CH-1 The Science of Archaeology – Archaeology: The Science of the Human Past : Exam Guide

Chapter 1: The Science of Archaeology True/False Questions 1) Archaeology helped determine that Moche ceramic iconography does not portray ceremonies that actually took place Answer: False Rationale: Archaeology has indeed contributed to understanding Moche ceramic iconography by studying associated artifacts, structures, and contexts. However, it has also revealed that many aspects of Moche iconography do depict real ceremonies and activities, providing valuable insights into their culture and practices. 2) Archaeologists can learn nothing about the past from the classification and distribution of modern languages. Answer: False Rationale: Linguistic archaeology, a subfield of archaeology, utilizes the classification and distribution of modern languages to infer information about ancient cultures, migrations, and interactions. Therefore, archaeologists can indeed glean insights about the past from studying modern languages. 3) Archaeologists always work with other specialists in their research. Answer: True Rationale: Archaeological research often requires interdisciplinary collaboration with specialists such as historians, geologists, botanists, and anthropologists to analyze artifacts, interpret findings, and contextualize archaeological evidence accurately. 4) Historical archaeologists cannot rely exclusively on documents to find out about the past. Answer: True Rationale: While historical archaeologists do utilize historical documents as valuable sources of information, they also recognize the limitations and biases inherent in written records. Therefore, they supplement documentary evidence with archaeological excavations and analyses to provide a more comprehensive understanding of past societies. 5) Archaeology can add nothing to what we already know through documents about historical times. Answer: False Rationale: Archaeology often provides unique insights and perspectives that complement and sometimes contradict the information derived from historical documents. Through the study of material culture, settlement patterns, and environmental data, archaeology can offer additional layers of understanding and context to historical narratives. 6) Biblical archaeology is a kind of prehistoric archaeology. Answer: False Rationale: Prehistoric archaeology focuses on societies that existed before the advent of writing, whereas biblical archaeology specifically investigates archaeological evidence related to events, places, and people mentioned in the Bible. While there may be overlaps in methodologies and techniques, they are distinct subfields with different chronological focuses. 7) Maritime archaeology includes both nautical and underwater archaeology. Answer: True Rationale: Maritime archaeology encompasses the study of human interaction with maritime environments, including both nautical archaeology, which investigates vessels and related structures on land, and underwater archaeology, which explores submerged sites and artifacts. 8) Stratigraphy can assist archaeologists in establishing relative dating. Answer: True Rationale: Stratigraphy involves analyzing the layers of sediment and artifacts within an archaeological site. By studying the relative positions of these layers, archaeologists can establish a chronological sequence, allowing for the relative dating of artifacts and features within the site. 9) The physical sciences, such as physics and chemistry, are more experimental and quantitative than archaeology. Answer: True Rationale: While archaeology incorporates elements of experimental and quantitative analysis, disciplines like physics and chemistry often rely more heavily on controlled experiments and quantitative methodologies to test hypotheses and gather data. 10) Scientific paradigms can shift. Answer: True Rationale: Scientific paradigms are frameworks or models that guide scientific inquiry and interpretation of data within a particular field. These paradigms can evolve over time as new evidence is discovered or as theories are revised in response to advancements in knowledge and technology. 11) To say that archaeology is empirical and objective means that it considers only those objects and patterns that physically exist and can be observed, measured, and tested. Answer: False Rationale: While archaeology strives to be empirical and objective, it also recognizes the importance of interpreting cultural contexts, symbolic meanings, and intangible aspects of human behavior, which may not always be directly observable or measurable. Archaeologists often utilize various theoretical frameworks and methodologies to interpret archaeological data beyond solely physical attributes. 12) Occam's Razor says that you must consider the simplest explanation first. Answer: True Rationale: Occam's Razor, a principle of parsimony attributed to William of Ockham, suggests that among competing hypotheses, the one with the fewest assumptions should be selected. It encourages simplicity and minimizing unnecessary complexity in explanations. 13) Archaeological models are designed to be flexible in light of new data. Answer: True Rationale: Archaeological models are theoretical frameworks used to interpret and explain archaeological evidence. They are constructed based on existing data and theories but are expected to evolve and adapt as new evidence and insights emerge from ongoing research and discoveries. 14) Von Daniken has scientific hypotheses about the origins of the Pyramids. Answer: False Rationale: Erich von Däniken is known for his speculative and often criticized theories proposed in books like "Chariots of the Gods?" which suggest extraterrestrial influence on ancient civilizations. However, these hypotheses are not considered scientific within the archaeological community due to lack of empirical evidence and adherence to methodological rigor. 15) Piltdown Man was important because he was the "Missing Link." Answer: False Rationale: Piltdown Man was a notorious archaeological hoax involving fraudulent fossil remains presented as a missing link between apes and humans. Its significance lies in the cautionary tale it provides about the importance of rigorous scientific scrutiny and skepticism in archaeological research, rather than its actual contribution to understanding human evolution. 16) Because archaeology is a scientific discipline, archaeologists cannot ever be fooled by fakes. Answer: False Rationale: While archaeology employs scientific methodologies, it is not immune to deception or misinterpretation. Archaeologists must critically evaluate evidence, employ rigorous analytical techniques, and remain vigilant against fraud and misrepresentation, as demonstrated by historical instances of archaeological hoaxes. 17) Human behavior is highly regularized and easy to predict. Answer: False Rationale: Human behavior is complex and influenced by numerous factors such as culture, social norms, individual experiences, and environmental conditions. While patterns and trends may emerge, predicting human behavior with absolute certainty is challenging due to its variability and unpredictability. 18) Archaeologists never encounter the descendants of people who produced archaeological sites. Answer: False Rationale: Archaeologists often engage with descendant communities whose ancestors inhabited or were associated with archaeological sites. Collaboration with these communities can provide valuable insights, perspectives, and ethical considerations in archaeological research, particularly regarding heritage management and interpretation. 19) Archaeology can contribute to contemporary debates on gender, religion, power, and politics. Answer: True Rationale: Archaeological research can shed light on past societal structures, belief systems, power dynamics, and cultural practices, which may inform contemporary discussions and debates surrounding gender, religion, power, and politics. By examining material culture and contextualizing findings, archaeology provides insights into long-term historical processes that shape present-day societies. 20) The archaeological record consists of human-made and natural remains found within a cultural context. Answer: True Rationale: The archaeological record comprises artifacts, features, structures, ecofacts, and other material remains left behind by past human societies within a specific cultural and environmental context. This record provides valuable evidence for reconstructing past lifeways, technologies, and interactions. Multiple-Choice Questions 1) The Moche were an early civilization of farmers and fishers who thrived along the north coast of __________. A) France B) Mexico C) Peru D) Chile E) Canada Answer: C Rationale: The Moche civilization flourished along the north coast of Peru, known for its advanced agricultural practices, complex society, and distinctive artistic achievements. 2) Some people have the incorrect idea that archaeology includes __________. A) documenting modern garbage patterns B) digging up dinosaurs C) studying shipwrecks D) understanding cultures E) reconstructing past environments Answer: B Rationale: While archaeology primarily focuses on the study of human societies through material remains, some misconceptions exist, such as the notion that archaeologists excavate dinosaurs, which is actually the domain of paleontology. 3) Palaeontologists are most likely going to be found excavating __________. A) cultural debris B) localities where people lived, worked, or visited C) portable artifacts D) ecofacts E) dinosaur remains Answer: E Rationale: Paleontologists specialize in the study of ancient life forms, particularly fossils, including dinosaurs, which they excavate to understand prehistoric organisms and ecosystems. 4) Cultural relativism holds that __________. A) no cultures are better or worse than others B) all cultures are related C) no behavior is better or worse than others D) some cultures are more primitive than others E) all cultures are symbolic systems Answer: A Rationale: Cultural relativism is the perspective that all cultures are inherently valuable and should be understood within their own contexts, rejecting judgments of superiority or inferiority among them. 5) An anthropologist collecting ethnographic data is studying __________. A) primates B) the study of hominid evolution C) a particular cultural group D) geological processes E) past material culture Answer: C Rationale: Ethnography involves the systematic study and documentation of specific cultural groups, including their social structures, customs, beliefs, and practices, conducted by anthropologists through fieldwork and participant observation. 6) The sub-fields of anthropology as practiced in America do not include __________. A) archaeology B) biological anthropology C) linguistics D) geology E) cultural anthropology Answer: D Rationale: Anthropology in America typically includes subfields such as archaeology, biological anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and cultural anthropology. Geology, while relevant to some aspects of archaeological research, is not traditionally considered a subfield of anthropology. 7) To achieve the basic and primary goal of archaeology, which is to understand humans, archaeology begins with __________. A) reconstructing the lifeways of past people B) addressing the why question C) a comprehensive understanding of human behavior D) description of material culture E) the discovery of new information Answer: E Rationale: The fundamental goal of archaeology is to understand past human societies and behaviors through the study of material culture. This process often begins with the discovery of new archaeological data, which serves as the foundation for further analysis and interpretation. 8) Forensic archaeologists __________. A) excavate underwater sites B) expose archaeological hoaxes C) analyze material from crime scenes or battlefields D) work exclusively in the Palaeolithic E) specialize in dating archaeological materials Answer: C Rationale: Forensic archaeologists apply archaeological methods and principles to analyze material evidence from crime scenes, disasters, or historical events, aiding in the investigation of legal or forensic inquiries, such as identifying human remains or reconstructing past events. 9) Which of the following would be studied by historical archaeologists? A) Ancient Rome B) Pre-Columbian Maya C) Colonial Williamsburg D) the Neolithic E) Bronze Age Europe Answer: C Rationale: Historical archaeologists focus on the study of relatively recent periods of history, typically since the advent of written records. Therefore, Colonial Williamsburg, as a site representing a colonial-era settlement in America, would be a subject of study for historical archaeologists. 10) The Prehistoric in the Old World is commonly divided into __________. A) the Palaeolithic, the Mesolithic, and the Neolithic B) artifacts, features, and ecofacts C) ethnology, ethnography, and chronology D) the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age E) the Old Stone age and the New Stone Age Answer: A Rationale: The prehistoric period in the Old World is often subdivided into the Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), and Neolithic (New Stone Age), reflecting significant developments in human culture and technology during different chronological phases. 11) Which of the following would be studied by classical archaeologists? A) Ancient Maya B) Ancient China C) Ancient Polynesians D) Ancient Rome E) Ancient Egypt Answer: D Rationale: Classical archaeologists focus on the study of ancient Mediterranean civilizations, such as Ancient Rome, Ancient Greece, and their contemporaries, including aspects of their art, architecture, material culture, and society. 12) Maritime archaeology is different from archaeology in __________. A) its approach to the scientific method B) that it specializes in underwater archaeological sites C) its understanding of the nature of the past D) that it is practiced only in Europe E) it concentrates on the subject of warfare Answer: B Rationale: Maritime archaeology specializes in the investigation and preservation of submerged archaeological sites, including shipwrecks, harbors, and maritime landscapes, distinguishing it from terrestrial archaeology that focuses on land-based sites. 13) Someone concerned with the preservation and management of archaeological resources is practicing __________. A) classical archaeology B) cultural resource management C) ethnology D) historical archaeology E) ethnoarchaeology Answer: B Rationale: Cultural resource management involves the protection, conservation, and sustainable use of archaeological resources, often in compliance with regulations and policies aimed at preserving cultural heritage for future generations. 14) Which term best describes the material remains of past human activities and behaviors? A) the archaeological record B) artifacts C) stratigraphy D) ecology E) archaeological features Answer: A Rationale: The archaeological record encompasses all material traces of past human activities, behaviors, and environments, providing evidence for reconstructing past lifeways and interpreting cultural change over time. 15) Which of the following is an example of a feature? A) animal bones B) an archaeological site C) a non-portable object used or constructed by people D) a very ancient artifact E) archaeological materials that can be dated Answer: C Rationale: Features refer to non-portable elements of the archaeological record, such as structures, hearths, pits, or architectural remnants, which are integral parts of archaeological sites and reflect past human activities. 16) Relative dating involves __________. A) the law of superposition. B) placing materials and events in real time C) analysis of radioactive isotopes D) only organic material E) prehistoric materials Answer: A Rationale: Relative dating relies on principles such as the law of superposition, which states that in undisturbed layers of sedimentary rock, the oldest layers are at the bottom, allowing archaeologists to establish the relative chronology of artifacts and features within a site. 17) The most common method of absolute dating is __________. A) the law of superposition B) relative dating C) radiocarbon dating D) titanium dating E) chronometric dating Answer: C Rationale: Radiocarbon dating, based on the decay of radioactive carbon isotopes in organic materials, is one of the most widely used methods of absolute dating in archaeology, providing estimates of the age of organic artifacts and archaeological contexts. 18) A __________ shift occurred when it was discovered that Earth revolves around the Sun. A) paradigm B) law C) theory D) hypothesis E) methodology Answer: A Rationale: A paradigm shift refers to a fundamental change in the basic assumptions, theories, or methodologies within a scientific discipline, often resulting from new discoveries or evidence that challenges prevailing beliefs. 19) The law of gravity is an example of __________. A) a universal generalization about classes of facts B) an empirical framework C) a systematic explanation for observations D) an idea about relationships between data E) a construct of interrelated hypotheses and theories Answer: A Rationale: The law of gravity represents a universal generalization or principle that describes the fundamental force of attraction between objects with mass, based on repeated observations and experimentation. 20) Occam's razor states that __________. A) societies should not be judged by any standards other than their own B) the most simple explanation is most likely to be true C) simple answers are usually inadequate D) older deposits are on the bottom E) the archaeology of literate societies whose writing we cannot yet read is considered prehistoric Answer: B Rationale: Occam's razor, a principle of parsimony attributed to William of Ockham, suggests that among competing hypotheses, the simplest explanation with the fewest assumptions is often the most likely to be correct. 21) An archaeologist who is performing this activity is not using the scientific method. A) collecting data B) hypothesis testing C) building a model D) developing a theory E) excavating Answer: E Rationale: Excavating, while a crucial aspect of archaeological fieldwork, is not solely indicative of the scientific method. The scientific method involves systematic observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, and data analysis, whereas excavation is a practical technique for uncovering and recovering archaeological material. 22) Synchronic processes are those that __________. A) reflect observations of human behavior at points along a continuum B) deal with conditions through some period of time C) result in a hypothesis D) cause disturbances in the archaeological record E) alter environments Answer: A Rationale: Synchronic processes refer to observations of human behavior at specific points in time, along a continuum, rather than across different time periods. This perspective allows archaeologists to examine cultural phenomena within a single timeframe, providing insights into contemporary behaviors and societal dynamics. 23) When is a research design most likely completed by an archaeologist? A) prior to going into the field B) when the archaeologist is drawing conclusions C) during fieldwork and excavation D) while the archaeologist is pursuing a degree in archaeology E) when a hypothesis is not supported Answer: A Rationale: Research design, which outlines the objectives, methods, and strategies for archaeological investigation, is typically developed prior to fieldwork. It serves as a blueprint for guiding the research process, ensuring systematic data collection, and addressing research questions effectively. 24) Pseudoscience __________. A) provides explanations that are acceptable to most archaeologists B) is rigorous and scientific C) is always easy to disprove D) often relies on untestable assumptions E) is a legitimate alternative to science Answer: D Rationale: Pseudoscience refers to practices or beliefs that claim to be scientific but lack empirical evidence, rigorous methodology, or adherence to scientific principles. It often relies on untestable assumptions, logical fallacies, or misinterpretations of data, making it distinct from genuine scientific inquiry. 25) The Shroud of Turin and Piltdown are examples of __________. A) historical archaeology B) frauds C) synchronic processes D) archaeological cultures E) ecofacts Answer: B Rationale: The Shroud of Turin and Piltdown Man are infamous examples of archaeological frauds or hoaxes. The Shroud of Turin purportedly depicts the burial cloth of Jesus Christ but has been debunked through scientific analysis, while Piltdown Man was a fabricated fossil claimed to be a missing link in human evolution. Short Answer Questions 1) What is human osteology? Answer: Human osteology is the study of human skeletal remains, encompassing the identification, analysis, and interpretation of bones and teeth to understand various aspects of past populations, including demography, health, diet, and activity patterns. 2) What is the difference between description and explanation in archaeology? Answer: Description in archaeology involves the systematic recording and documentation of archaeological data, including the characteristics and context of artifacts, features, and sites. Explanation, on the other hand, seeks to interpret the significance of these data by identifying underlying patterns, processes, or causal relationships, aiming to understand why archaeological phenomena occurred as they did. 3) How is classical archaeology different from historical archaeology? Answer: Classical archaeology primarily focuses on the study of ancient Mediterranean civilizations, such as Ancient Greece and Rome, with an emphasis on classical art, architecture, and literature. Historical archaeology, in contrast, investigates relatively recent periods of history, typically since the advent of written records, and often explores colonialism, industrialization, and globalization, among other topics, using both archaeological and historical sources. 4) What is the difference between relative and chronometric dating? Answer: Relative dating establishes the chronological sequence of artifacts, features, or events based on their position in the archaeological record relative to one another. Chronometric dating, also known as absolute dating, provides numerical age estimates for archaeological materials through scientific techniques that measure the decay of radioactive isotopes or other natural processes. 5) What are ecofacts? Answer: Ecofacts are organic and environmental remains found within archaeological contexts that provide indirect evidence of past human activities, behaviors, and environments. Examples include plant remains, animal bones, pollen, charcoal, and soil samples, which contribute to understanding past subsistence strategies, diet, climate, and landscape use. 6) What is the Law of Superposition? Answer: The Law of Superposition is a fundamental principle in archaeology and geology that states that in undisturbed layers of sedimentary rock or archaeological deposits, the oldest layers are found at the bottom, and progressively younger layers are found above them. This principle allows archaeologists to establish relative chronologies of artifacts and features within stratigraphic sequences. 7) What is the scientific method and how is it used in archaeology? Answer: The scientific method is a systematic approach to inquiry and investigation that involves observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, data collection, analysis, and interpretation. In archaeology, the scientific method is applied to understand past human societies and behaviors by formulating research questions, conducting fieldwork, analyzing artifacts and data, and drawing conclusions based on empirical evidence and logical reasoning. 8) What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning? Answer: Inductive reasoning involves deriving general principles or conclusions from specific observations or patterns, moving from particular instances to broader generalizations. Deductive reasoning, on the other hand, starts with general principles or hypotheses and applies them to specific situations or cases to draw logical conclusions. In archaeology, inductive reasoning often informs hypothesis formation based on observed patterns in the archaeological record, while deductive reasoning is used to test hypotheses through empirical evidence and analysis. 9) What is the difference between synchronic and diachronic data? Answer: Synchronic data pertain to observations or phenomena at a specific point in time, providing insights into contemporary conditions or behaviors within a cultural context. Diachronic data, on the other hand, involve observations or phenomena across multiple points in time, allowing for the examination of change, development, or continuity over historical periods. 10) How was the Piltdown Hoax exposed? Answer: The Piltdown Hoax was exposed through scientific analysis and scrutiny of the purported fossil remains, which were claimed to represent a missing link in human evolution. In the early 20th century, subsequent investigations revealed inconsistencies in the fossil's anatomy, leading to suspicions of forgery. Later forensic examination, including fluorine testing and microscopic analysis, confirmed that the Piltdown Man fossils were fraudulent composites of human and ape bones. 11) What is ethnocentrism and why has it been rejected by contemporary anthropology? Answer: Ethnocentrism is the tendency to judge other cultures based on the standards and values of one's own culture, often leading to the perception of one's own culture as superior and the denigration of others. Contemporary anthropology rejects ethnocentrism because it undermines the objective understanding and appreciation of diverse cultures. Anthropologists strive for cultural relativism, which acknowledges the value and validity of different cultural perspectives and practices, promoting cross-cultural understanding and respect. Essay Questions 1) Discuss the relationship of archaeology as practiced in America to anthropology, in contrast to the status of archaeology in Europe. Answer: In America, archaeology is closely aligned with anthropology, often considered one of its subfields alongside cultural anthropology, biological anthropology, and linguistic anthropology. American archaeologists typically approach their research within the broader framework of anthropological inquiry, emphasizing the study of past human societies and cultures within their sociocultural, ecological, and evolutionary contexts. This integration allows for interdisciplinary collaboration and the application of anthropological theories and methods to archaeological research questions. In contrast, archaeology in Europe has historically been more compartmentalized, with separate academic and institutional structures from anthropology. While European archaeology may still draw from anthropological concepts and methods, it often maintains a distinct disciplinary identity, sometimes focusing more on historical periods and material culture studies rather than broader anthropological perspectives. 2) Describe the basic goals of archaeology. Answer: The basic goals of archaeology encompass understanding past human societies and cultures through the systematic study of material remains. These goals include: 1. Reconstructing past lifeways: Archaeologists aim to reconstruct the daily lives, activities, and behaviors of past peoples by examining artifacts, features, and other archaeological evidence. 2. Understanding cultural change: Archaeology seeks to elucidate the processes of cultural evolution and change over time, including technological innovations, social developments, economic shifts, and ideological transformations. 3. Interpreting cultural meaning: Archaeologists interpret the symbolic significance and cultural meanings embedded within material culture, including art, ritual objects, architecture, and burial practices. 4. Investigating human-environment interactions: Archaeology explores the dynamic relationships between past human societies and their environments, including subsistence strategies, land use patterns, and environmental impacts. 5. Contributing to knowledge of human origins and prehistory: Archaeology plays a crucial role in reconstructing the origins and dispersal of anatomically modern humans, as well as the development of early civilizations and complex societies. Overall, archaeology aims to contribute to our understanding of human diversity, cultural heritage, and the long-term trajectories of human history and development. 3) Discuss the potential significance of historical archaeology to scholars of African American history today, using specific examples from the book. Answer: Historical archaeology holds significant potential for scholars of African American history by providing insights into the lived experiences, social dynamics, and cultural contributions of African Americans during different historical periods. Specific examples from the book may include excavations of plantation sites, Freedmen's communities, or urban neighborhoods associated with African American populations. Through archaeological investigations, scholars can uncover material evidence of daily life, resistance strategies, religious practices, and economic activities among African American communities that may be underrepresented or marginalized in historical records. For instance, artifacts such as ceramic fragments, personal items, or architectural features can shed light on aspects of African American identity, agency, and resilience in the face of oppression and discrimination. By integrating archaeological findings with documentary sources and oral histories, historical archaeology offers a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of African American history, challenging prevailing narratives and contributing to a more inclusive and accurate representation of the past. 4) What makes historical archaeology different from prehistoric archaeology? What are some of the resources that historical archaeologists can use that other archaeologists cannot? Describe the advantages and disadvantages of those resources. Answer: Historical archaeology differs from prehistoric archaeology primarily in its focus on relatively recent periods of history, typically since the advent of written records. This temporal distinction allows historical archaeologists to utilize a wider range of documentary sources, such as written records, maps, photographs, census data, tax records, and legal documents, which provide contextual information and facilitate the interpretation of archaeological findings. These resources offer advantages such as enabling researchers to correlate archaeological evidence with historical events, personalities, and socioeconomic conditions, enhancing the accuracy and depth of historical reconstructions. However, reliance on documentary sources also poses challenges, including biases, gaps, and limitations in the historical record, as well as potential discrepancies between written accounts and material evidence. Additionally, historical archaeology often involves engagement with descendant communities and stakeholders, requiring ethical considerations, collaborative approaches, and sensitivity to diverse perspectives. Overall, while historical archaeology benefits from access to documentary resources, researchers must critically evaluate and integrate multiple sources of evidence to construct comprehensive narratives of the past. 5) Describe the component parts of the archaeological record, and the processes that form it. Answer: The archaeological record consists of various component parts, including artifacts, features, ecofacts, and sites. Artifacts are portable objects made or modified by humans, such as tools, pottery, and ornaments. Features are nonportable elements of the landscape or built environment, such as hearths, structures, and burials, which provide insights into past human activities and behavior. Ecofacts are organic and environmental remains associated with human activities, such as animal bones, plant remains, pollen, and sediments, which offer indirect evidence of past subsistence strategies, diet, and environmental conditions. Sites encompass spatially discrete areas where archaeological evidence is concentrated, ranging from single activity areas to extensive settlements or landscapes. The archaeological record is formed through various processes, including deposition, preservation, and transformation. Deposition involves the accumulation of artifacts, features, and ecofacts through human activity, abandonment, or natural processes such as erosion, sedimentation, or volcanic ashfall. Preservation refers to the conditions that protect archaeological materials from decay or destruction, including burial in anaerobic environments, waterlogged conditions, extreme aridity, or frozen ground. Transformation encompasses post-depositional processes that alter or degrade archaeological remains over time, such as bioturbation, weathering, erosion, human disturbance, or cultural activities. These processes interact dynamically to shape the composition, integrity, and interpretation of the archaeological record. Test Bank for Archaeology : The Science of the Human Past Mark Q. Sutton 9780205895311