help the company make it through this difficult time period. One strategy involved reducing the amount of time it takes to “turn” an aircraft, or prepare it for its next departure. The job of turning an aircraft rests largely with the team of ramp workers who direct the aircraft into the gate after it lands, set up equipment to unload and reload passengers and cargo, and push it out of the gate for departure. United figured that if it could reduce the amount of time between it might be able to schedule additional flights a day without needing to purchase any additional aircraft. As one United Airlines senior executive stated, “Our airplanes don’t earn money while they’re sitting on the ground. . . . They need to be in the air. So if we can shave even four or five minutes off of every aircraft turn, we can fly well over a hundred more flights a day.” To put this plan into action, United identified the most efficient and consistent process that could be used to turn the planes, then trained its ramp crews in this process. Ramp crews are responsible for guiding planes to their gate and chocking their wheels after arrival, positioning the “jet bridge” that connects the airport gate with the door of the aircraft so that passengers can safely exit and board, setting up belt loaders so that baggage can be unloaded and loaded, performing various maintenance tasks, and keeping the ground free of debris that could get sucked up in the jet engines. Part of the training was conducted at Pit Instruction and Training LLC—or “Pit Crew U,” a school that teaches people how to become members of pit crews for automobile racing teams. The job of a pit crew is to service a racing car quickly and safely when it comes in for a pit stop during a race. A pit stop is a highly coordinated task that typically involves changing tires using a jack and air guns, pumping gas into the car, cleaning up spills, and washing the car’s windshield. In a competitive race, all these tasks have to happen in about 13 seconds, without any mistakes that could cause damage to the car or injury to the driver, members of the pit crew, or spectators. So why did United Airlines believe that it could reduce the time it takes to turn an aircraft through training in an altogether different job? United believed that the set of skills that promote the effectiveness of crews responsible for servicing a car during a pit stop is roughly the same as the set of skills that promote the effectiveness of ramp crews responsible for servicing a plane between flights. To accomplish the goal of a 13-second pit stop during a real race, pit crews must use a highly standardized and coordinated process. The members of the crew need to plan and prepare themselves and their tools for each and every pit stop. During the pit stop, the members follow their part of a standardized process, and when something unexpected happens—for example, when a tool breaks or fuel spills on the car and ignites—the members must communicate with one another and make adjustments to the process. Although the specific tasks, tools, and time constraints are different, ramp crews also need to follow a standardized and coordinated process to turn a plane for the next flight. Members of ramp crews should be prepared and ready to fulfill the requirements of their specific part of the crew’s task. They also need to communicate effectively with one another and adapt to unusual circumstances—such as when a baggage cart breaks or an important tool is misplaced. Of course, there are some important issues that come to mind when considering the appropriateness of pit crew training for ramp crews. Most obviously, perhaps, the racing context might cause ramp crews to overemphasize the goal of increasing speed and underemphasize the important actions that protect the safety of the flight crew and passengers. We do not know of any specific examples in which this issue has caused a problem at United Airlines, however, it may be worthwhile to consider how training could be adapted to deal with the possibility. Sources: ABC News.com. “Corporations Send Employees to Pit Crew U.” April 9, 2006. http://abcnews.go.com/print?id=1817896 (June 16, 2009). Cary, S. “United Airlines Workers Go to School for Pit Crews.” The San Diego Union Tribune Online, March 25, 2006. http:// www.signonsandiego.com/union trib/20060325/news_lz1n25read.html (July 5, 2009). MSNBC Online. “United Gets Approval to Shift Pension Plans.” May 11, 2005. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7804770/ (July 3, 2009). United Airlines, Corporate Web Site. “Era 1: 1910–1925.” http:// www.united.com/page/middle page/0,6823,2281,00.html (July 3, 2009). United Airlines, Corporate Web Site. “Company Information.” http:// ir.united.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=83680&p=irol-homeProfile (July 3, 2009). United Airlines, Corporate Web Site. “Company Information.” http:// www.united.com/page/article/0,6722,50100,00.html (July 3, 2009). United Airlines, Corporate Web Site. “Company Information.” http:// www.united.com/page/ middlepage/0,6823,50103,00.html (July 29, 2009). Questions: 12.1 Which specific types of team processes are most relevant to ramp crews? Which factors in the ramp crew context likely cause the majority of problems with communication? Answer: Taskwork in the form of assigned core job tasks is crucial. If the team does not perform its core job effectively, there may be life or death consequences. There are a variety of teamwork processes that are important. Transition processes are necessary to prepare for how to cope with new arrivals and unusual circumstances. Action processes are also crucial. Members need to monitor one another, coordinate their activities, and help each other. Interpersonal processes are also important. As an example, the inability to manage relationship conflict could result in a reduction of attention paid to the task at hand. Of course, communication is also important as well. 12.2 Which type of team training takes place at Pit Crew U? Which specific team processes and communication factors does the training emphasize? Answer: Pit Crew U uses team process training in the form of experiences that highlight effective teamwork processes. Although the taskwork processes are unique to pit crews, teamwork in the form of transition processes (e.g., preparation & planning), action processes (e.g., monitoring, helping, coordinating) are applicable to the ramp crews. Also, the training also appears to involve communicating in the presence of noise. 12.3 What recommendations would you make to ensure that the ramp crews maintained their focus on safety? Are there additional types of team processes or communication training that should be incorporated to overcome potential issues having to do with the speed versus safety trade-off? Answer: Beyond training in specific taskwork activities focused on safety procedures, training in various aspect of teamwork could be tailored for safety considerations. For example, training could emphasize the importance of planning for safety (transition process), monitoring conditions related to safety (action process), and members encouraging each other to be safe (interpersonal process). INTERNET CASE: THE NBA WILL NOW TRACK EVERY PLAYER’S MOVEMENTS By Ira Boudway http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-09-06/the-nba-will-now-track-every-players-movements Questions: 12.1 In terms of the information provided in the chapter, what is the purpose of SportVU? Do you believe SportVU holds promise in accomplishing this purpose? Explain. Answer: The purpose of SportVU is to gather information about team processes. There has been a focus on general indicators of performance results as reflected in team and player statistics (winning percentage, points scored, points against, shooting percentage, rebounds, blocks, steals, and so forth). SportVU allows coaches and trainers to gather data on what players are actually doing while playing games. From the article, it seems that SportVU can measure things such as how fast players are running, how quickly they move, where, when, and to whom they pass, and so forth. This type of detailed information should provide much clearer indications of where there may be problems with taskwork processes. This will allow coaches to identify specific activities to train. Because all the teams now have access to the data, it’s likely that the ability to gain a competitive advantage will lie in the ability of teams to make use of the data. 12.2 Which specific aspects of team process could be tracked using SportVU? Answer: Although it’s obvious that taskwork activities will be tracked, it seems possible that indices of teamwork and other team states could be created as well. For example, it’s possible that SportVU could track interactions among specific players to see where there may be coordination issues. Not passing to a player who is open could indicate conflict, for example. Players overall activity level or speed could indicate potency. A series of quick passes to players who are in motion could indicate effective team mental models. EXERCISE: WILDERNESS SURVIVAL Instructions: This exercise takes between 40 and 50 minutes. Begin by having the students read the scenario individually, placing their own rankings of the 14 items into column B of the table. Once they have completed their individual rankings, put the students into their groups and give them 15-20 minutes to come to consensus on how the group would rank the items. Those group rankings go into column C of the table. Reiterate the instructions given in the exercise, that group members should not merely vote or average rankings together. They should strive to create consensus and to use persuasive techniques to build unanimity in the group. Correct Answers: Once the group has completed their rankings, provide the following correct answers, to be put into column D of the table. The correct answers are based on the opinions of two experts: Jeff Stemmerman and Ken Gieske of REI Outfitters, both of whom act as guides for canoe trips to the Boundary Waters region. The experts agreed that the best course of action for the group was to repair one of the canoes and send two of the most experienced and least injured people to paddle to a road and go to Grand Marais for help. Because a search party would not even leave for at least five days and might not find the group for a couple days more, this would cause severe hardship on the group, particularly the one with the broken leg. Food is way down and there is minimal protection from rain and cold, since the tent and tarps were lost. Cold and rainy weather at this time of year is life- threatening, so the group must get help as soon as possible. It is estimated the group of two would move faster than if everyone went along, and they could get to help within one day. Then a helicopter could be sent to the camp site. First priority of the group, then, is to go for help. However, in order to do this and survive, it is important to get warm and try to dry out wet clothing and sleeping bags. However, since it has started to drizzle and may rain, there is no assurance things will get dry soon. In that case, the party of two needs to leave quickly, in wet clothes and take their wet sleeping bags with them. There is almost no food left, most of it having been lost in the rapids. About half should go to the two paddlers, who will have less time to gather food, but who will presumably get to a food source sooner. The experts said as long as they have water, they could go for three days without food and still function adequately. On the third day they would get shaky. Those left behind can try to catch some fish to eat. Based on these opinions, the experts rankings are: Duct Tape. This is the most essential thing because it is the only way to repair the canoe. It can be used to patch up the 18" tear and to fix the broken gunwales. Other uses for the tape (which the experts say is essential on any such trip) is to repair the fishing poles and to use with large sticks to set a temporary splint for the broken bone. Lastly, it can be used to fashion a makeshift pan to boil water. However, caution must be used to keep the tape far enough away from the flame and to not allow the water to get so hot that the adhesive will melt. PFD's (Personal Flotation Devices). These are useful mostly because they help keep the body warm. They can be worn as vests to keep the torso warm or used as sit pads or pillows on wet or cold ground. Right now the clothes are all wet. Even when PFD's are wet, they still provide warmth. Map of the Area. Essential for the two people striking out to get help. It would be almost impossible to navigate out of lakes and to a road without the map. The plastic coating also makes the map usable as a makeshift umbrella.#, Sleeping Bags. Important to keep warm, both for paddlers as well as those staying behind. Even though the bags are wet, they still provide some warmth, since they are synthetic. It is important to dry them out as soon as possible, though. The bags can be used day or night for warmth. Matches. To start a fire as soon as the drizzle or rain stops and begin drying out the clothes. The extra set can be dried out and put on at the same time that some people strip down and get into the sleeping bags while their clothes dry. Fires can be started from the plentiful wood pieces in the area. Birch bark is used as fire starter. The fire is important for cooking purposes, also, as well as providing warmth for the group. If the weather had not started to drizzle and look like it was going to rain soon, then matches would have been #3 in order to get clothes and sleeping bags dry, especially for those leaving. Food. Though there isn't much, It will still be very helpful. It must be divided and rationed, so that it doesn’t run out quickly. For those staying behind, it is hoped that within a day fish can be caught. However, in the meantime, the food that remains should somehow be protected from bears. Clothes. When it stops raining, the extra clothes need to be dried out and three of the remaining people can wear them. This greatly helps chances of survival, for keeping dry increases warmth. Dry clothes are even more important than securing additional food to eat. Fishing Poles. Once the duct tape is used, the poles should be fit for fishing in the lake, where northern, walleye, and lake trout (average 2-5 lbs.) fish can be caught and cooked over the fire. A stick may be used as a spit to roast the fish, or the makeshift pan (from duct tape) can boil the fish. Parachute Cord. This has many uses - as a line to dry clothes (though bushes can be used, too), to secure the food in a tree away from bears. Also, if the duct tape runs out, the cord can be used for splinting the leg and for repairing the gunwales on the canoe. In order to do this, poke holes near either side of the top, using the jack-knife. Pull the cord through the holes and tie it securely. 10.Insect Repellent. For protection from mosquitoes and black flies, which are both persistent and thick, as well as wood ticks and deer ticks, which often spread lyme disease. 11.Water Purification Tablets. Mildly important because the water in these areas is often not pure. However, the disease to worry about the most is giardia, a protozoa in the water. It takes two weeks to take effect in the body. By that time, everyone should be home. Water can also be boiled. 12.Yellow Frisbee. Though brought for recreation, it actually has some survival value. One use is to boil water in it, being careful that the heat does not melt the plastic. Fish can be boiled in it, as well, as can hard candies in water, to provide a warm liquid for the group. The Frisbee can be used to fan the fire (though blowing on it works, too), and it can be used for recreation, to ease the tension. 13.Magnetic Compass. This is not as important as the other items, because the paddlers are well-equipped to navigate the lakes with the map. 14.Whiskey. Some may think this is useful for energy or to keep warm, but actually it has the opposite effect. And it should only be used as a last resort for pain (broken bone), because alcohol causes dehydration and hypothermia (getting colder). After drinking alcohol, the blood capillaries expand and initially, the drinker feels warm; however, heat is actually being lost and later there is a sudden feeling of being very, very cold. Doing Computations: Now that columns B, C, and D have all been completed, instruct students to do the computations in columns A, E, and F. Emphasize that these calculations involve absolute differences—there should not be any negative signs in the table. As the instructor, you should now fill in the second table in the exercise. Have students give you their Average Member Score (this is the average of all of the Individual Scores that students calculated by summing the contents of column A). Also have them give you their Group Score, their Best Member Score, and that Best Member’s Persuasion Score. Then fill in a “Yes” for the Synergy row is the Group Score is lower than the Average Member Score. Questions: Chances are that less than half of the groups will have achieved Synergy. For the most part, the Group Scores will be higher (i.e., contain more error) than the Average Member Score, showing that groups would have been better off merely averaging their rankings together and not speaking to one another. In many cases, the Group Scores will be higher (i.e., contain more error) than the Best Member’s Score, meaning that groups would have been better off merely letting the best member do the exercise him/herself (if that member had been able to be identified before the exercise). It’s likely that the groups that lacked synergy listened to the wrong members during the course of the group discussion. One way to judge this is to look at the Best Member’s Persuasion Score. A low number indicates that the member was very persuasive, as it indicates that the group’s rankings came to closely resemble that member’s ranking. In the groups that lacked synergy, the Best Member’s Persuasion Score is probably quite high, showing that they weren’t vocal enough during the discussion. You might consider asking those groups whether the “Worst Member” would volunteer his or her Persuasion Score, to see if the members were listening to someone who was offering bad advice. Thus, process loss is created in this case by now weighing members’ opinions accurately in coming up with the correct decision. OMITTED TOPICS The field of organizational behavior is extremely broad and different textbooks focus on different aspects of the field. A brief outline of topics that are not covered in this text, but which the professor might want to include in his or her lecture, is included below. In cases where these topics are covered in other chapters in the book, we note those chapters. In cases where they are omitted entirely, we provide some references for further reading. Sociotechnical Theory – Modern perspectives on small groups and teams can be traced to research conducted in the British coal mining industry during the 1950s. For a review of a classic study from this perspective see: Trist, E. L., G. I. Susman, and G. R. Brown. “An Experiment in Autonomous Working in an Underground Coal Mine. Human Relations, 30 (1977). pp. 210-236. Team Based Organizations—Team based organizations are different than traditional “job-based” organizations in several important ways. For a discussion of these differences, and also factors that need to be taken into account in designing a teambased organization, see: Mohrman, S. A., S. G. Cohen, & A. M. Mohrman, Jr. Designing Team-based Organizations: New Forms of Knowledge Work. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. (1995). Team Decision Making Problems – Biases and heuristics that influence individual decision makers can impact decision making in teams. For more information on these biases and heuristics see Chapter 8 of this text. For additional information on decision making problems that are more specific to small groups and teams, see: Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, (73)1998. Whole Issue. Harvey, J. “The Abilene Paradox: The Management of Agreement” Organizational Dynamics, 3 (1974). pp. 63-80. Ross, J. and B. M. Staw. “Organizational Escalation and Exit: Lessons from the Shoreham Nuclear Power Plant.” Academy of Management Journal, 36(1993). pp. 701-733. • Communication – The manner in which team members communicate with each other is reflected in many of the processes we discussed in this chapter. For information focused more directly on communication, see: Smith, K. G., K. A. Smith, J. D. Olian, H. P. Simis Jr., D. P. O’Bannon, and J. A. Scully. “Top Management Team Demography and Process: The Role of Social Integration and Communication.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 39(1994). pp. 412-438. Stasser, G., and W. Titus. “Effects of Information Load and Percentage of Shared Information on the Dissemination of Unshared Information During Group Discussion”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 (1987). pp. 81-93. Intergroup Relations – Research on relationships among groups has a long history. For information see: Alderfer, C. P. “An intergroup perspective on group dynamics.” In J. W. Lorsch (Ed.) Handbook of Organizational Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. pp. 190-222. Marks, M. A., L. A. DeChurch, J. E. Mathieu, and F. J. Panzer. “Teamwork in multiteam systems. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(2005). pp. 964-971. Creativity – For information regarding the role of creative personality and creative thinking, see Chapter 9 of this text. Resolving Conflict – For a discussion regarding how conflict can be managed by taking into account concern for the outcome and concern for others, see Chapter 13 of this text. Instructor Manual for Organizational Behavior: Improving Performance and Commitment in the Workplace Jason Colquitt, Jeffery LePine, Michael Wesson 9780077862565, 9781260261554