CH-1-2 Self-Direction in a Changing World – Psychology for Living: Adjustment, Growth, and Behavior Today : Exam Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 1 to 2 Chapter 1: Self-Direction in a Changing World 1.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which statement is NOT true about social changes? A. Social changes are changes in social patterns. B. Social changes are changes in institutions. C. Social changes may take place at any time. D. Social changes are always planned. Answer: D 2. The world as we know it today is characterized by A. galloping technological changes B. slower social change than was witnessed in previous decades C. limited technological advances D. none of these Answer: A 3. As seen in the organization of the demonstrations that led to the overthrow of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, Facebook and other social media can be help establish A. universal democracy B. social change C. ruling classes D. none of these Answer: B 4. What percentage of the world’s internet users are in North America? A. 4 B. 42 C. 13 D. 65 Answer: C 5. Technology makes relationships among people more A. fluid and flexible B. uncomfortable C. long-lasting D. confusing Answer: A 6. Going forward, the larger proportion of the US workforce will be made up of A. educated, middle class workers B. blue collar workers C. agricultural workers D. none of these Answer: A 7. The fear of technology is known as A. computeritis B. technophobia C. electronosis D. decidophobia Answer: B 8. Which is NOT a result of the information revolution? A. increased opportunities for economic cooperation across borders B. a decrease in censorship C. the democratization of information D. a lessening information gap between wealthy and poor individuals and nations Answer: D 9. Which is NOT related to population expansion? A. Insufficient water and arable land B. Decreased pollution C. Increased poverty D. Unemployment Answer: B 10. The fastest-growing segment of the U.S. population is A. African Americans B. Hispanics C. Caucasians D. Asians Answer: B 11. One of the dramatic changes in the United States today is the increase in A. the homogeneity of the population B. blue-collar workers C. manufacturing and heavy industry D. the diversity of the population Answer: D 12. The need to learn more about ourselves and our world as a means of directing our lives more effectively is known as A. personal growth B. personal freedom C. self-direction D. individualism Answer: C 13. A culture that promotes individualism is most likely to encourage A. collective gain B. security C. greater personal gain D. role expectations Answer: C 14. The best example of an individualistic culture is A. China B. Kenya C. the United States D. Peru Answer: C 15. Individualistic cultures emphasize ______ instead of ______, which is emphasized in collective societies. A. personal achievement; collective gain B. dependence; independence C. pride; jealousy D. rationalism; emotionality Answer: A 16. “Everyone older than you will tell you what to do, and you never defy their orders” is a typical statement made in a __________ society. A. technological B. post-industrial C. democratic D. collective Answer: D 17. Which does NOT describe a society where societal gain is cherished over individual advancement? A. independent B. collectivist C. consensual-level D. embedded Answer: A 18. Positive psychology focuses on A. the vices that hold people back B. the characteristics people most want to change in themselves C. the best of human behavior D. the actions that limit people in thriving Answer: C 19. The two main ideas in the humanistic perspective are A. positive psychology and the phenomenal self B. the phenomenal self and self-actualization C. self-actualization and altruism D. altruism and personal freedom Answer: B 20. One leading humanistic psychologist, who assumed the existence of an actualizing tendency at the biological level, is A. Freud D. Erikson C. Fromm D. Rogers Answer: D 21. The term self-actualization is usually associated with A. Freud B. Erikson C. Fromm D. Maslow Answer: D 22. Truly autonomous people who are unafraid to make important decisions and who accept responsibility for their lives and their decisions are A. self-actualized B. decidoteric C. collectivistic D. normalistic Answer: A 23. People who are highly self-actualized are likely to strongly agree with which of the following statements? A. I remember that self-actualization is a lifelong process B. I don’t like new experiences C. I regularly let others influence me D. I keep my needs to myself Answer: A 24. Which psychoanalyst is known for his writings on the ambiguity of human freedom? A. Freud B. Rogers C. Erikson D. Fromm Answer: D 25. Which is a way some people cope with the ambiguity of human freedom? A. drifting B. shared decision making C. appealing to some type of authority D. all of the above Answer: D 26. Those who take charge of their lives would disagree with which of the following? A. I enjoy being interconnected to others. B. I strongly feel that a promise is a promise and should not be broken. C. If I have a choice, I much prefer to do the safe rather than the risky thing. D. When I borrow money, I make sure to pay it back. Answer: C 27. Which of the following indicate someone who has taken charge of their life? A. I have many options from which to select in terms of my education, career, social circle, etc. B. My friends are better than I am at making efficient and sound decision. C. Sometimes I call in sick when I am healthy because I do not want to work or study. D. During times of stress, I feel as if my life is out of control. Answer: A 28. Which of these types of individuals tend to be the least healthy? A. extrinsically motivated B. autonomous C. self-actualized D. internally inspired Answer: A 29. Altruism means A. helping someone else at a cost to yourself B. possessing a sense of personal freedom C. having a sense of control over others’ lives D. fearing making decisions Answer: A 30. Self-actualization correlates with A. perception of lack of control over one's life B. altruism toward others C. decidophobia about life change D. a desire to control people around you Answer: B 31. People who habitually say, "Naturally, I act this way because of the way I grew up" fail to realize, as the text suggests, that A. their choices are limited B. free choice and responsibility go hand in hand C. they cannot take calculated risks D. they have fewer options than their parents Answer: B 32. According to Maslow, which disorder does not result from the failure to grow? A. stunted person B. amoral person C. apathetic person D. adjusted person Answer: D 33. Which of these aspects of our personality is most susceptible to change? A. warmth B. assertiveness C. self-esteem D. impulsiveness Answer: C 34. Which of these aspects of our personality is least susceptible to change? A. sociability B. values C. sense of personal mastery D. control over environment Answer: A 35. Individuals who do not believe that they can change are A. more open to learning B. less willing to confront challenges C. better able to bounce back from failure D. better able to face challenges Answer: B 36. The experience of personal growth usually begins with A. reorganizing our experience B. acknowledging change C. feeling anxiety and discomfort D. changing our attitudes Answer: B 37. Which stage of personal growth is accompanied by a certain degree of anxiety and discomfort? A. acknowledging change B. sensing dissonance C. reorganizing our experience D. altering our attitudes Answer: B 38. How does personal growth usually proceed? A. dissatisfaction, reorganization, acknowledgment B. acknowledgment, dissatisfaction, reorganization C. dissonance, consonance, neutrality D. dissonance, neutrality, consonance Answer: B 39. The experience of personal growth usually ends with the stage of A. reorganizing our experience B. acknowledging change C. feeling anxiety and discomfort D. understanding the source of fear Answer: A 40. Personal fulfillment can only be achieved A. by oneself B. by reading self-help books C. in relation to others D. though self-denial Answer: C 1.2 True/False Questions 1. Social change is always planned and engineered by humans. Answer: False 2. Social media played a significant role in the overthrow of the Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. Answer: True 3. New technological advances, especially those related to media, are always welcome influences on society. Answer: False 4. There is a growing information gap between wealthy and poor individuals and nations. Answer: True 5. African Americans are the fastest growing segment of the population. Answer: False 6. Social forecasters project a fairly optimistic future. Answer: True 7. SPAM sent in Korea is more likely to contain an apology for the unsolicited email than SPAM sent in the U.S. Answer: True 8. Pressure to conform to cultural pressures in collectivist societies is far greater than in individualistic societies. Answer: True 9. Positive psychology and the humanistic perspectives focus on individuals’ vulnerabilities and maladjustments. Answer: False 10. The phenomenal self refers to reality as perceived by the individual. Answer: True 11. Actualized individuals have the courage to admit when they are wrong and need change. Answer: True 12. Self-actualization is a lifelong process; it is never fully achieved. Answer: True 13. Greater personal freedom is an unambiguously good thing. Answer: False 14. Most people today feel they have more freedom and control over their lives than their parents did. Answer: True 15. Individuals extrinsically motivated by financial success tend to have higher vitality than individuals who are more intrinsically motivated. Answer: False 16. Self-actualized individuals are less likely to demonstrate altruism. Answer: False 17. Individuals who are expressive and outgoing as teens tend to remain that way as adults. Answer: True 18. Personal growth is characterized by both continuity and change. Answer: True 19. The initial stage of personal growth is characterized by an inner sense of dissatisfaction. Answer: False 20. Personal growth typically ends with the reorganization of experience. Answer: True 1.3 Short Answer Questions 1. What is technophobia and how does it contribute to the digital divide? Answer: Technophobia is the fear or aversion to technology, hindering people from adopting new technologies and thus widening the digital divide. It exacerbates inequities as those affected lag in accessing information, services, and opportunities. 2. Discuss the social and cultural implications of the information revolution. Answer: The information revolution reshapes social norms and cultural practices by democratizing information access, but it also risks deepening inequalities and cultural homogenization. It can enhance connectivity and productivity while potentially eroding privacy and traditional cultural identities. 3. Compare and contrast characteristics of individualistic versus collectivist societies. Answer: Individualistic societies prioritize personal goals, autonomy, and self-expression, often leading to greater innovation and personal achievements. Collectivist societies emphasize group goals, harmony, and interdependence, fostering strong community bonds and support networks. 4. Define positive psychology. Answer: Positive psychology is a branch of psychology focused on the study of positive aspects of human life, such as happiness, well-being, and flourishing. It aims to understand and foster the factors that allow individuals and communities to thrive. 5. Why is personal freedom “ambiguous”? Answer: Personal freedom is “ambiguous” because it encompasses the ability to act according to one’s will, which can conflict with societal norms, responsibilities, or the freedoms of others. Its interpretation varies across cultures and contexts, leading to different understandings and expressions. 6. Explain which personality traits are most likely to remain stable throughout adulthood. Answer: Personality traits like conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability (neuroticism) are most likely to remain stable throughout adulthood. These traits tend to crystallize as individuals age, maintaining a consistent pattern over time. 7. Explain which personality traits are most likely to change throughout adulthood. Answer: Personality traits such as openness to experience and extraversion are most likely to change throughout adulthood. These traits can evolve due to life experiences, changing priorities, and personal development. 8. Describe the three-phase cycle of personal growth. Answer: The three-phase cycle of personal growth consists of awareness, where one recognizes areas for improvement; exploration, involving seeking knowledge and experiences to address these areas; and transformation, where sustained efforts lead to meaningful changes and development. 1.4 Essay Questions 1. Describe three social changes we face today. Answer: 1. Digital Transformation: The integration of digital technology into all areas of life, changing how we communicate, work, and access information. 2. Social Diversity and Multiculturalism: Growing awareness and inclusion of diverse cultures, ethnicities, and lifestyles, reshaping social norms and policies. 3. Remote Work and Gig Economy: Shifts in employment patterns with increasing remote work opportunities and the rise of freelance and gig-based work models. 2. What do the terms individualism and collectivism mean? Provide a concrete example of each type of society. Discuss characteristics of each culture that guide behaviors in that society. Answer: Individualism refers to a cultural orientation that emphasizes personal independence and self-reliance. In individualistic societies like the United States, people prioritize personal achievements, individual rights, and self-expression. Collectivism focuses on group harmony and interdependence. In collectivist societies like Japan, societal goals, community well-being, and family ties guide behaviors, with individuals often prioritizing group over personal interests. 3. Describe the two main ideas of the humanistic perspective. Answer: The two main ideas of the humanistic perspective are self-actualization and positive view of human nature. Self-actualization refers to the drive to realize one's full potential and pursue personal growth and fulfillment. The positive view of human nature posits that humans are inherently good, capable of personal growth, and motivated by a desire to improve themselves and contribute to the well-being of others. 4. What is self-actualization? Describe aspects of someone else's life that indicate to you that the person was self-actualized. Answer: • Self-actualization is the realization of one's fullest potential, where an individual achieves personal growth, self-awareness, and fulfillment. Aspects of someone else's life that indicate they are self-actualized might include: •Pursuing Passionate Interests: They actively engage in activities they are passionate about, such as a musician dedicating their life to composing and performing music. •High Creativity and Problem-Solving Skills: They exhibit creativity in their endeavors and tackle challenges with innovative solutions, like an entrepreneur who consistently develops successful business ventures. •Strong Sense of Purpose and Meaning: They have a clear sense of purpose and meaning in their life, such as a social worker dedicated to improving the lives of marginalized communities. •Authenticity and Integrity: They live authentically, staying true to their values and beliefs, like an activist who fights for social justice despite personal risks. •Balanced Life: They maintain a balance between various aspects of their life, including work, relationships, and personal interests, demonstrating well-rounded development. 5. Discuss what it means to take charge of your life. Answer: Taking charge of your life means actively making decisions and taking actions to direct your own path and achieve your goals. It involves: •Self-Responsibility: Acknowledging that you are responsible for your own choices and the consequences that follow. This means not blaming others or external circumstances for your situation. •Goal Setting and Planning: Clearly defining what you want to achieve and creating a realistic plan to reach those goals. This involves setting short-term and long-term objectives and outlining the steps needed to accomplish them. •Proactive Behavior: Taking initiative to make things happen rather than waiting for opportunities to come to you. This includes seeking out resources, learning new skills, and taking deliberate actions towards your goals. •Adaptability and Resilience: Being flexible and able to adapt to changing circumstances while maintaining focus on your objectives. Resilience helps you to bounce back from setbacks and keep moving forward. •Self-Improvement: Continuously working on personal development, whether it's through education, developing new skills, or improving mental and physical health. This ongoing process ensures that you are always growing and better equipped to handle life's challenges. 6. Describe the controversy in psychology about the conflict between continuity and change of personality. What are some of the traits that are likely to change? Unlikely to change? How can people best deal with the dilemma of continuity and change? Answer: The controversy in psychology regarding the conflict between continuity and change of personality centers on whether personality traits remain stable throughout a person’s life or change over time. This debate is crucial because it influences our understanding of human development, identity, and the capacity for personal growth and adaptation. Continuity of Personality Traits: Proponents of continuity argue that core personality traits are relatively stable and consistent throughout a person's life. Longitudinal studies suggest that traits such as conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability (neuroticism) exhibit high levels of stability. For instance, a person who is highly conscientious in their youth is likely to remain so in later adulthood. These stable traits are believed to be deeply ingrained, possibly due to genetic factors, early childhood experiences, and long-term patterns of behavior. Change in Personality Traits: On the other hand, proponents of change assert that personality can and does change, particularly in response to life experiences and personal development. Traits such as openness to experience and extraversion are more susceptible to change. For example, an individual might become more open to new experiences and ideas after traveling extensively or engaging in lifelong learning. Similarly, a person might become more introverted or extraverted depending on social and environmental influences over time. Traits Likely to Change: •Openness to Experience: Influenced by education, cultural exposure, and intellectual pursuits, it can increase or decrease based on new experiences and learning. •Extraversion: Social experiences, career demands, and changes in social networks can lead to shifts in how outgoing or reserved a person is. Traits Unlikely to Change: •Conscientiousness: Typically shows strong stability, reflecting persistent patterns of reliability, organization, and diligence. •Agreeableness: Generally remains stable, as it encompasses enduring qualities of compassion, cooperativeness, and trust in others. •Emotional Stability (Neuroticism): This trait tends to remain consistent, indicating a person's general level of emotional resilience or vulnerability. Dealing with the Dilemma of Continuity and Change: People can best navigate the dilemma of continuity and change by adopting a balanced approach that acknowledges both stable and dynamic aspects of their personality. Here are some strategies: •Self-Awareness: Developing a deep understanding of one’s enduring traits can help individuals leverage their strengths and work on areas for improvement. •Openness to Growth: Embracing the possibility of change and being open to new experiences can facilitate personal development and adaptability. •Setting Realistic Goals: Recognizing which traits are more likely to change can help in setting achievable personal development goals, while also accepting and working within the bounds of more stable traits. •Resilience and Flexibility: Building resilience and flexibility can help individuals cope with life changes and challenges, allowing for growth without losing a sense of core identity. •Support Systems: Engaging with supportive networks, such as friends, family, and mentors, can provide encouragement and feedback, helping individuals navigate changes and reinforce continuity in positive traits. By understanding the interplay between continuity and change, individuals can better manage their personal development, maintain a coherent sense of self, and adapt to the evolving demands of life. This balanced perspective can lead to more fulfilling and well-rounded personal growth. 7. Discuss the three-phase cycle of personal growth. Answer: The three-phase cycle of personal growth outlines a structured approach to individual development, encompassing awareness, exploration, and transformation. 1. Awareness: The first phase involves becoming conscious of oneself, including strengths, weaknesses, desires, and potential areas for growth. This stage often begins with introspection, reflection, or feedback from others. Awareness helps individuals identify areas where change or improvement is desired, laying the foundation for personal development. 2. Exploration: In the exploration phase, individuals actively seek out knowledge, skills, and experiences to facilitate growth and development. This stage involves learning new behaviors, strategies, or perspectives that align with personal goals identified during the awareness phase. Exploration may include formal education, mentorship, skill-building activities, or exposure to new environments and challenges. 3. Transformation: The final phase of the cycle entails implementing changes based on insights gained from awareness and exploration. Transformation involves adopting new behaviors, attitudes, or ways of thinking that contribute to personal growth and achievement of goals. This phase requires sustained effort, perseverance, and often involves overcoming obstacles or setbacks along the way. Key Characteristics and Strategies: •Reflection and Self-Assessment: Regular reflection helps individuals maintain awareness of their progress and areas needing further development. •Goal Setting and Planning: Clear goals derived from self-awareness guide the exploration phase, ensuring efforts are focused and purposeful. •Continuous Learning and Adaptation: Embracing new experiences and feedback supports ongoing growth and adaptation to changing circumstances. •Support Networks: Seeking support from mentors, peers, or professionals provides encouragement, accountability, and resources to navigate challenges and sustain motivation. Application in Real Life: •Career Development: Professionals may use this cycle to identify skills gaps, pursue relevant training, and advance in their careers. •Personal Relationships: Individuals can apply this cycle to enhance communication skills, emotional intelligence, and relationship dynamics. •Lifelong Learning: Adopting this cycle encourages a mindset of continuous improvement and resilience in the face of personal and professional challenges. Overall, the three-phase cycle of personal growth provides a systematic framework for individuals to enhance self-awareness, explore new possibilities, and achieve meaningful transformation in various aspects of life. By embracing this process, individuals can cultivate personal fulfillment, resilience, and a sense of purpose over time. 8. Provide a definition and a concrete example of the following terms from Chapter 1: self-actualization, social change, altruism, and individualistic society. Answer: Here are the definitions and concrete examples for each of the terms: 1. Self-actualization: Definition: Self-actualization refers to the realization or fulfillment of one's potential and capabilities, leading to personal growth and a sense of purpose. Example: An individual who discovers their passion for painting and dedicates themselves to mastering the craft, eventually becoming a renowned artist known for their unique style and contributions to the art world, demonstrates self-actualization. 2. Social Change: Definition: Social change refers to the transformation of societal structures, behaviors, attitudes, and norms over time. Example: The civil rights movement in the United States during the 1960s led to significant social change by challenging racial segregation and discrimination, ultimately resulting in legal reforms and improved rights for African Americans. 3. Altruism: Definition: Altruism involves selfless concern for the well-being of others, often involving acts of kindness, generosity, or sacrifice without expecting anything in return. Example: A person who volunteers regularly at a homeless shelter, providing meals and support to those in need, exemplifies altruism by dedicating time and resources to help improve the lives of others in their community. 4. Individualistic Society: Definition: An individualistic society values personal independence, autonomy, and self-reliance, emphasizing individual rights, achievements, and goals over group interests. Example: The United States is often cited as an example of an individualistic society, where people are encouraged to pursue their own ambitions and success, prioritize personal freedoms, and assert their individual rights in various aspects of life, including politics, economics, and social interactions. Each of these terms plays a distinct role in shaping individual behaviors, societal norms, and the dynamics of human interaction within different cultural contexts, highlighting their significance in understanding human behavior and societal development. Chapter 2: The Puzzle of Childhood 2.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1. Of the four basic perspectives on child development, A. each perspective furnishes the “Truth” about child development B. some perspectives are accurate; others are not C. no one perspective provides us with the complete information about child development D. the various theories of child development cancel out each other Answer: C 2. Child development involves A. all of the following B. enduring changes C. biological changes D. changes due to the environment Answer: A 3. Which perspective on personality is primarily concerned with the influence of genetics? A. biological B. ecological C. psychodynamic D. social learning Answer: A 4. About what percentage of American children live in poverty? A. 2 B. 10 C. 21 D. 37 Answer: C 5. Approximately what percentage of American children are born out of wedlock? A. 10 B. 25 C. 40 D. 60 Answer: C 6. Biological aspects of development include A. heredity B. aspects of the nervous system related to behavior C. the influence of hormones D. all of the above Answer: D 7. Most researchers agree that intelligence and ______ have strong genetic influences. A. clothing choices B. interests C. occupations D. sociability Answer: D 8. Which perspective on personality emphasizes the role of environmental context on children's development? A. biological B. ecological C. social learning D. humanistic Answer: B 9. Which of Bronfenbrenner's systems refers to the setting the child is currently in? A. macrosystem B. mesosystem C. microsystem D. exosystem Answer: C 10. Children who experience sensitive, responsive care at home are better liked by their peers at school. This is an example of the A. exosystem B. microsystem C. macrosystem D. mesosystem Answer: D 11. In the _______, children and adolescents are influenced by social settings that they do not take part in. A. microsystem B. mesosystem C. exosystem D. macrosystem Answer: C 12. Youth brought up in a culture that is more accepting of real-life violence tend to be more violent themselves. This is an example of the A. exosystem B. macrosystem C. mesosystem D. microsystem Answer: B 13. Which is not part of Bronfenbrenner's ecological perspective? A. ecosystem B. macrosystem C. microsystem D. mesosystem Answer: A 14. Which perspective on personality tends to view personality in terms of the interactions between the driving forces of development, such as desires, anxieties, conflict, and defenses? A. biological B. psychodynamic C. social learning D. humanistic Answer: B 15. The first of Erikson's stages of psychosocial development corresponds to A. autonomy vs. shame B. industry vs. inferiority C. trust vs. mistrust D. intimacy vs. isolation Answer: C 16. A stubborn, compulsively orderly personality may result from fixation at A. the early phase of the Oedipal stage B. the later phase of the anal stage C. the early phase of the latency stage D. the later phase of the phallic stage Answer: B 17. In which psychoanalytic stage did Freud say genuine love develops? A. oral B. anal C. genital D. latency Answer: C 18. The relatively dormant stage of personality development according to Freud is the _______ stage. A. oral B. anal C. phallic D. latency Answer: D 19. The stage at which the child develops an Oedipal or Electra complex, in which the child is attracted to the opposite-sex parent, is the _______ stage. A. oral B. anal C. phallic D. latency Answer: C 20. According to Erikson, the second stage of psychosocial development poses the developmental task of A. autonomy vs. shame B. trust vs. mistrust C. industry vs. inferiority D. initiative vs. guilt Answer: A 21. According to Erikson, if the parents of a 2-year-old are coercive or overprotective, the child will experience A. self-doubt B. despair C. isolation D. guilt Answer: A 22. From 3 to 6 years of age, children are faced with the crisis of A. autonomy vs. shame B. trust vs. mistrust C. identity vs. role confusion D. initiative vs. guilt Answer: D 23. According to Erikson, if a child's actions are unduly restricted at about the age of 7 years, the child will develop a sense of A. shame B. despair C. inferiority D. isolation Answer: C 24. According to Erikson, individuals face the identity vs. role confusion stage at what age? A. 3-6 B. 6-11 C. 12-18 D. 20-40 Answer: C 25. In Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, the polar opposite of industry is A. inferiority B. isolation C. guilt D. mistrust Answer: A 26. The process by which we learn by observing is called A. punishment B. reinforcement C. learning theory D. observational learning Answer: D 27. The concept of reinforcement A. rarely works B. is used to enhance learning C. deals with conscious needs D. can largely explain behavior Answer: B 28. __________ emphasizes the importance of learning and the environment rather than biological or unconscious drives. A. Bandura's social learning theory B. Erikson's psychosocial theory C. Freud's psychodynamic theory D. Jung's analytical psychology Answer: A 29. Carol likes Dr. Reed, the supervisor of her practice teaching. In fact, Carol often finds herself adopting many of Dr. Reed's methods and mannerisms in the classroom. Bandura refers to this type of learning as A. classical conditioning B. observational learning C. identification with the parent figure D. due to the effects of unconscious Oedipal wishes Answer: B 30. Social learning theorists such as Bandura regard the inconsistencies in human behavior as largely the product of A. situational factors B. personality traits C. conditioned responses D. unconscious conflicts Answer: A 31. Which perspective on personality argues children should NOT be exposed to violence on television? A. the social learning perspective B. psychoanalysis C. behaviorism D. all perspectives have argued against televised violence Answer: A 32. Which of these is NOT a foundational element of development? A. temperament B. self-esteem C. attachment D. self-concept Answer: B 33. Approximately what percentage of American children derive comfort from transitional objects? A. 20 B. 40 C. 60 D. 80 Answer: C 34. Children who are very anxious in a new environment and when interacting with a stranger, even in the presence of the mother, display ___________ attachment. A. secure B. insecure-ambivalent C. insecure-avoidant D. insecure-disorganized Answer: B 35. Attachment is important for children because A. it is gene-driven B. they are self-sufficient C. it helps them have better social skills D. it comes from fear Answer: C 36. The “rouge test” was important because it showed A. self-recognition B. behaviorism C. social learning D. biological attachment Answer: A 37. Self-recognition generally develops around ______ months. A. 9-17 B. 18-24 C. 25-31 D. 32-38 Answer: B 38. Parents who display a great of warmth or affection, while demonstrating an almost total lack of control over or supervision of their children, exemplify which parenting style? A. permissive B. authoritative C. authoritarian D. uninvolved Answer: A 39. Parents who display little warmth or affection, while exerting tremendous control over their children exemplify which parenting style? A. authoritative B. permissive C. uninvolved D. authoritarian Answer: D 40. Which parenting style tends to lead to the best social, emotional and cognitive outcomes for youth? A. permissive B. authoritative C. uninvolved D. authoritarian Answer: B 2.2 True/False Questions 1. Close to 20 percent of children are taken care of by their fathers while their mothers work. Answer: True 2. Around 30 percent of high school students report having sexual intercourse. Answer: False 3. According to the humanistic perspective, much of our personal development may be attributable to genetics. Answer: False 4. Psychologists have consistently been able to support the idea that personality varies by the order of one's birth. Answer: False 5. The macrosystem refers to the set of shared values, goals, practices, and attitudes that characterize a group of people. Answer: True 6. In the ecological perspective, the linking of microsystems is referred to as an exosystem. Answer: False 7. Freud's theory of psychosexual stages does not encompass a realistic view of child development. Answer: True 8. Freud teaches that genuine love emerges in the oral stage. Answer: False 9. According to Freud, the latency period extends from 5 to 18 years with modest interest in erogenous satisfaction. Answer: False 10. Erikson's second psychosocial stage, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, occurs between 4 and 7 years of age. Answer: False 11. For children attempting to resolve Erikson's identity vs. role confusion crisis, more and more identity exploration is occurring online. Answer: True 12. According to Erikson, if you have an unsuccessful outcome during the previous stage, you will be unsuccessful during the next stage. Answer: False 13. The process by which we learn by observing other people's behaviors without necessarily having any direct reward is called reinforcement. Answer: False 14. The daily exposure of media for youth between 8 and 18 years of age is about 4 hours and 30 minutes. Answer: False 15. Studies show that exposure to violence in films, television, video games and other media has no correlation to increases aggressive thoughts, feelings and behaviors in children and adults. Answer: False 16. Temperament is fluid and changes often as we age. Answer: False 17. The use of transitional objects means that children cannot derive comfort from their mothers or other attachment figures. Answer: False 18. When both the mother and father are present in the family, children have fewer behavior problems. Answer: True 19. In general, authoritarian parenting produces the best social, emotional and cognitive outcomes for youth. Answer: True 20. The overall view of spanking is that it should not be used. Answer: True 2.3 Short Answer Questions 1. How does heredity influence personal development? Answer: Heredity influences personal development through genetic inheritance, shaping traits such as temperament, intelligence, and predispositions to certain health conditions. 2. How can your actions play a role in the development of children that you do not come into direct contact with? Answer: Your actions, such as advocacy for educational reforms or supporting policies that benefit children's health and welfare, can indirectly impact children's development through societal improvements. 3. List and describe three stages from Erikson's theory of personality development. Answer: Trust vs. Mistrust: Infancy (0-1 year), where the primary developmental task is establishing trust in caregivers for basic needs. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Early childhood (1-3 years), focusing on developing independence and confidence in one's abilities. Initiative vs. Guilt: Preschool (3-6 years), involving exploration and initiative in activities while learning to manage impulses and guilt. 4. What is observational learning? How does it occur? Answer: Observational learning is learning by observing others' behaviors and their consequences. It occurs through attention to the model, retention of observed actions, reproduction of behaviors, and reinforcement or punishment of the behavior. 5. What role do transitional objects play in child development? Answer: Transitional objects like blankets or stuffed animals provide comfort and security, aiding in emotional regulation and promoting autonomy during early childhood development. 6. How and why does media violence affect behavior? Answer: Media violence can desensitize individuals and increase aggressive behavior through observational learning, normalization of violence, and arousal of aggressive thoughts and emotions. 7. What are three ways fathers influence children according to psychological research? Answer: Psychological research highlights that fathers influence children through their involvement in caregiving, role modeling of behaviors and attitudes, and providing emotional support and encouragement. 8. Based on the psychological literature, briefly discuss the pros and cons of spanking. Answer: Pros include immediate behavior modification; cons include potential long-term negative effects on mental health and behavior, such as increased aggression and lower self-esteem. 2.4 Essay Questions 1. Provide some insightful statistics on children. In your opinion are our children generally living well? Answer: Statistics on Children: •Globally, approximately 15% of children aged 5-14 are involved in child labor (UNICEF). •In the US, about 17% of children aged 2-19 are obese (CDC). •Over 250 million children worldwide lack basic literacy skills (UNESCO). In my opinion, while some children are fortunate to live well with access to education, healthcare, and a safe environment, many face significant challenges such as poverty, lack of education, and health disparities. There's a need for continued efforts to ensure all children have opportunities to thrive. 2. Explain the structure of Freud’s psychosexual stages of development. Answer: Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development: •Oral Stage (0-1 year): Focuses on pleasure derived from the mouth, with tasks involving weaning and oral exploration. •Anal Stage (1-3 years): Emphasizes control over bowel movements and conflict over toilet training. •Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Centers on the Oedipus or Electra complex, where children develop unconscious sexual desires for the opposite-sex parent. •Latency Stage (6-12 years): Sexual impulses are dormant, and children focus on developing social and cognitive skills. •Genital Stage (puberty onwards): Sexual desires reemerge, and individuals seek mature sexual relationships. Freud's theory posits that unresolved conflicts in these stages can lead to psychological issues later in life, influencing personality development and behavior patterns. 3. Explain Erikson's view of personality. Answer: 3. Erikson's View of Personality: Erik Erikson's theory of personality emphasizes the importance of psychosocial development across the lifespan. He proposed eight stages, each characterized by a psychosocial crisis or conflict that individuals must resolve to achieve healthy personality development. These stages include: •Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy): Developing trust in caregivers and the environment. •Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood): Asserting independence while learning self-control. •Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool): Taking initiative in activities while managing guilt about actions. •Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age): Developing competence and self-confidence in school and social tasks. •Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence): Exploring personal identity and roles. •Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood): Forming close relationships and intimacy with others. •Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood): Contributing to society and future generations. •Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood): Reflecting on life and achieving a sense of fulfillment. Erikson believed that successful resolution of each stage contributes to the formation of a well-rounded and integrated personality. Failure to resolve a stage's conflict can lead to difficulties in subsequent stages and impact overall psychosocial development. 4. Explain social learning theory. What are the implications of this theory for child development? Answer: Social Learning Theory: Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the role of observational learning, imitation, and modeling in shaping behavior. According to this theory, individuals learn new behaviors and attitudes by observing others, particularly significant individuals such as parents, peers, and media figures. Key concepts include: •Observational Learning: Individuals acquire behaviors by observing others' actions and their consequences. •Modeling: People imitate behaviors they have observed, especially when the model is admired or respected. •Reinforcement: Behavior is reinforced or punished, influencing the likelihood of its repetition. Implications for Child Development: •Role of Parents and Caregivers: Parents serve as primary models for children, influencing behaviors through their actions and reactions. •Media Influence: Exposure to media models can impact children's behaviors and attitudes, especially regarding aggression and prosocial behaviors. •Educational Strategies: Teachers can use modeling and reinforcement to promote positive behaviors and academic skills in students. •Intervention Programs: Social learning principles are utilized in interventions aimed at modifying behavior, such as reducing aggression or promoting social skills. Overall, social learning theory underscores the importance of social influences and environmental factors in shaping development. By understanding and applying its principles, parents, educators, and policymakers can promote positive behavior and facilitate healthy development in children and adolescents. 5. Compare and contrast any two perspectives on child development. Answer: Comparison and Contrast of Two Perspectives on Child Development: Behaviorism: •Focus: Behaviorism emphasizes observable behaviors that result from environmental stimuli and reinforcement. •Key Theorists: Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner. •Approach: Emphasizes conditioning (classical and operant) to explain how behaviors are learned and modified. •Example: A child learns to say "please" and "thank you" through reinforcement from parents. Cognitive Developmental Theory (Piaget): •Focus: Piaget's theory focuses on how children actively construct knowledge and understanding through their interactions with the world. •Key Theorist: Jean Piaget. •Approach: Describes stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational) based on age-related changes in thinking. •Example: A child learns object permanence through repeated interactions with disappearing objects. Comparison: Both perspectives emphasize developmental stages and changes over time. •Contrast: Behaviorism focuses on external, observable behaviors influenced by environmental factors and reinforcement, while Piaget's theory emphasizes internal cognitive processes and active construction of knowledge. 6. Describe the contributions and limitations of any one perspective to the study of child development. Answer: Contributions and Limitations of Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory: Contributions: •Stage Theory: Piaget's stage theory provided a framework for understanding how children's thinking evolves in distinct, qualitatively different stages. •Focus on Interaction: Emphasized the active role of children in their own development, highlighting how cognitive processes develop through interaction with the environment. •Educational Applications: Influenced educational practices by emphasizing hands-on learning and readiness for new cognitive challenges based on developmental stages. Limitations: •Age Generalizations: Piaget's stages are based on average ages, so individual variations in cognitive development may not fit neatly into stage descriptions. •Culture and Context: Piaget's research primarily focused on Swiss children from middle-class backgrounds, raising questions about the universality of his stages across different cultures. •Underestimation of Early Abilities: Recent research suggests infants and young children may possess more cognitive abilities (e.g., object permanence) earlier than Piaget proposed. In conclusion, while Piaget's cognitive developmental theory has significantly contributed to our understanding of child development by highlighting stages of cognitive growth and the role of interaction with the environment, it also has limitations regarding cultural variability and individual differences that newer theories and research have begun to address more comprehensively. 7. Provide a definition and an example for each of the following terms. Also, identify the perspective from which the concept originates: mesosystem, reinforcement, identity vs. role confusion, and observational learning. Answer: Certainly! Here are the definitions, examples, and the perspectives from which each concept originates: 1. Mesosystem: Definition: The mesosystem refers to the interactions and connections between different microsystems (e.g., family, school, peer group) that influence a person's development. Example: A child's experience at school can be influenced by interactions between teachers and parents, impacting their academic performance and social development. Originating Perspective: Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner). 2. Reinforcement: Definition: Reinforcement refers to the process by which a behavior is strengthened or weakened, depending on whether it is followed by a reward or punishment. Example: Giving a child praise (positive reinforcement) for completing their chores encourages them to continue doing their tasks responsibly. Originating Perspective: Behaviorism (Skinner). 3. Identity vs. Role Confusion: Definition: Identity vs. Role Confusion is Erikson's fifth stage of psychosocial development, where adolescents explore their sense of self and develop a clear understanding of their roles and values. Example: A teenager may experiment with different identities through peer groups or hobbies before establishing a coherent sense of personal identity. Originating Perspective: Psychosocial Development (Erikson). 4. Observational Learning: Definition: Observational learning involves acquiring new behaviors or information by watching and imitating others' actions. Example: A child learns how to ride a bike by observing an older sibling demonstrate the process. Originating Perspective: Social Learning Theory (Bandura). These concepts provide frameworks from different psychological perspectives to understand how interactions, reinforcements, identity exploration, and observational learning shape individuals' development and behaviors across various stages of life. 8. Write an essay about your own development by incorporating concepts from any one perspective on development. Answer: Throughout my life, my development has been deeply influenced by Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory, which delineates eight stages of development, each characterized by a specific psychosocial conflict that must be resolved for healthy personality development. Erikson's framework has provided valuable insights into my journey from infancy to adulthood, highlighting key milestones and challenges that have shaped my identity and relationships. During infancy, I navigated Erikson's first stage of Trust vs. Mistrust, where the primary task was to develop a sense of trust in my caregivers and the world around me. Through consistent care and nurturing interactions, I formed secure attachments and learned to rely on others for my basic needs, laying the foundation for future relationships. As a preschooler, I encountered Erikson's second stage of Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. This stage was marked by my exploration of independence and personal autonomy, such as learning to feed myself or dress independently. Positive reinforcement from caregivers for my efforts encouraged me to take initiative and build confidence in my abilities, fostering a sense of autonomy. Entering adolescence, I faced Erikson's fifth stage of Identity vs. Role Confusion. This period was characterized by intense exploration of my personal identity, values, and beliefs. I experimented with different social roles, hobbies, and interests, seeking to establish a coherent sense of self amidst societal expectations and peer influences. Through introspection and social interactions, I gradually developed a stable identity that aligned with my aspirations and values. As a young adult, I continue to navigate Erikson's sixth stage of Intimacy vs. Isolation. This stage focuses on forming intimate relationships and connections with others while maintaining a sense of individuality. Building on earlier stages, I strive to cultivate meaningful relationships based on mutual trust, respect, and emotional intimacy. Erikson's insights remind me of the importance of balancing personal growth with the capacity to form lasting bonds with others, contributing to a fulfilling adult life. Erikson's psychosocial theory has provided a comprehensive framework for understanding my developmental journey, emphasizing the interplay between internal psychological processes and external social interactions. By integrating concepts such as trust, autonomy, identity formation, and intimacy, Erikson's perspective has enriched my understanding of how experiences and relationships contribute to my ongoing growth and development. As I continue to navigate life's challenges and opportunities, Erikson's theory continues to resonate as a guiding framework for understanding and enhancing my personal and interpersonal development. Test Bank for Psychology for Living: Adjustment, Growth, and Behavior Today Steven J. Kirsh, Karen Grover Duffy, Eastwood Atwater 9780205961627