This Document Contains Chapters 7 to 9 Chapter 7: Training and Development If nothing else, my students should learn that… • A systematic approach to training and development is necessary in order to realize a return on investment in training. • A training program needs to be evaluated along four dimensions in order to demonstrate its value to the organization. Learning objectives 1. Discuss the scope of training and development and its strategic aspects. 2. Describe how a training needs assessment should be done. 3. Describe the factors that must be taken into account when designing a training program. 4. Identify the types of training-delivery methods organizations use. 5. Explain how the effectiveness of training programs are evaluated, and describe some of the additional training programs conducted by firms. Why is this chapter important? Training has become increasingly vital to the success of modern organizations. Training plays a central role in nurturing and strengthening these competencies, and in this way has become part of the backbone of strategy implementation. In addition, rapidly changing technologies require that employees continuously hone their knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) to cope with new processes and systems. Jobs that require little skill are rapidly being replaced by jobs that require technical, interpersonal, and problem-solving skills. Other trends toward empowerment, total-quality management, teamwork, and international business make it necessary for managers, as well as employees, to develop the skills that will enable them to handle new and more demanding assignments. What can I do in this class? This section includes ideas for how to start and finish the class. It also contains information from the textbook that can be used as a basis for a lecture. Moreover, it contains numerous suggestions for student engagement. Depending on your class size, the nature of the students, and your desire for classroom participation, choose from these activities to enliven the classroom. Getting started • Use an inductive approach to this class by presenting the case study written by Brown and colleagues (2003) called “What went wrong at the university hospital?” See the full citation in the Recommended Reading section. Use it as a basis of discussion to identify the pitfalls of training. Refer back to the case throughout the lecture to illustrate key points. • Ask students to volunteer their experiences where they had minimal or no on-the-job training. How did they feel? Was their safety compromised? If students could create an ideal training event, what would it look like? Emphasize the importance of having a comprehensive approach to training. • Use clickers or ask for a show of hands to multiple-choice questions that you develop based on interesting facts about training. For instance, ask: How much do Canadian businesses spend on training per employee per year? (answer = $688); What is the average number of hours employees spend in training per year? (answer = 25); What percentage of organizations trains its managers? (answer = 90%) • First, ask students about the purpose of training. You will likely find that students’ response is that training helps employees perform their jobs effectively. Then, suggest that if training leads to higher levels of performance, should organizations make training mandatory? Many students will likely say yes—training should be mandatory so that employees know how to perform their jobs effectively. Provide students with a copy of Ethics in HRM: Mandatory or Voluntary? on page 248 to generate a discussion that the answer to that question may not always be black and white. The Scope of Training • The term training describes almost any effort initiated by an organization to foster learning among its members. • Training is narrowly focused and oriented toward short-term performance concerns. • Development involves broadening an individual’s skills for future responsibilities. A Strategic Approach to Training • The goal of training is to contribute to the organization’s overall goals. • Explain that training often follows fads and fashions, and so is often misdirected, poorly designed, inadequately evaluated, and often a waste of money. • Use Figure 7.1: Strategic Model of Training on page 250 to review the parts of the strategic approach to training, and discuss how the parts interrelate and support one another. • Call-Out question: What aspects of training plans do you think are strategic, and how are these different or similar to the educational and career plans that you have created for yourself? PHASE 1: Conducting the Needs Assessment • Use Figure 7.2: Needs Assessment for Training on page 251 to discuss the costs and benefits of conducting needs assessment in-house or using a consultant. Needs assessment consists of three parts: organization, task, and person analyses. • Use Highlights in HRM 7.1: Notes on Rapid Needs Assessment on page 251 to discuss ways of doing rapid assessment for training needs. A. Organization Analysis: the examination of the environment, strategies, and resources of the organization to determine where training emphasis should be placed. B. Task Analysis: the process of determining what the content of a training program should be on the basis of a study of the tasks and duties involved in the job. C. Person Analysis: the determination of the specific individuals who need training. • Connectivity Activity: Create a hypothetical organization, and ask students to imagine a group of employees who are all performing poorly in one aspect of their job. Ask students how they would go about conducting an organization, task, and person analysis. If it is useful, provide an example, such as call centre workers who are unable to sell sufficient products to customers on the telephone. • Making Explicit Real-World Links: Use Highlights in HRM 7.2: A Competency Assessment for a Managerial Position on page 253 to discuss issues pertaining to competency assessment. Competency assessment is an analysis of the sets of skills and knowledge needed for decision-oriented and knowledge-intensive jobs. • Think-Pair-Share: Use Discussion Question 2 as a basis for small group discussion and application: You have been asked by a colleague to teach her how to use Excel. How would you conduct a needs analysis to determine her current knowledge and skill level? See a recommended solution in the Answers to End-of-Chapter Discussion Questions. PHASE 2: Designing the Training Program • Call-Out Question: You have had years of educational experiences. What have you learned about how you learn and how others learn best? You can list the points that the students suggest on the board, grouping them according to the four areas below. Instructors should ask guided questions to ensure that students generate ideas from all of the four areas. The four related areas are: (1) Instructional objectives • Instructional objectives are the desired outcomes of a training program. These objectives will guide the development of the training content and will be used to assess the value of the training program. • Performance-centred objectives typically include precise terms, such as: “To calculate,” “To adjust,” “To assemble,” and so on. Refer to Locke and Latham’s (2004) goal setting theory. See the full citation in Recommended Reading. • Connectivity Activity: Ask students to examine the course handbook for class. Ask them to identify the instructional objectives that you have laid out for them. Are they ‘performance-centred’? • Think-Pair-Share: Ask students to pair up to consider this course and its learning objectives. Ask them to develop four learning objectives that are performance-centred. Ask students to present to the class, or have students choose their favourite one, and write it on the board. Take it up and congratulate students for being creative. (2) Assessing the Readiness and Motivation of Trainees Two preconditions affect the success of those receiving training: (1) trainee readiness (the maturity and experience of the trainee), and (2) trainee motivation. • Call-Out Question: Ask students to think about the courses in which they were ready and motivated to learn. What did the professor do, or what was the class like that led to their motivation? Answers should tap into the following six strategies that can help trainee readiness: (1) Use positive reinforcement; (2) Eliminate threats and punishment; (3) Be flexible; (4) Have participants set personal goals; (5) Design interesting instruction; (6) Break down physical and psychological obstacles to learning. (3) Incorporating Principles of Learning When discussing each of the principles, it might be good to set up an example to show how the principles apply to a particular training task. Teaching someone to drive a car might be an example to which all students could relate. • Goal Setting—This focuses and motivates trainees and may increase their level of interest, understanding, and effort directed toward the training. See Recommended Reading for an article by Locke and Latham (2002) on goal setting. • Meaningfulness of Presentation—The training material should be arranged in a logical and meaningful way. • Modelling—This also increases the salience of behavioural training. As they say, “A picture’s worth a thousand words.” Modelling demonstrates the desired behaviour or method to be learned. • Individual Differences—People learn at different rates and in different ways. Training should try to accommodate those individual differences. • Active Practice and Repetition—Most of us learn to do any task through practice. It is advisable to give reinforcement and knowledge of progress during the practice phase of learning. Practice does not make perfect; “Perfect practice makes perfect.” • Whole-versus-Part Learning—Should a job be learned in parts or as a whole? The answer lies in how simple or complex the job is. Normally, studies show that part learning is superior to whole learning. • Massed-versus-Distributed Learning—Fatigue can cause a loss of learning during a training session. It is normally advisable to divide the training session into segments. The length of the sessions will depend on the complexity of the material and the type of task to be learned. • Feedback and Reinforcement—Spot rewards, for example, are programs that award employees “on the spot” when they do something particularly well during training or on the job. Behaviour modification is a technique that operates on the principle that behaviour that is rewarded, or positively reinforced, will be exhibited more frequently in the future, whereas behaviour that is penalized or unrewarded will decrease in frequency. To have maximum effect, reinforcement should be given immediately after the task is completed successfully. • Use Figure 7.4: A Typical Learning Curve on page 258 to discuss the time associated with learning. Knowledge of progress can be shown through tests, records, and charts commonly referred to as learning curves. • Connectivity Activity: Use HRM Experience: Training and Learning Principles on page 278 to illustrate the learning principles that can be used in teaching others to create paper airplanes. See comments on this exercise in the Additional Teaching Resources section. (4) Characteristics of Instructors Simply knowing the material may not be enough to train someone. Trainees often remark that they learn more effectively when the trainer is interesting and possesses good teaching skills. Review the list of the characteristics of successful trainers found on page 259. • Connectivity Activity: Have students work in groups to develop a list of the characteristics of successful trainers they have known. Put the lists on the board and see how similar they are. Normally, there is a lot of overlap. PHASE 3: Implementing the Training Program Training Methods for Nonmanagerial Employees Use Figure 7.6: Training Delivery Methods on page 260 to show the delivery method as a percentage of overall learning time. 1. On-the-Job Training (including apprenticeship training) • Think-Pair-Share: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of this method and list them on the board. Have students suggest ways to make this method more effective. Disadvantages are lack of a well-structured training environment, poor training skills on the part of the managers, and absence of well-defined job performance criteria. When taking this up, refer to Figure 7.7: The PROPER Way to Do On-the-Job Training on page 261. 2. Special Assignments • Individual Assignment: There is an interesting body of research that shows that men tend to be provided with more challenging assignments—or stretch assignments—than women, which negatively impacts the career progression of women. Ask the students to summarize an article entitled “Gender Differences in Managers’ Developmental Job Experiences,” and summarize the findings, and also discuss what HRM can do to ensure that men and women have equal access to individual assignments. See the full reference for this article in the Recommended Reading section. 3. Cooperative Training, Internships, and Governmental Training • Making Explicit Real-World Links: Refer students to Highlights in HRM 7.3: Internship Program at Durham College on page 262 for an overview of an internship program at Durham College. • Call-Out Question: Ask students if anyone has had an internship. What made them effective or ineffective? Use the information on internship programs on page 262 to discuss with students how to make the most of their internship opportunities. 4. Simulations 5. E-Learning 6. Behaviour modelling 7. Role playing • Connectivity Activity: Ask students whether they have ever been asked to perform a role-play. Most students, especially in business programs, will have done role-plays in class. Ask students to generate a tip sheet for effective administration of role-plays. 8. Coaching 9. Case Studies • See Figure 7.8: Case Studies on page 266 for best-practice tips on using case studies 10. Seminars and conferences 11. Blended learning 12. Classroom (lecture) instruction • In-Class Debate: Ask the students to debate the merits of online learning versus classroom learning for their university classes. PHASE 4: Evaluating the Training Program • Connectivity Activity: Have students form groups with the task of each group suggesting an evaluation program for assessing the effectiveness of their course in HRM. Emphasize the four major criteria: reaction, learning, behaviour/transfer, and results. Use Figure 7.9: Criteria for Evaluating Training on page 267 for this discussion. • Making Explicit Real-World Links: Use Reality Check: A Classic Four-Level Evaluation on page 268 to describe how these four levels have been applied at Conexus, the largest credit union in Saskatchewan. Criterion 1: Reactions Participant reactions may give a quick indication of trouble spots and also provide an idea of participants’ attitudes regarding the value of the training. However, too many conclusions are drawn from such ratings. Criterion 2: Learning Beyond trainee reactions, it is good to determine if employees actually learned what the training was designed to teach. Test knowledge and skills before and after training. Criterion 3: Behaviour Much of what is learned in training never gets used on the job. Transfer of training is the effective application of principles learned to what is required on the job. Refer to Blume, Ford, Baldwin, and Huang’s (2010) recent meta-analysis on transfer of training. See the full citation in the Recommended Reading section. To maximize transfer, there are several helpful approaches: • Feature identical elements • Focus on general principles • Establish a climate for transfer • Give employees transfer strategies Criterion 4: Results, or Return on Investment (ROI) Many organizations are beginning to look at return on investment (ROI), also called utility, which are the benefits derived from training relative to the costs incurred. • Making Explicit Real-World Links: See The Business Case: Return on Training Investment on page 270 for information on how companies such as TD Bank earn a return on their investment in training. Benchmarking is the process of measuring one’s own services and practices against the recognized leaders in order to identify areas for improvement. See Highlights in HRM 7.4: Benchmarking HR Training on page 271 for different measures of the effectiveness of training, and how to calculate the results. • Think-Pair-Share: Use Discussion Question 3 on page 278. Ask students: Suppose that you are the manager of an accounts receivable unit in a large company. You are switching to a new system of billing and record keeping and need to train 3 supervisors and 28 employees in the new procedures. What training method(s) would you use? Why? See the recommended solutions in the Answers to End-of-Chapter Discussion Questions. • Case Studies: Use Case Study 2: People Development Strategies at Credit Union Central of Saskatchewan on page 280 to reinforce learning about training and development for managers, resistance to change, and evaluation of training. Case Study 3: Onboarding at Capital Power on page 281 can also be used to teach evaluation in the context of orientation training. • Bringing It Together Connectivity Activity: Write down steps in developing a training program on cue cards, one step per card. Those steps should include all four stages of evaluation, top management commitment, choice of training methods, choice of instructor, and also administrative issues such as size of room, rental equipment, invite trainees, and so on. Make as many bundles of cue cards as there are 5- to 6-member groups in the class. Give one stack of cards to each group. Ask students to put the cue cards in the order that they would carry out those activities if they were organizing a training program. It is fun to provide students with masking tape and ask them to tape the cards, in order, to a wall. Students can then do a “gallery walk” to see each other’s sequences. This is a useful exercise as it helps students to review the concepts, and also to think about how to actually carry out training. Additional Topics in Training and Development Many employers develop training programs to meet special needs. The following areas are covered in this chapter: 1. Orientation and Onboarding • Making Explicit Real-World Links: See Highlights in HRM 7.6: Wowing the Candidate on page 273, and then refer students to Highlights in HRM 7.5: Checklist for Orienting New Employees on page 272. • Small Group Project: Ask students to get into groups and design an orientation program for a new student to your university. • Case Study: Use Case Study 1: Service at Chateau Whistler on page 279 to highlight effective orientation programs, transfer of training to the job, and evaluation aspects of training and development. See the sample solutions in the Notes for End-of-Chapter Case Studies. • Case Study: Use Case Study 3: Onboarding at Capital Power on page 281 to highlight effective orientation programs, and evaluation of orientation programs. See the sample solutions in the Notes for End-of-Chapter Case Studies. 2. Basic Skills Training 3. Team Training and Cross-Training • Use Figure 7.10: Team Training Skills on page 275 to talk about the skills that successful teams must learn. 4. Ethics Training • Group Assignment: Giacalone, Jurkiewicz, and Knouse (2003) describe a student group project where students are asked to develop an ethics training session for a business. See the full citation in the Recommended Reading section. FINISHING CLASS • Ask the students to think about how training might differ in small versus large organizations. Leave the class by discussing the Small Business Application on pages 276‒277. • Review the learning objectives. • Create a multiple-choice style quiz based on the lecture material to check learning. Use clickers if they are available. • Provide students with a “one-minute” paper and ask them to respond to the following questions: (1) What is the most important thing I learned today? (2) What question do I have that is left unanswered? Collect the one-minute papers and take up any unresolved issues in the following class. • Ask students a question, such as “Training is a lifelong journey that demonstrates an individual’s ability and desire to change. Can a person be trained if he or she does not want to change?” Use this as a basis for discussion on the online discussion board for your class. • Thank students for volunteering their ideas and experiences. Reinforce that class discussions advance their thinking about all topics. Additional Teaching Resources Recommended Reading • Blume, B., Ford, J.K., Baldwin, T., & Huang, J. (2010). Transfer of training: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Management, 36(4), 1065–1105. • Brown, T.C., Li, S.X., Sargent, L.D., & Tasa, K. (2003). What went wrong at the university hospital? An exercise in assessing training effectiveness. Journal of Management Education, 27(4), 485–496. • Giacalone, R.A., Jurkiewicz, C.L., & Knouse, S.B. (2003). A capstone project in business ethics: Building an ethics training program. Journal of Management Education, 27(5), 590–607. • Locke, E.A., & Latham, G.P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task performance: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705–717. • Ohlott, P. J., Ruderman, M. N., & McCauley, C. D. (1994). Gender differences in managers’ developmental job experiences. Academy of Management Journal, 37(1), 46‒67. Chapter 8: Performance Management If nothing else, my students should learn that… • Although performance evaluations are a task that many managers dislike, if done properly, they can serve to motivate employees and improve performance. • In order to conduct a useful performance evaluations, managers must link the employees’ work with the organizational goals, provide developmental feedback, and show employees how they can improve—all on a regular basis. Learning objectives 1. Explain what performance management is and how the establishment of goals, ongoing performance feedback, and the evaluation process are part of it. 2. Describe the different sources of performance management information. 3. Explain the various methods used to evaluate the performance of employees. 4. Outline the characteristics of effective performance evaluation meetings and feedback sessions and ways in which the performance of employees can be improved. Why is this chapter important? A properly planned and effectively utilized performance evaluation program should contribute to improved employee performance. Performance evaluation is one of the functions that most concerns managers and about which they often have many questions. In this chapter, we attempt to bring out the issues about which questions are frequently raised. It is important for students to realize that training employees will not eliminate many of the differences found among employees at the time they are hired. For this reason, performance evaluation should be viewed as one of the important HR functions that can contribute to the continuing development of the individual employee. The need for standards of satisfactory job performance should be emphasized, particularly in this era of downsizing and restructuring. What can I do in this class? This section includes ideas for how to start and finish the class. It also contains information from the textbook that can be used as a basis for a lecture. Moreover, it contains numerous suggestions for student engagement. Depending on your class size, the nature of the students, and your desire for classroom participation, choose from these activities to enliven the classroom. Getting started • Use Discussion Question 1 on page 321 as a basis for a discussion about the difficulties in performance management: Eighty percent of Canadian organizations have performance evaluation systems. List some reasons that 20 percent would not choose to implement one. See the recommended responses in the Answers to End-of-Chapter Discussion Questions. • Ask students whether they think that university professors provide “performance evaluations” to students. Ask how their performance is evaluated. How often is it evaluated? Who does it? What are some of the challenges, and how can they be overcome? • Provide students with a copy of Case Study 2: Wow Productions on page 323. Generate some ideas on the board with students in responding to the discussion questions. As the lecture progresses, ask students to stop you when they think that they have learned something that relates to the case. Add it to the board. You may need to do the first one yourself, or guide students a little at first. Later on, it becomes fun as students keep interrupting your lecture by insisting that more information be put on the board! See the recommended responses in the Notes for End-of-Chapter Case Studies. • YouTube Clip: Show students this video, which shows a snippet from the TV show Scrubs: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=09bp__4Muh8&feature=related and ask them to generate the problems with the performance evaluation, and how it might be better. The textbook provides key characteristics of effective feedback on pages 313‒316. Ensure that those are included in your take-up of the exercise. Performance Management Systems • Performance management is the process of creating a work environment in which people can perform to the best of their abilities to meet a company’s goals. • Performance evaluations are the result of an annual or biannual process in which a manager evaluates an employee’s performance relative to the requirements of his or her job and uses the information to show where improvements are needed and why. • Connectivity Question: You might compare a performance evaluation to taking a test in college. Do tests motivate you? Do they make you want to truly excel, or do you just want to get through them? Now compare your test-taking experience with an experience in which your instructor talked to you about your career plans, complimented you on your performance, and offered you suggestions for improving it. That probably had a greater motivating effect on you. • Use Figure 8.1: Steps in the Performance Management Process on page 286 to illustrate the steps. The Purposes of Performance Evaluations • Remind students of the mantra “what gets measured gets done.” Tell them about research, which shows that organizations with strong performance management systems are 40 to 50 percent more likely to outperform their competitors, and good feedback leads to higher levels of employee engagement. • Use Figure 8.2: Purposes of Performance Evaluations on page 287 to review the two purposes of performance evaluations—developmental and administrative. Why Evaluation Programs Sometimes Fail Share some of the facts: • Only 30 percent of employees believe that their company’s performance management process improves employee performance. • Only one in five employees believes it helps poorly performing employees do better. • Some believe that they discourage teamwork. • Some believe that evaluations are useful only at the extremes—for very high or very low performers. • Some believe that they focus on short-term achievements, rather than long-term goals and learning. • Use Figure 8.3: Let Me Count the Ways on page 289 to outline some of the main reasons why performance evaluation systems often fail. Developing an Effective Performance Management System (a) What are the Performance Standards? Use Figure 8.4: Establishing Performance Standards on page 290 to show that there are four basic considerations in establishing performance standards: • Strategic Relevance refers to the extent to which the standards of an evaluation relate to the strategic objectives of the organization in which they are applied. • Criterion deficiency refers to the extent to which the standards capture the entire range of an employee’s responsibilities. • Criterion contamination refers to the extent to which the standards are factors outside an employee’s control. • Reliability refers to the stability or consistency of a standard, or to the extent to which individuals tend to maintain a certain level of performance over time. Interrater reliability is also important here if there are more than two people rating an employee’s performance. • Mini Field Trip: Use Discussion Question 2 on page 321 regarding rating fast-food service at places such as Tim Hortons as the basis for a mini field trip, or ask students to complete this exercise after class and post their thoughts on the online discussion board, or take it up in the following class. (b) Fairness and Acceptability One of the main concerns employees have about performance management systems relates to fairness. • Call-Out Question: What influence does “politics” play in the performance evaluation process? (c) Legal Issues The textbook provides seven recommendations that are based on court rulings (e.g., performance ratings must be job related; employees must be given a written copy of their job standards in advance of evaluations; supervisors must be trained; an appeals process should be in place). (d) Who Should Appraise an Employee’s Performance? Use Figure 8.5: Alternative Sources of Evaluation on page 293 to review the alternative sources of evaluation: manager and/or supervisor, self, subordinate, peer, team, and customer. • Think-Pair-Share: Put students into groups and assign each group one source of evaluation. Ask students to generate at least two advantages and two disadvantages to their assigned focus. Ask students to write them on the board and review their work to make sure it is complete. (e) Putting It All Together: 360-Degree Evaluation Use Figure 8.6: Pros and Cons of 360-Degree Evaluation on page 296 to discuss the pluses and minuses of 360-degree evaluation. • Making Explicit Real-World Links: See Reality Check: Canadian Tire 360-Degree Matrix on page 297 to examine the actual form used by Canadian Tire’s evaluation system for its executives. Training Appraisers (a) Establishing an Evaluation Plan This systematic process covers (1) the objectives of the performance evaluation system, (2) the purpose for which the evaluation is used, and (3) the mechanics of the rating system (including frequency of evaluations, who will conduct the evaluations, and the standards of performance). (b) Eliminating Rater Error Distributional Errors • An error of central tendency is a performance rating error in which all employees are rated about average. • Leniency or strictness error is a performance rating error in which the appraiser tends to give employees either unusually high or unusually low ratings. • Forced distribution is a technique that some organizations use to eliminate these types of errors. However, the result may be a distribution that is more distorted than the original. • A variation of this is peer ranking, which is a system whereby employees in a work group are ranked against one another from best to worst. • Behavioural anchors may be a more effective approach to minimizing distributional errors. • Making Explicit Real-World Links: Refer to The Business Case: Rank and Yank on page 300 to show students that ranking systems can lead to legal problems, and should be avoided. Temporal Errors • Recency error is a performance rating error in which the evaluation is based largely on the employee’s most recent behaviour rather than throughout the evaluation period. • Contrast error is a performance rating error in which an employee’s evaluation is biased either upward or downward because of comparison to another employee’s performance, evaluated just previously. • Similar-to-me error is a performance rating error in which an appraiser inflates the evaluation of an employee because of a mutual personal connection. • Discuss how various stereotypes held toward visible minorities, the disabled, Aboriginal people, and women may affect their performance review. • Use Highlights in HRM 8.1: Supervisor’s Checklist for the Performance Evaluation Meeting on page 301 to show how supervisors can be assisted in preparing for evaluation interviews. • YouTube video clip: In this 2-minute video clip, the actor demonstrates how not to run an effective performance evaluation. There are at least 20 different errors that are made—tell the students this, and ask them: How many errors can you spot? The video clip is here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jln-liAnN8Y Performance Evaluation Methods • Call- Out question: As an employee would you rather be evaluated on your personality traits, your on-the-job behaviours, or the results that you get? A. Trait Methods 1. Graphic Rating Scales • Use Highlights in HRM 8.2: Graphic Rating Scale with Provision for Comments on page 303 to show an example of the graphic rating scale method. 2. Mixed-Standard Scales • See an example of the mixed-standard scale method in Highlights in HRM 8.3: Example of a Mixed-Standard Scale on page 304. 3. Forced-Choice Method • Forced-choice pairs might include the following: 1. a) Works hard b) Works quickly 2. a) Shows initiative b) Is responsive to customers 3. a) Work is reliable b) Performance is good 4. Essay Method B. Behavioural Methods 1. Critical Incident Method • Connectivity Activity: Ask students to generate a list of favourable and unfavourable critical incidents of students’ behaviour in their various classes (without names). Explain that those incidents could be collated into one list, and then the rater (or professor) could rate the frequency with which each student behaved in those ways to inform the evaluation of performance. 2. Behavioural Checklist Method 3. Behaviourally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS) 4. Behaviour Observation Scales (BOS) • Highlights in HRM 8.4: BARS and BOS Examples on page 307 provides an example of a behaviourally anchored rating scale for firefighters. • Think-Pair-Share: Use Discussion Questions 3 and 4 on page 321: 3. Develop a 10-item checklist to be used to rate student behaviour (e.g., Always submits assignments on time.) Rate your own behaviour against this list. Then ask friends and family members to rate your behaviour. Are there differences? If so, how would you explain them? 4. Take two of the items from Question 3 and develop a BARS for each of these items. Then rate yourself and ask others to rate you using the BARS. Did the ratings change? If so, why? See the recommended responses in the Answers to End-of-Chapter Discussion Questions. C. Results Methods 1. Productivity Measures • Call-Out question: Refer students to the four criteria that are used to generate performance standards (Figure 8.4, page 290). Ask them whether productivity measures satisfy all of those criteria. There are a number of potential problems with output measures, for example, criteria contamination and criteria deficiency, which fosters the attitude that “what gets measured gets done.” 2. Management by Objectives • Figure 8.7: Performance Appraisal under an MBO Program on page 308 illustrates how performance evaluation functions with an MBO program. • Small Group Discussion: Ask the class if anyone has worked or is currently working under an MBO system. Have students explain the MBO process at their organizations. Refer students to goal-setting theory, which is the basis for MBO, and then generate the factors that make MBO successful (e.g., managers and employees must be willing to establish goals and objectives together; the objectives should be quantifiable and measurable for the long and short terms; the results that are expected must be under the employee’s control; the goals and objectives must be consistent for each employee level; managers and employees must establish specific times when the goals are to be reviewed and evaluated). 3. The Balanced Scorecard • The balanced scorecard (BSC) has four evaluation categories: (1) financial, (2) customer, (3) processes, and (4) learning. Use Highlights in HRM 8.5: Personal Scorecard on page 310 to show an example of how a BSC translates to a personal scorecard for an employee. • Connectivity Individual Assignment: Ask students to develop their own Personal Scorecard for the rest of their time at college/university. Which Performance Evaluation Method to Use? • Think-Pair-Share: Ask students to get into groups and generate the advantages and disadvantages of the trait, behavioural, and results methods. Use Figure 8.8: Summary of Various Evaluation Methods on page 311 to take it up. Performance Evaluation Meetings and Feedback Sessions A. Four Types of Evaluation Interviews 1. Tell-and-Sell Interview—The supervisor uses persuasion; this may require the development of new behaviours on the part of the employee and skilful use of motivational incentives on the part of the appraiser. 2. Tell-and-Listen Interview—The interviewer communicates the strong and weak points of an employee’s job performance. During the second half of the interview, the employee’s feelings about the interview are thoroughly explored while the employee is encouraged to speak freely and to listen closely to what the appraiser has to say. 3. Problem-Solving Interview—The supervisor employs skills in listening, accepting, and responding to feelings. The supervisor seeks to stimulate growth and development in the employee by discussing the problems, needs, innovations, satisfactions, and dissatisfactions the employee has encountered on the job since the last evaluation. 4. Feedforward: Use Highlights in HRM 8.6: The Feed Forward Performance Evaluation Interview on page 312 to explain the feedforward performance evaluation interview technique. • Role-Play: Use Discussion Question 5 on page 321 as the basis of a role-play: Think of a friend or a family member whose behaviour you wish to change (e.g., your friend is usually late for events that you have organized). Using the problem-solving interview and the suggestions for conducting an effective evaluation interview, provide evaluation feedback to your friend. See the recommended responses in the Answers to End-of-Chapter Discussion Questions. • Think-Pair-Share: Ask the students to get into pairs and answer the following questions: (a) What different skills are required for each type of evaluation interview? What reactions can one expect from using these different skills? (b) How can one develop the skills needed for the problem-solving type of interview? (c) Which method do you feel is the least desirable? Why? (a) The tell-and-sell method requires the ability to persuade an individual to change in the prescribed manner. The tell-and-listen method requires the ability to communicate the strong and weak points of a subordinate’s performance, and to explore the subordinate’s feelings about the evaluation. The problem-solving method requires the ability to stimulate growth and development through discussion. Several reactions can be expected from using the different methods. Tell-and-sell: defensive behaviour is suppressed and attempts are made to cover hostility. Tell-and-listen: defensive behaviour is expressed and the employee feels accepted. Problem solving: problem-solving behaviour. (b) The skills for the problem-solving type of interview can be developed by first adopting the attitude that through discussion, new ideas and mutual interests may be developed. Training and practice in listening and reflecting feelings, reflecting ideas, using exploratory questions, and summarizing are essential. (c) Probably most students will agree that the tell-and-sell method is the least desirable because it leads to suppressed defensive behaviour and feelings of hostility. • Individual Assignment: Require students to read and summarize an article published in Human Resource Management by Budworth et al. (2015) on feedforward. Ask the students to summarize, in their own words, the theory, methods, results, and practical implications in the article. See the Recommended Reading section for a full reference. B. Conducting the Evaluation Interview Good practice performance evaluations should include the following: • Ask for a Self-Assessment—This gets employees thinking about their performance and assures that they know the standards against which they will be evaluated; it leads to greater employee satisfaction since he or she can observe the procedural justice. • Invite Participation—Participation helps bring out some of the root causes of performance problems and may increase an employee’s satisfaction with the process. • Express Appreciation—Praise is a powerful motivator, particularly in an evaluation interview where the employee is seeking positive feedback. It is beneficial to start the evaluation interview by expressing appreciation for what the employee has done well. • Minimize Criticism—Criticism leads to defensiveness, and this may hurt the chances of solving the problem. Some tips for using constructive criticism include the following: • Change the behaviour, not the person. • Focus on solving problems. • Be supportive. • Establish goals. • Follow up day to day. • Establish Goals: Focus on the future • Small Group Discussion: Ask students whether setting goals can be detrimental to performance. Use Ethics in HRM: Stretch Goals on page 315 to form the basis of a discussion on the political games in establishing goals. C. Improving Performance Identifying Sources of Ineffective Performance • Use Figure 8.9: Factors That Influence Performance on page 316 to talk about the major causes of ineffective job performance, broken into three categories: (1) ability, (2) motivation, and (3) environment. Performance Diagnosis • See Figure 8.10: Performance Diagnosis on page 317. • Connectivity Activity: Ask students to imagine that a member of your study team usually misses the deadline for submitting his part of the assignment. Ask students to think about reasons why. Use Figure 8.10 to take it up. Managing Ineffective Performance • Think-Pair-Share: Use HRM Experience: Performance Diagnosis on page 321 to discuss potential causes and solutions for poor performance. See the sample solutions in the HRM Experience section. FINISHING CLASS • Use Case Study 2: Wow Productions on page 323 for a good review of major content areas of the chapter. See the suggested responses in the Notes for End-of-Chapter Case Studies. • Review the learning objectives. • Create a multiple-choice style quiz based on the lecture material to check learning. Use clickers if they are available. • Provide students with a “one-minute” paper and ask them to respond to the following questions: (1) What is the most important thing I learned today? (2) What question do I have that is left unanswered? Collect the one-minute papers and take up any unresolved issues in the following class. • Use the Small Business Application: Does a Small Business Need to Formally Evaluate its Employees on page 319 to bring some of the topics covered in the lecture together. • In-class Exercise: Draw from Paglis’s (2008) article to help students understand how managers’ perceptions shape judgments they make about why employees perform poorly and how those judgments affect managers’ responses. It is a two-part exercise that tends to focus a bit on organizational behaviour theories, such as attribution theory and confirmation bias. See the Recommended Reading section for a full reference to this article. Additional Teaching Resources Recommended Reading • Paglis, L.L. (2008). The “It’s Not My Fault!” exercise: Exploring the causes and consequences of managers’ explanations for poor performance. Journal of Management Education, 32(5), 613–628. • Budworth, M. H., Latham, G.P. & Manroop, L. (2015). Looking forward to performance improvement: a field test of the feedforward interview for performance management. Human Resources Management, 54(1), 45‒54. Chapter 9: Managing Compensation If nothing else, my students should learn that… • Setting a wage that is fair and motivational requires an analysis of both internal and external factors. • There are a number of ways to collect data and information to assist in setting wages, including job evaluation methods and conducting wage surveys. Learning objectives 1. Distinguish a strategic compensation program from one that is non-strategic. 2. Indicate the various factors that influence the setting of wages. 3. Determine how to design pay systems. 4. Identify the major provisions of the laws and regulations affecting compensation. 5. Discuss the current issues of equal pay for work of equal value and pay compression. Why is this chapter important? An organization’s pay system is important for a number of reasons. Among others things, it helps organizations to attract and retain top talent and motivate employees; it is also crucial in driving employees behaviours that are pivotal to achieving strategic objectives. An organization’s pay systems also send important signals on its values. So why focus on compensation? Why not better select employees who will be more loyal? Why not improve the training programs or evaluation systems? The answer is simple. Compensation is directly linked to an employee’s livelihood. Employees can receive stellar training, copious growth opportunities, and be completely satisfied with their work and the environment, but they will not show up to work if there is no paycheque in return. What can I do in this class? This section includes ideas for how to start and finish the class. It also contains information from the textbook that can be used as a basis for a lecture. Moreover, it contains numerous suggestions for student engagement. Depending on your class size, the nature of the students, and your desire for classroom participation, choose from these activities to enliven the classroom. Getting started • Collect all of the key terms in the textbook (see sidebars). Write each key term on one piece of paper, and the definition of each on another piece of paper. Distribute to students in the class. Students need to find their “other pair” by matching up the term with their respective definition. • Focus this class on job evaluation methods and use Mahajan’s (2012) exercise to provide students with an opportunity to evaluate jobs and determine compensation. See the full citation in the Recommended Reading section. • Provide the example of Google in the preamble to this chapter to show the relevance of this topic to organizations today. In 2011, Google gave all of its employees a 10 percent raise. The company-wide pay boost, spread across 20,300 employees, probably cost the company $1 billion a year. In an email to employees, former Google CEO Eric Schmidt explained that they have received feedback that salary is more important than other sources of pay (i.e., bonuses and stock in the company). Schmidt explained that even in a slowed-down economy, they are in a “war for talent” and that employees had expressed concerns “dealing with sky-high property prices, mortgages, and those kinds of things.” But ultimately, Schmidt stated, the primary reason for the raise was that “we just thought it was good for the whole company!” Strategic Compensation Share with students that strategic compensation is the compensation of employees in ways that enhance motivation and growth while at the same time aligning their efforts with the objectives, philosophies, and culture of the organization. • Call-Out Question: How are employees compensated in organizations for their hard work and the talents that they bring to the table? Write the ideas on the board, and categorize them into three segments: direct (e.g., wages, incentives, bonuses, commissions), indirect (e.g., benefits), and non-financial (e.g., rewarding jobs, work environment, flexible hours) rewards. • Think-Pair-Share: Ask the students to discuss whether compensations systems should differ depending upon the company’s objectives. Ask the students to provide an example to illustrate their ideas. Linking Compensation to Organizational Objectives Highlight that this is a pressing issue facing organizations today in light of recent scandals. • Think-Pair-Share: Use Discussion Question 1 on page 353 as the basis for this think-pair-share: Nurses at Adelphi Hospital, located in British Columbia, have been quitting their jobs for more lucrative deals in the United States. The hospital’s administration would like to pursue a coherent strategy that would address not only its compensation issues but also patient care and overall client satisfaction. Suggest different compensation objectives to match Adelphi’s goals. See the recommended solutions in the Answers to End-of-Chapter Discussion Questions. Motivating Employees through Compensation: Theoretical Explanations • Equity Theory: Use Figure 9.1: Relationship between Equity and Motivation on page 331 to explain equity theory. • Expectancy Theory • Connectivity Activity: Ask students to evaluate their motivation for studying Human Resource Management using expectancy theory (i.e., do you believe that your effort leads to performance?; do you believe that your performance leads to desired rewards?) The Bases for Compensation Explain to students the difference between salaried and hourly paid workers. • Individual or Team Assignment: Ask the students to conduct Internet research to find out how executive compensation influenced or was influenced by the financial crisis. • Think-Pair-Share: Ask students to discuss Ethics in HRM: Executive Pay on page 334 and make a list of the challenges organizations face in fixing CEO pay. Determining Compensation—The Wage Mix Use Figure 9.2: Factors Affecting the Pay Mix on page 335 to illustrate the factors that affect the pay mix. • In-Class Exercise: Use Renard’s (2008) exercise published in the Journal of Management Education to illustrate the factors that influence pay; this exercise also fits nicely in teaching about equity theory. See the full citation in the Recommended Reading section. Internal Factors a) Employer’s Compensation Strategy • Call-Out Question: Ask students to generate criteria that would be necessary in developing a compensation policy in an organization. These criteria can include the following: to reward employees’ past performance; to remain competitive in the labour market; to maintain salary equity among employees; to mesh employees’ future performance with organizational goals; to control the compensation budget; to attract new employees; to reduce unnecessary turnover, etc. Then show them Highlights in HRM (next). • Making Explicit Real-World Links: Use Highlights in HRM 9.1: Comparison of Compensation Strategies on page 335 to compare the compensation strategies of Tri Star Performance with Preventive Health Care. b) Worth of a Job – subjective opinions of people familiar with the jobs when there is no formal compensation program. • Call-Out Question: What factors might job experts take into consideration when discerning the worth of a job? Answers may include condition of the labour market, collective bargaining, job evaluation systems (give a preview of what is to come in this lecture), and the strategic nature of the job in the organization. c) Employee’s Relative Worth—merit raises on the basis of steps within a rate range established for a job class. d) Employer’s Ability to Pay • Call-Out Question: Ask students to identify specific organizations or industries in which employers have greater or lesser abilities to grant pay increases. • Small Group Discussion/Review: Use Discussion Question 2 on page 353 as a basis for this small group discussion to ensure that students have learned this material: Discuss how factors internal to the organization may affect compensation levels and the wage mix. See the recommended responses in the Answers to End-of-Chapter Discussion Questions. External Factors a) Labour Market Conditions b) Area Wage Rates • Connectivity Exercise: Collect several examples of local or area wage surveys for discussion purposes. Wage survey data can be obtained from the Conference Board of Canada. c) Cost of Living • The consumer price index (CPI) is a measure of the average change in prices over time in a fixed “market basket” of goods and services. • Escalator clauses are clauses in collective agreements that provide for quarterly cost-of-living adjustments (COLAs) in wages based on changes in the CPI. d) Collective Bargaining • Real wages are wage increases that are larger than the increase in the CPI, i.e., the real earning power of wages. • Small Group Exercise or Homework Assignment: Use HRM Experience: Why This Salary? on page 353 in class, and ask students to respond to the first and third questions. For a homework exercise, ask them to complete all three questions. See the recommended responses in HRM Experience. • Case Study: Use Case Study 1: Pay Decisions at University Health Foods on Wheels on page 354 to put students in the situation of determining the pay for a new position at a small organization. • Think-Pair-Share: Ask students to rank order the importance of internal and external factors in determining compensation. Ask them whether they think that enough time is being devoted to compensation in organizations today. Finally, ask students the circumstances under which they would be willing to be under-compensated. Job Evaluation Systems • Job evaluation is the systematic process of determining the relative worth of jobs to establish which jobs should be paid more than others in the organization. • It helps establish internal equity, yet each method requires judgment. • Explain the five ways to evaluate jobs: 1. Job Ranking System—All jobs are ranked by one individual or a committee into a hierarchy of jobs. Rankings are based on some critical factor to job success (e.g., responsibility), or rankings can be based on the total importance of the job to the organization. There are three disadvantages to the job ranking system: (a) The basic disadvantage is that this system does not provide a very precise measure of a job’s worth. (b) The final ranking indicates the relative importance of the job, not the difference in the degree of importance between jobs. (c) This system can only be used with a small number of jobs, probably not more than 15. 2. Job Classification System—Jobs are classified and grouped according to a series of predetermined wage grades. Each grade requires more job responsibility, skill, knowledge, ability, etc. Once the grades are defined, a job is slotted into a grade by comparing the individual job description to the grade descriptions. 3. Point System (including the Point Manual)—This quantitative job evaluation procedure determines the relative value of a job by the total points assigned to it. Points are assigned to jobs based on the degree to which jobs possess different compensable factors. The major compensable factors are skill, effort, responsibility, and working conditions. These factors are subdivided into degrees. • Making Explicit Real-World Links: Provide examples of the point system by using Highlights in HRM 9.2: Sample Rating Chart of Point Method Job Evaluation on page 340, and Highlights in HRM 9.3: Sample Compensable Factor Showing Degrees on page 341, which is used by the American Association of Industrial Management. • Case Study: Use Case Study 2: Job Evaluations at CBC/Radio Canada on page 355 as a basis for discussion in class. See the recommended solutions in the Notes for End-of-Chapter Case Studies. 4. Work Valuation—This job evaluation system seeks to measure a job’s worth through its value to the organization. Work should be valued relative to the business goals of the organization rather than by an internally applied point-factor job evaluation system. This system creates a work hierarchy that is an array of work by value to the organization. The work hierarchy is priced through wage surveys to determine individual pay rates. 5. Job Evaluation for Management Positions, e.g., Hay Profile Method—This system uses three factors—knowledge, mental activity, and accountability—to evaluate executive managerial positions. • Small Group Discussion: Use Discussion Question 3 on page 353 to ensure that students have learned the above-mentioned materials: What is job evaluation? Explain the differences between the major job evaluation systems, noting the advantages and disadvantages of each. Alternatively, do not teach these job evaluation tools in a lecture format, but rather ask students to look in the textbook and answer the questions themselves. Then have students present to one another. See the recommended responses in the Answers to End-of-Chapter Discussion Questions. The Compensation Structure • Explain that job evaluation systems provide for internal equity and serve as a basis for wage rate determination. However, they do not themselves determine the wage rate. • The tool used to help set wages is the wage and salary survey. The survey data can be collected internally, or external consultancies conduct the surveys (e.g., Watson Wyatt). • Making Explicit Real-World Links: Use Highlights in HRM 9.4: Compensation Surveys for HR and Accounting Professionals in Canada on page 343. • The textbook reviews the steps that organizations should take if they wish to collect their own data. • Explain to students that the wage curve is the relationship between the relative worth of jobs and their wage rates. o Use Figure 9.3: Freehand Wage Curve on page 344 to illustrate a hypothetical wage curve. • Define pay grades, and mention to students that when a point system of job evaluation is used, pay grades are established at selected intervals. o Use Figure 9.4: Wage Structure with Increasing Rate Ranges on page 345 to illustrate a series of pay grades designated along the horizontal axis at 50-point intervals. • Explain that organizations typically provide rate ranges for each pay grade. • Define broadbanding as the collapse of traditional salary grades into a few wide salary bands. • Explain the limitations of the job-based approach to compensation, and discuss the competence-based pay approach to compensation. Competence-based pay, also referred to as skill-based pay or knowledge-based pay, compensates employees for the different skills or increased knowledge they possess, rather than for the job they hold in a designated job category. Discuss the benefits and challenges with this approach as well. • Think-Pair-Share: Ask students to write down their competencies, and then put a price tag on them. How much would their compensation be? What information would they gather to determine their compensation? Is competence-based pay realistic for large organizations or better suited for smaller ones? • Clickers: Check for learning by creating a multiple-choice style quiz to see whether students have learned the definition of each of the key terms above; if you don’t have clickers, ask students to raise their hands when you call out the correct answer. • Small Group Discussion: Use Discussion Question 4 on page 353: What are pay grades and pay ranges? In a step-by-step manner, discuss how an organization’s wage structure is determined. See the recommended responses in the Answers to End-of-Chapter Discussion Questions. Government Regulation of Compensation • Call-Out Question: Why do we need laws to help determine employees’ pay? Shouldn’t the employer be allowed total freedom in deciding pay? Explain to students that along with federal legislation, each province has an employment standards act that establishes minimum requirements with respect to wages, hours of work, and overtime. Regulation for compensation in Canada includes the following: • The Canada Labour Code • Employment Standards Act • Other legislation—Refer to employment equity and pay equity legislation brought up in Chapter 3. • Individual or Team Assignment: Use Discussion Question 5 on page 353 as a homework assignment: Laws governing compensation raise important issues for both employers and employees. Discuss the following: (a) The effect of mandatory overtime; (b) The effects of raising the minimum wage; (c) Pay equity: is it needed? Ask students to read one of the academic publications in the Recommended Reading section, and respond to one of the questions in Discussion Question 5. See the recommended responses in the Answers to End-of-Chapter Discussion Questions. Significant Compensation Issues Pay Equity: Equal Pay for Work of Equal Value Institutionalized sex discrimination causes women to receive lower pay for jobs that may be different from but comparable in worth to those performed by men. • Small Group Assignment: Ask students to generate a list of “male-dominated jobs” and “female-dominated jobs.” Then, ask students to go to workopolis.ca to see whether they can find some of these jobs, and document the salary for each. In Excel, they should report the correlation coefficient between gender and the mean level of salary offered for male-type versus female-type jobs. • Think-Pair-Share: Use Discussion Question 6 on page 353: The Pay Equity Commission proposes three methods to make pay equity comparisons: • The job-to-job comparison method • The proportional value comparison method • The proxy comparison method. Read about these methods on http://www.payequity.gov.on.ca/peo/english/pubs/proxycomp.html. What are some of the problems of developing a pay system based on each method? See the recommended responses in the Answers to End-of-Chapter Discussion Questions. Measuring Comparability • Call-Out question: Some people contend that an organization cannot compare jobs in different fields (such as a painter versus a nurse) for pay equity purposes, as these jobs are inherently different. What are your thoughts? Then use Figure 9.5: How Can You Compare Apples and Oranges? on page 350 or the analogy that it provides to explain how difficult it is to compare jobs. • Making Explicit Real-World Links: Use Reality Check: Pay Equity on page 349 to outline some of the issues that face pay equity specialists. • Making Explicit Real-World Links: The Business Case: Cashing Out on page 350 describes two large settlements that have resulted from pay equity issues. The Issue of Wage-Rate Compression • Wage-rate compression is the compression of differentials between job classes, particularly the differential between hourly workers and their managers. • Refer to equity theory since wage-rate compression is an internal equity concern, which if not addressed fairly, can cause low morale, higher absenteeism and turnover, and even employee theft. FINISHING CLASS • Administer copies of the Small Business Application. Ask the students whether they would forego income for learning opportunities. • Review the learning objectives. • Create a multiple-choice style quiz based on the lecture material to check learning. Use clickers if they are available. • Provide students with a “one-minute” paper and ask them to respond to the following questions: (1) What is the most important thing I learned today? (2) What question do I have that is left unanswered? Collect the one-minute papers and take up any unresolved issues in the following class. • Thank students for volunteering their ideas and experiences. Reinforce that class discussions advance their thinking about all topics. Remind students that they will not be able to work without making contributions to discussions. Additional Teaching Resources Possible Individual Assignment/In-Class Assignment: The Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) has produced an excellent exercise on compensation. Find the materials and teaching notes here: https://www.shrm.org/education/hreducation/documents/designing%20a%20pay%20structure_im_9.08.pdf Be warned—this takes a substantial amount of time, and the students should probably be in their third or fourth year of study. Recommended Reading • Beckers, D.G.J., van der Linden, D., Smulders, P.G.W., Kompler, M.A.J., Taris, T.W., & Geurts, S.A.E. (2008). Voluntary or involuntary? Control over overtime and rewards for overtime in relation to fatigue and work satisfaction. Work, Employment and Society, 22(1), 33–50. • Berg, P., & Frost, A. (2005). Dignity at work for low wage, low skill service workers. Relations Industrielles, 60(4), 657–680. • Burkauser, R. V., Couch, K.A., Wittenburg, D.C. (1996). “Who Gets What” from Minimum Wage Hikes: A Re-Estimation of Card and Krueger’s Distributional Analysis in Myth and Measurement: The New Economics of the Minimum Wage. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 49(3), 547–552. • Mahajan, A. (2012). An experiential approach to developing a pay structure: Insights from teaching compensation management. The International Journal of Management Education, 10, 2–11. • Renard, M. (2008). It’s all about the money: Chris and Pat compare salaries. Journal of Management Education, 32(2), 248–261. • Whitehouse, G. (2002). Recent trends in pay equity: Beyond aggregate statistics. The Journal of Industrial Relations, 43(1), 66–78. Instructor Manual for Managing Human Resources Shad Morris, Monica Belcourt, George W. Bohlander, Scott A. Snell, Parbudyal Singh 9780176570262, 9781337387231, 9781285866390, 9780357033814, 9781337387231, 9781111532826, 9780176798055, 9780176407292, 9781285866390, 9781111532826
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