CH-5 Consumer Learning – Consumer Behaviour : Book Guide

Chapter 5 Consumer Learning REVIEW AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 5.1 How can the principles of (a) classical conditioning theory and (b) instrumental conditioning theory be applied to the development of marketing strategies? Classical conditioning is now seen as cognitive associative learning; not the acquisition of new reflexes, but the acquisition of new knowledge about the world. Marketers can use product line extensions, family branding, and licensing to capitalize on the principles of classical conditioning. The consumer may be viewed as an information seeker who uses logical and perceptual relations among events, along with his or her own preconceptions, to form a sophisticated representation of the world. Instrumental conditioning is the learning that results from exposure to relationships among events in the environment; such exposure creates expectations as to the structure of the environment. Therefore, marketers should portray logical relationships among events in their ads, thus creating realistic consumer expectations, which in turn will influence consumer behavior. 5.2 Describe in learning terms the conditions under which family branding is a good policy and those under which it is not. The main advantage of family branding is that marketers can build on the good reputation of their existing products through stimulus generalization. This makes the introduction of new products under the old brand name that much easier. As illustrations of family branding and the different approaches to it, consider the following: the main reason that Kraft and P&G have different family branding policies is that Kraft’s products are homogeneous (they are all food products) and P&G’s products are not. Thus, it would not make sense for P&G to attempt to apply the same name to the whole variety of products it markets. Another reason for P&G’s branding strategy is the company’s penchant for bringing out different brands in a particular product category, such as detergents, in order to satisfy different market segments and broaden its market share. 5.3 Neutrogena, the cosmetic company, has introduced a new line of shaving products for men. How can the company use stimulus generalization to market these products? Is instrumental conditioning applicable to this marketing situation? If so, how? According to classical conditioning theorists, learning depends not only on repetition, but also on the ability of individuals to generalize. Stimulus generalization explains why imitative “me too” products succeed in the marketplace: consumers confuse them with the original product they have seen advertised. In extending its product line, the marketer adds related products to an already established brand, knowing that the new product is more likely to be adopted when it is associated with a known and trusted brand name. Conversely, it is much more difficult to develop a totally new brand. What might be the reward from using the new product (i.e., instrumental conditioning)? Because Neutrogena has a good reputation in skin care, the new shaving line can build on this reputation and add skin care value to the male segment. Like classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning requires a link between a stimulus and a response. In instrumental conditioning, however, the stimulus that results in the most satisfactory response is the one that is learned. Instrumental learning theorists believe that learning occurs through a trial-and-error process, with habits formed as a result of rewards received for certain responses or behaviors. Although classical conditioning is useful in explaining how consumers learn very simple kinds of behaviors, instrumental conditioning is more helpful in explaining complex, goal-directed activities. Therefore, for Neutrogena to use instrumental conditioning, they must provide consumers the opportunity to try the product and then like what they try. 5.4 Which form of learning (i.e., classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, observational learning, or cognitive learning) best explains the following consumption behaviors: (a) buying a six-pack of Gatorade water, (b) preferring to purchase jeans at a Diesel Store, (c) buying a digital camera for the first time, (d) buying a new car, and (e) switching from one cell phone service to another? Explain your choices. Students’ responses may vary based on their perceptions of these products. Classical conditioning, in a consumer behavior context, an unconditioned stimulus might consist of a wellknown brand symbol that implies technological superiority and trouble-free operation (the unconditioned response). Instrumental conditioning, the stimulus that results in the most satisfactory response, is the one that is learned. Instrumental learning theorists believe that learning occurs through a trial-and-error process, with habits formed as a result of rewards received for certain responses or behaviours. Observational learning occurs by modelling or observing what others do. Cognitive learning is based on mental activity. Cognitive learning theory holds that the kind of learning most characteristic of human beings is problem solving and it gives some control over their environment. Have students justify and explain choices. 5.5 Define the following memory structures: sensory store, short-term store (working memory), and long-term store. Discuss how each of these concepts can be used in the development of an advertising strategy. Sensory store—receives what the senses deliver but retains information for only a fraction of a second. For marketing, this means that although it is easy to expose consumers to information, it is difficult to make a lasting impression. Therefore, messages must be brief and attract attention. Short-term store—the stage of memory where information which is rehearsed is transferred to real memory, and data which is not rehearsed is lost within less than one minute. Because the amount of time available for memorization is very limited, the message must encourage immediate rehearsal of materials to stimulate retention. Chucking information also stimulates rehearsal of information and its transfer to long-term memory. Long-term store—a data bank which lasts up to many years with almost unlimited capacity. The data is organized through linking and clustering of information according to its meaningfulness. The marketers must provide a message that can be readily linked to information stored here. Also, the advertiser should remember that the consumer interprets new information in a manner consistent with data stored in the long-term memory. 5.6 How does information overload affect the consumer’s ability to comprehend an ad and store it in his or her memory? When consumers are presented with too much information (called information overload), they may encounter difficulty in encoding and storing it all. It has been argued that consumers can become cognitively overloaded if they are given a lot of information in a limited time. The result of this overload is confusion, resulting in poor purchase decisions. One study found that consumers make less effective choices when presented with too much information. Other studies have found that consumers can handle large amounts of information without experiencing overload. The apparent contradiction between these findings may be due to the absence of a precise definition as to how much information constitutes overload. Is it five items or fifteen items? One experiment, which concluded that consumers are confused and make poor choices as the result of information overload, provided consumers with 10 to 25 choice alternatives, and with information concerning 15 to 25 product attributes. Research is needed to determine at what point information overload sets in for various subsets of consumers. 5.7 Discuss the differences between low- and high-involvement media. How would you apply the knowledge of hemispheric lateralization to the development of TV commercials and print advertisements? The research called hemispheric lateralization, or split-brain theory, suggests that the left brain is responsible for cognitive activities, such as reading, speaking and processing verbal information, and that the right brain processes nonverbal and pictorial information and forms holistic images. Because TV is primarily a pictorial medium, TV viewing is considered to be a right brain function—passive and holistic processing of images viewed on the screen—and TV is regarded as a low-involvement medium. On the other hand, print media (i.e., newspapers and magazines) are high-involvement because exposure to them results in the left-brain’s active processing of verbal data and, ultimately, in cognitive learning. Thus, TV commercials should be short, rich in visual symbolism and repeated frequently. Consumers process and learn TV advertising passively, and the major objective of TV ads should be to form consumer familiarity with the brand and package which will result in the object’s recognition and purchase by consumers. The objective of print ads is to present detailed, rather than “overall image,” information to generate cognitive evaluations of the advantages and disadvantages of the product. 5.8 Why are both attitudinal and behavioral measures important in measuring brand loyalty? Brand loyalty is the ultimate desired outcome of consumer learning. There is, however, no single definition of this concept. Marketers agree that brand loyalty consists of both attitudinal and actual behaviors toward a brand and that both must be measured. Attitudinal measures are concerned with consumers’ overall feelings (i.e., evaluations) about the product and the brand and their purchase intentions. Behavioral measures are based on observable responses to promotional stimuli—repeat purchase behavior rather than attitude toward the product or brand. 5.9 What is the relationship between brand loyalty and brand equity? What roles do both concepts play in the development of marketing strategies? As mentioned in Question 5.8, brand loyalty is the ultimate desired outcome of consumer learning. The term brand equity refers to the value inherent in a well-known brand name. The value stems from the consumer’s perception of the brand’s superiority and the social esteem that using it provides and the trust and identification with the brand. For many companies, their most valuable assets are their brand names. With respect to strategies, because of the escalation of new-product costs and the high rate of new-product failures, many companies prefer to leverage their brand equity through brand extensions rather than risk launching a new brand. 5.10 How can marketers use measures of recognition and recall to study the extent of consumer learning? Recognition and recall tests are conducted to determine whether consumers remember seeing an ad, the extent to which they have read it or seen it and can recall its contents, their resulting attitudes toward the product and the brand, and their purchase intentions. Recognition tests are based on aided recall, whereas recall tests used unaided recall. HANDS-ON ASSIGNMENTS 5.11 Imagine you are the instructor in this course and that you are trying to increase students’ participation in class discussions. How would you use reinforcement to achieve your objective? To increase student participation in class discussions using reinforcement, you could employ several strategies: 1. Positive Reinforcement: Provide verbal praise, acknowledgment, or rewards for students who actively participate in discussions. For example, you could offer bonus points, small prizes, or public recognition for insightful contributions. 2. Negative Reinforcement: Although less commonly used in this context, negative reinforcement could involve removing an aversive stimulus when students participate. For instance, you might reduce the frequency of pop quizzes or decrease the amount of homework for students who regularly contribute to discussions. 3. Continuous Reinforcement: Initially, provide reinforcement every time a student participates to establish the desired behavior. Once participation increases, you can switch to intermittent reinforcement, which means rewarding participation only occasionally. This helps maintain the behavior over the long term. 4. Peer Reinforcement: Encourage students to positively reinforce each other's participation. This could be done through group discussions where students are encouraged to acknowledge and appreciate their classmates' contributions. 5. Feedback: Provide constructive feedback to students on their participation. Let them know what they did well and how they can improve. Positive feedback can serve as reinforcement for future participation. 6. Modeling: Demonstrate active listening and participation yourself as the instructor. Students often mimic the behavior they see, so your active involvement can serve as a model for them to follow. It's important to be consistent and fair in your use of reinforcement, ensuring that all students have the opportunity to participate and receive feedback. Instructor’s Discussion From an instrumental (operant) conditioning viewpoint, a professor should use positive reinforcement and reward students for participation through praises, keeping count of the number of times students participate, and giving a grade for class participation. If these means are used, however, students will learn to expect external motivations/rewards and, if these reinforcers are discontinued, will stop participating. A better approach may be to require students to prepare answers to questions and exercises given to them in advance of the class and to present their responses in class. Thus, students will be intellectually challenged, will clearly know what is expected of them, and will prepare for class discussions in order to avoid embarrassment in front of the class when they present their answers (i.e., due to internal motivation rather than due to external reinforcement). 5.12 Visit a supermarket. Can you identify any packages where the marketer’s knowledge of stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination was incorporated into the package design? Note these examples and present them in class. When visiting a supermarket, you might find several examples where marketers have incorporated knowledge of stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination into package design. Here are some common examples: 1. Brand Logos and Colors: Brands often use consistent logos and colors across their product lines to create a sense of familiarity and similarity. This can lead to stimulus generalization, where consumers associate similar colors or logos with the same brand across different products. 2. Package Shape and Size: The shape and size of packages can also influence consumer perception. For example, a tall, slim bottle might be associated with a premium product, while a shorter, wider bottle might be perceived as more affordable. Marketers use these cues to signal different product qualities and price points. 3. Labeling and Typography: The design of labels and typography can also play a role in stimulus generalization and discrimination. Consistent use of fonts, language, and imagery can create a unified brand image, while subtle differences can help differentiate between product variants or categories. 4. Sensory Cues: Marketers often use sensory cues, such as texture, sound, or scent, to create associations with their products. For example, the sound of a can being opened or the smell of a product can evoke positive feelings and reinforce brand loyalty. 5. Package Placement: The placement of products on shelves can also influence consumer behavior. Marketers may place products from the same brand or category together to encourage cross-selling, or they may use shelf positioning to highlight premium or promotional items. By observing these examples in a supermarket and analyzing how they are used to influence consumer behavior, you can gain a better understanding of how marketers leverage stimulus generalization and discrimination in package design. Instructor’s Discussion Because the average package on the supermarket shelf has about one-tenth of a second to make an impression, astute marketers usually try to differentiate their packages sufficiently to ensure rapid consumer recognition. Thus, national manufacturers create packages that provide unique sensory input, are heavily advertised, create instant recognition, and are distinctly different from other packages in the same product category (i.e., stimulus discrimination). On the other hand, a trip to the supermarket reveals that manufacturers of private and store brands often design packages that resemble those of national brands; they hope that consumers will generalize from the national brands that they are likely to instantly recognize to the lesser-known store and private brands. 5.13 Find two ads: one targeting the left side of the brain and another targeting the right side. Explain your choices. Targeting the left and right sides of the brain in advertising typically refers to appealing to different types of thinking or decision-making processes. The left brain is often associated with logical thinking, analysis, and details, while the right brain is linked to creativity, emotion, and imagination. Here are two ads that could represent these approaches: 1. Left Brain Ad: A print ad for a computer featuring detailed specifications, performance metrics, and a comparison chart with competitors. This ad appeals to the left brain by providing logical information that would be important to someone making a rational, analytical decision about which computer to buy. 2. Right Brain Ad: A television commercial for a luxury car that focuses on sleek design, beautiful scenery, and the emotional experience of driving the car. This ad appeals to the right brain by evoking emotions and highlighting the aesthetic appeal of the product rather than focusing on technical details. These examples demonstrate how advertisers can tailor their messaging to appeal to different aspects of consumer thinking, depending on the product and target audience. Instructor’s Discussion The American Airlines ad in the text provides one example. The left hemisphere is the center of human language; it is the linear side of the brain and primarily responsible for reading, speaking, and reasoning. The right hemisphere of the brain is the home of spatial perception and nonverbal concepts; it is nonlinear and the source of imagination and pleasure. Put another way, the left side of the brain is rational, active, and realistic; the right side is emotional, metaphoric, impulsive, and intuitive. S.T.A.R. PROJECTS Ethical Issues in Consumer Behavior S.T.A.R. Project #1 As indicated in the chapter, behavioral learning theories are sometimes referred to as stimulus-response theories because they are based on the premise that observable responses to specific external signals that learning has taken place. Behavioral theories are not so much concerned with the process of learning as they are with the inputs and outcomes of learning, that is, in the stimuli that consumers select from the environment and the observable behaviors that result. Which of the behavioral learning theories relate most closely conduct of good business ethics? a. Review each of the behavioral learning theories and briefly describe the theories that you perceive to be most closely associated with the ethical transmission of information for the purpose of learning. b. Create an example to illustrate your position in the above question. a. The two main behavioral learning theories are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves learning through association, where a stimulus that naturally elicits a response is paired with a neutral stimulus until the neutral stimulus also elicits the response. Operant conditioning, on the other hand, involves learning through reinforcement or punishment for certain behaviors. In the context of ethical transmission of information, operant conditioning is more closely associated with good business ethics. Operant conditioning focuses on the consequences of behavior, which can include rewards for ethical behavior and punishments for unethical behavior. By reinforcing ethical behavior and discouraging unethical behavior, businesses can promote a culture of integrity and responsibility. b. For example, a company could implement a reward system for employees who report unethical behavior or speak up about ethical concerns. This would be an example of positive reinforcement, where ethical behavior is rewarded, encouraging others to follow suit. On the other hand, the company could also impose consequences, such as reprimands or loss of privileges, for employees who engage in unethical behavior. This would be an example of punishment, discouraging unethical behavior in the future. Instructor’s Discussion As indicated previously, Classical Conditioning is now seen as cognitive associative learning; not the acquisition of new reflexes, but the acquisition of new knowledge about the world. Marketers can use product line extensions, family branding, and licensing to capitalize on the principles of classical conditioning. The consumer may be viewed as an information seeker who uses logical and perceptual relations among events, along with his or her own preconceptions, to form a sophisticated representation of the world. Instrumental conditioning (operant) is the learning that results from exposure to relationships among events in the environment; such exposure creates expectations as to the structure of the environment. With respect to ethical behavior in business, either position can be defended. In the case of classical conditioning, however, good business ethics can be seen as a “knee-jerk” or automatic reaction. Repeated exposure to proper behavior would produce this response through conditioning. Symbols would be important in this form of learning. In the case of instrumental conditioning, business ethics is often presented as a system of rewards or punishments learned through trial and error. Experience is the guide. Small Group Projects S.T.A.R. Project #2 Your group’s assignment is to learn about how Internet brokerage firms attempt to teach you about online trading. Have one part of your group analyze eTrade.com and the other part analyze Charles Schwab (www.charlesschwab.com). Each sub-group should construct a table that indicates how each of the Web sites attempts to enhance consumer learning. What behavioral learning theories does each Web site appear to be using? Gauge effectiveness of the effort. Share the information with one another. Here's a table for each website, outlining how they attempt to enhance consumer learning and the behavioral learning theories they appear to use: Both websites appear to use operant conditioning, specifically positive reinforcement, by providing users with valuable tools, information, and support to enhance their learning and trading experience. The effectiveness of these efforts can be gauged by analyzing user engagement with the educational resources, the ease of use of the trading platforms, and the overall satisfaction and success of users in their trading activities. Instructor’s Discussion As students explore the two Web sites, they will observe two different techniques for transmitting information to consumers. Though both are considered to be excellent online traders, they follow different paths. Both, however, probably use instrumental conditioning rather than classical conditioning to get their points across. Have the student groups debate their findings. Was there consensus among the groups? If not, try to resolve the findings. S.T.A.R. Project #3 Family branding is the practice of marketing a whole line of company products under the same brand name. This strategy capitalizes on the consumer’s ability to generalize favorable brand associations from one product to others. Your group assignment is to analyze two separate family branding giants—Kellogg’s and C.W. Post cereals. Go to both of the company’s Web sites and make a list of all the products that are under the respective corporate umbrellas. After reviewing the material in the chapter on family branding, evaluate which organization appears to be superior. How did your group determine this? What behavioral learning principles does each appear to be using? Provide supportive evidence. Kellogg's Products under Kellogg's Brand: 1. Kellogg's Corn Flakes 2. Kellogg's Frosted Flakes 3. Kellogg's Rice Krispies 4. Kellogg's Special K 5. Kellogg's Raisin Bran 6. Kellogg's Froot Loops 7. Kellogg's Mini-Wheats 8. Kellogg's Pop-Tarts 9. Kellogg's Nutri-Grain 10. Kellogg's Eggo C.W. Post Products under C.W. Post Brand: 1. Post Grape-Nuts 2. Post Raisin Bran 3. Post Shredded Wheat 4. Post Honey Bunches of Oats 5. Post Great Grains 6. Post Alpha-Bits Evaluation In evaluating which organization appears to be superior in terms of family branding, the group considered several factors: 1. Product Diversity: Kellogg's offers a wider range of products under its brand compared to C.W. Post, which may indicate a more extensive and successful implementation of the family branding strategy. 2. Brand Recognition: Kellogg's is generally more recognized and has a stronger brand reputation compared to C.W. Post, which could suggest that its family branding strategy has been more effective in creating favorable brand associations. 3. Market Presence: Kellogg's has a larger market presence and a more global reach compared to C.W. Post, which could indicate a stronger implementation of the family branding strategy in different markets. 4. Consumer Perception: Consumer perception and loyalty towards Kellogg's products may be stronger compared to C.W. Post, indicating that Kellogg's has been more successful in leveraging the family branding strategy to create positive consumer associations. Behavioral Learning Principles Both Kellogg's and C.W. Post appear to use several behavioral learning principles in their family branding strategies: 1. Classical Conditioning: By associating the company name with a wide range of products, both companies aim to create positive brand associations that consumers can generalize across their product lines. 2. Operant Conditioning: Both companies likely use positive reinforcement by consistently delivering high-quality products under the same brand name, encouraging repeat purchases and building brand loyalty. 3. Observational Learning: Consumers may observe the success and positive experiences of others with products under the same brand name, influencing their own purchasing decisions and reinforcing the family branding strategy. Overall, Kellogg's appears to be superior in terms of family branding based on its broader product range, stronger brand recognition, larger market presence, and possibly stronger consumer perception and loyalty. Instructor’s Discussion Students will find the Kellogg’s Web site (www.kelloggs.com) and C.W. Post (www.postcereals.com) to be rich information warehouses of information. Students will be somewhat surprised by the amount of brands housed by either of these two megabrands. If the class is large and more work in this area is needed also try General Foods. The student group should be encouraged to be creative with its evaluation scheme. There is ample information in the chapter that can be used in the evaluation method construction. Be sure to compare the student methods as each group makes its presentation. Using the Internet to Study Consumer Behavior S.T.A.R. Project #4 Recognition and recall tests are conducted to determine whether consumers remember seeing an ad, the extent to which they have read it or seen it and can recall its content, their resulting attitudes toward the product and the brand, and their purchase intentions. A number of syndicated research services conduct recognition and recall tests. One such organization is the Starch Readership Service (see www.starchresearch.com). This service evaluates the effectiveness of magazine advertisements. See Figure 7-13 for an example of an ad that has been “Starched.” a. Go to the Starch Readership Service Web site and describe other services that Starch provides to marketers and advertisers. b. Which of these services (beyond the Readership Service) seems to most closely match the marketer or advertiser’s desire to learn how consumers learn, recognize, and recall information? c. After reviewing the information about the Starch services found in the chapter and seen on their Web site, pick a magazine ad and devise your own method for measuring recognition and recall. How does your method match that of Starch? How does your method differ? Try administering your test method to five fellow students. Critique your results. a. The Starch Readership Service provides several services to marketers and advertisers, including: • Starch AdNorms: Measures the effectiveness of print advertisements by evaluating factors such as ad size, color, placement, and readership demographics. • Starch AdMeasure: Assesses the readership of print ads to determine their reach and impact. • Starch AdClinic: Provides diagnostic information to help advertisers improve the effectiveness of their print ads. • Starch Digital: Evaluates the effectiveness of digital advertising campaigns. b. Among these services, Starch AdMeasure seems to most closely match the marketer or advertiser's desire to learn how consumers learn, recognize, and recall information. This service assesses the readership of print ads to determine the extent to which consumers have seen and remembered the ads, providing valuable insights into recognition and recall. c. Method for Measuring Recognition and Recall: 1. Select an Ad: Choose a magazine ad that you believe is memorable and impactful. 2. Pre-Test Questionnaire: Before showing the ad, ask participants if they have seen the ad before. Record their responses. 3. Show the Ad: Show the ad to participants for a brief period. 4. Post-Test Questionnaire: After showing the ad, ask participants to recall specific details from the ad, such as the brand, product features, or key message. Also, ask about their attitudes toward the ad and their purchase intentions. 5. Scoring: Score participants' responses based on their ability to recall details from the ad. Compare their responses to the actual content of the ad to determine accuracy. 6. Comparison with Starch Method: The method outlined above is similar to Starch's approach in that it involves assessing participants' recognition and recall of specific details from the ad. However, Starch's method may involve a larger sample size and more detailed analysis. 7. Administer the Test: Administer the test to five fellow students and record their responses. 8. Critique the Results: Evaluate the results based on the accuracy of participants' recall, their attitudes toward the ad, and their purchase intentions. Compare the results with your expectations and consider any factors that may have influenced participants' responses, such as ad placement or previous exposure to the ad. Instructor’s Discussion Students should benefit from the information found on the Starch (Roper) Web site. There are several Starch methods that will be of interest. Be sure that students explain why they believe the Starch tests fit with the queries in “b” above. Students, once they have carefully read the material in the chapter and visited the Web site, will produce some interesting recognition and recall tests. Present the best of these in class. Ask two to three students to present the results of their magazine ad test. All can learn from this experience. S.T.A.R. Project #5 As indicated in the chapter, the basis of co-branding (in which two brand names are featured on a single product) is to use another product’s brand equity to enhance the primary brand’s equity. Notice the synergy that occurs when Nabisco combines its name with Ocean Spray to form Cranberry Newton’s. Your assignment is to go to the Web and find three examples where companies doing business on the Internet have formed cobranding opportunities. List the examples you have found and comment on what you perceive to be the strategies behind these moves. Lastly, suggest a co-branding opportunity among e-commerce companies that has yet to materialize. Comment on why your suggested opportunity would be a good one. Examples of Co-Branding Opportunities on the Internet: 1. Uber and Spotify: Uber and Spotify teamed up to allow passengers to play their own music during their rides. This partnership enhances the customer experience for both companies' users and creates a unique selling proposition for Uber. 2. Starbucks and Spotify: Starbucks and Spotify partnered to create "Starbucks Music," a digital music experience for Starbucks customers. This partnership allows Starbucks to enhance its instore ambiance and provide additional value to its customers. 3. Nike and Apple: Nike and Apple collaborated to create Nike+, a fitness tracking app that integrates with Apple devices. This partnership leverages both companies' strengths in fitness and technology to provide a comprehensive fitness tracking solution for users. Strategies Behind These Moves: • Enhancing Customer Experience: Co-branding allows companies to enhance the customer experience by providing additional value or convenience to their customers. • Leveraging Brand Equity: Co-branding allows companies to leverage each other's brand equity to create a stronger value proposition for their customers. • Differentiation: Co-branding can help companies differentiate themselves from competitors by offering unique products or services that are not available elsewhere. • Accessing New Markets: Co-branding can help companies access new markets or customer segments by partnering with a company that has a strong presence in those markets. Suggested Co-Branding Opportunity: Amazon and Airbnb: Amazon could partner with Airbnb to offer a seamless shopping experience for travelers. This partnership could allow Airbnb hosts to easily purchase and stock their properties with Amazon products, while also providing travelers with recommendations for local products and services through the Amazon app. This co-branding opportunity would be beneficial because it would enhance the experience for both Airbnb hosts and travelers, while also providing Amazon with access to a new customer base. Instructor’s Discussion This assignment asks students to be creative with their search of the Internet. If they become stuck, suggest automotive companies, organizations such as NASCAR, non-profits such as the United Way, computer companies, soft drink companies, and music companies. Remember, Peter Pan peanut butter is great when pre-mixed (co-branded) with Welch’s grape jelly. Solution Manual for Consumer Behaviour Leon G. Schiffman, Leslie Lozor Konuk, S. Ramesh Kumar 9789332555099, 9780134734828